FOR PUBLIC COMMENT

J U N E 1 9 9 9

TRANSPORT, URBAN LAND USE

& PLANNING WORKING GROUP

TRANSPORT, URBAN LAND USE

& PLANNING WORKING GROUP

Report to the WA Greenhouse CouncilReport to the WA Greenhouse Council

Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning Working Group

Report to the WA Greenhouse Council

Western Australian Implementation Plan for the National Greenhouse Strategy in the

Areas of Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning

Prepared by

Western Australian Planning CommissionAlbert Facey House

469 Wellington StreetPerth, Western Australia 6000

J U N E 1 9 9 9

The Ministry for Planning and the Department of Transport have joint

responsibility for the administration of the TULUP Working Group.

This report has been finalised in consultation with the agencies

below through the forum of the TULUP Working Group.

The purpose of this report is to increase the level of information

and awareness of the issue of greenhouse gas emissions in the

transport and land use planning sectors. The TULUP Working

Group notes the difficulty in estimating greenhouse benefits from

implementation of actions with the current level of information,

especially where actions relate to changing community behaviour

and perceptions. It recommends that further investigation be

undertaken to determine social costs and benefits prior to formal

decisions on the implementation of greenhouse abatement

measures and procedures. The TULUP Working Group also

recommends that the additional benefits generated from

implementation of actions should be taken into consideration

during decision making.

ii TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999

List of Contributors

The Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning (TULUP) Working Group was established in July 1998. Its membership comprises:

Mr Gary Prattley Ministry for Planning (Chair)

Mr Emmerson Richardson Department of Transport

Mr Richard McKellar Department of Transport

Mr Michael Waite Department of Environmental Protection (DEP)

Mr Derrick Fitzpatrick Main Roads Western Australia (MRWA)

Mr Jim Ironside Westrail

Mr Steve Hiller Western Australian Municipal Association (WAMA)

Mr David Wake Conservation Council of WA

Mr Matthew Quinn Urban Development Institute of Australia (UDIA)

A/Professor Barrie Mellote Royal Australian Planning Institute (RAPI)

Ms Verity Allan Housing Industry Association (HIA)

Mr Alan Layton Road Transport Association (RTA)

Mr Mike Upton Royal Automobile Club of Australia (RAC)

Mr Gary Mason Institute of Engineers Transport Panel

Dr Jeff Kenworthy Murdoch University

Mr Jim Davies Westralia Airports Corporation

Mr Simon Luff Australian Chamber of Shipping

Mr Aart ter Kuile Australian Gas Association

Ms Jane Aberdeen Chamber of Minerals and Energy (CME)

Mr Rob Griffiths Ministry for Planning

Ms Jodie Tennyson Ministry for Planning

Ms Shelley Shepherd Department of Transport

© State of Western Australia

Published by theWestern Australian Planning CommissionAlbert Facey House469 Wellington StreetPerth, Western Australia 6000

Published June 1999

ISBN 0 7309 9104 0

Internet: http://www.wa.gov.au/planningE-mail: corporate@planning.wa.gov.au

Tel: (08) 9264 7777Fax: (08) 9264 7566TTY: (08) 9264 7535Infoline: 1800 626 477

Copies of this document are available in alternative formats on application to the Disabilities Services Coordinator

iii

Contents

Executive summary v

1. Background 1

1.1 The enhanced greenhouse effect 1

1.2 History of greenhouse negotiations 1

1.3 The Prime Minister’s Statement 1

1.4 National Greenhouse Strategy 1

2. WA Greenhouse Council and the TULUP Working Group 3

2.1 Role of the Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning Working Group 3

3. Methodology 3

3.1 Data sources 4

3.2 National Greenhouse Gas Inventory 4

3.3 Greenhouse performance indicators 5

4. Context 5

4.1 Urban land use planning 5

4.2 Greenhouse gas emissions and transport 6

4.3 Business as usual 8

5. Greenhouse gas abatement strategies for transport and urban land use planning 9

5.1 Improved transport management, including better integration of modes,

infrastructure, and urban planning and design 10

5.1.1 Traffic management 10

5.1.2 Integration of transport modes 11

5.1.3 Infrastructure 11

5.1.3.1 Public transport infrastructure 11

5.1.3.2 Public transport fares 12

5.1.3.3 New public transport modes and technologies 12

5.1.3.4 Freight infrastructure 13

5.1.4 Integration of land use and transport planning 13

5.2 Reducing the demand for travel 15

5.2.1 ‘Just in time’ delivery 16

5.2.2 Telecommuting 16

5.2.3 Ride sharing and car pooling 16

5.2.4 Competitive neutrality within the freight industry 17

5.3 Encouraging sustainable modes of transport 18

5.3.1 Individualised marketing – TravelSmart 18

5.3.2 Cycling 19

5.3.3 Walking 19

5.3.4 Increasing public transport patronage 19

5.4 Improving fuel consumption of the vehicle fleet, covering both vehicle technology and vehicle mix 20

5.4.1 Vehicle emission standards 20

5.4.2 Vehicle tuning 20

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5.4.3 Targets for reducing emissions from commercial and freight vehicles 21

5.4.4 Vehicle emissions testing 21

5.4.5 Car scrapping programs 21

5.4.6 Incentives for fuel efficient vehicles 22

5.4.7 Information programs on efficient vehicle use 22

5.4.8 Environmental Strategy for the Motor Vehicle Industry 23

5.5 Increasing the use of alternative fuels in the vehicle fleet and/or revised specifications

for conventional fuels 24

5.5.1 Petrol 24

5.5.2 Diesel 25

5.5.3 Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) 25

5.5.4 Compressed natural gas (CNG) 26

5.5.5 Methanol 27

5.5.6 Ethanol 27

5.5.7 Hydrogen 27

5.5.8 Increased use of alternative fuels 28

6. Evaluation of greenhouse gas abatement measures 28

6.1 ‘No regrets’ measures 28

7. Summary of greenhouse gas abatement measures and actions 29

8. Conclusions 33

References 35

Figures

Figure 1: Greenhouse gas emission levels from commuting to work from East Perth and the Urban Fringe. 6

Figure 2: Greenhouse gas emissions from mobile sources in 1990 and 1995 by mode (NGGIC, 1998) 7

Figure 3: Greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector in WA in 1995 (NGGIC, 1998). 7

Figure 4: Forecast population and vehicle kilometres travelled in Perth to 2021 (Transport, 1995a). 8

Figure 5: Predicted road emissions by vehicle type (Mt CO2 equivalents) (BTCE, 1996) 8

Figure 6: Increases in patronage of the Perth Urban rail system 12

Tables

Table 1: A summary of Existing and Additional measures identified in Module 5 of the NGS 2

Table 2: Predicted increases in greenhouse gas emissions (Mt CO2) from the road transport sector in

Western Australia. 9

Table 3: Predicted increases in greenhouse gas emissions from the Australian transport sector in

2010 in comparison with 1990 levels (BTCE, 1996). 9

Table 4: Predicted reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) from implementation of actions

currently being undertaken by Government agencies. 30

Table 5: Actions unlikely to be implemented without additional funding. 31

Table 6: Other greenhouse abatement actions. 32

Appendices

1. Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning Working Group Terms of Reference 38

2. List of Abbreviations 40

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Executive summary

As a result of agreements made at the Framework

Convention on Climate Change in Kyoto in December

1997, Australia has agreed to limit its greenhouse gas

emissions to 108% of 1990 levels during the period

2008 to 2012. Australia responded to the Kyoto

Protocol by releasing the National Greenhouse

Strategy (NGS) which describes initiatives to reduce

greenhouse gas emissions from human activities.

The NGS looks at the abatement of greenhouse gas

emissions through action on three fronts: fostering

knowledge and understanding of greenhouse issues;

limiting greenhouse gas emissions; and laying the

foundations for adaptation to climate change. This

report focuses on limiting net greenhouse gas

emissions through efficient transport and sustainable

urban planning.

Greenhouse gas emissions from transport are

significant. In 1995, the transport sector was

responsible for 15.4% of greenhouse gas emissions in

Western Australia (including the ‘forestry and other’

category, excluding land clearing), an increase of 0.7

megatonnes (Mt) or 1.5% since 1990 (NGGIC, 1998).

The proportion of greenhouse gas emissions from

mobile sources is expected to increase further if

business practices continue as usual.

This report identifies actions currently being

undertaken by Government and other agencies that

reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transport,

urban land use and urban planning sectors. These

actions demonstrate Western Australia’s compliance

with measures identified in Module 5 of the NGS, in

the areas of integrating land use and transport

planning, travel demand management and traffic

management, encouraging greater use of public

transport, walking and cycling, improving vehicle fuel

efficiency and fuel technologies, and freight and

logistics systems. The report identifies measures

additional to the NGS, including vehicle emissions

testing, emissions targets for commercial and freight

vehicles, changes to vehicle registration charges and

changes to regulation of the rail and sea freight

industry. It should be noted that a comprehensive

cost benefit analysis of these actions would need to be

undertaken prior to decisions to implement them.

In order to identify greenhouse gas abatement actions

that should be implemented, each action should be

evaluated to determine its cost effectiveness. This will

allow decisions on the implementation of actions to

be based on sufficient information and allow

justification in terms of environmental, economic

and social considerations; however, it is difficult to

quantify social considerations, however this is

necessary if accurate comparisons are to be made.

Unlike other sectors, it is difficult to reliably quantify

reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from actions

in the transport and urban land use sectors, as the

effectiveness of the majority of actions relies on

changes to community attitudes and behaviours.

Additionally, actions are not undertaken in isolation

and the outcomes of many strategies are influenced

by other actions.

The TULUP Working Group has used the targets for

mode shift outlined in the Metropolitan Transport

Strategy (MTS). The MTS predicts that emissions

from cars in the Perth metropolitan area will be

reduced by nearly 25% of the ‘business as usual’

(BAU) scenario in 2010 if the proposed mode shifts

are on target for 2029. This is a reduction of around

1 Mt CO2 equivalents (CO2-e) per annum.

Owing to predicted growth in emissions from certain

sectors, abatement strategies should focus on the

areas of private vehicle use, light commercial vehicle

and articulated truck use, and air transport. This

report has not discussed the issue of air transport, as

this sector is regulated federally and is being

investigated by the Commonwealth. The reduction of

emissions in other areas has been discussed largely on

a qualitative basis.

The Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning

Working Group believes that regional planning is an

effective tool to ensure the integration of land uses

with an efficient transportation system. Emissions

from the land use planning sector relate largely to the

June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council

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annual emissions of greenhouse gases from mobile

combustion engines consuming fuel purchased in

Australia and includes emissions from fuel

combustion and fugitive releases (fuel evaporation).

3.3 Greenhouse performance indicators

As recommended in the NGS, greenhouse

performance indicators should be developed for all

urban centres within Western Australia with

populations of more than 20,000. The indicators

should focus on energy use and greenhouse emissions

from the residential sector, urban systems and urban

transport. Key support indicators could be included

(e.g. trip numbers and lengths, emissions per

kilometre travelled).

Possible key indicators are:

• residential – total and per capita emissions;

• transport – total and per capita emissions;

– emissions per passenger kilometre

travelled; and

– emissions per tonne kilometre

travelled for freight.

Possible support indicators are:

• total kilometres travelled in urban areas;

• number and average length of trips;

• average kilometres per capita by mode;

• emissions per kilometre travelled in urban areas;

and

• emissions by mode and by fuel type.

June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council

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Actions

1. Establish a database for emissions from both the transport and urban land use sectors.

2. Develop performance indicators for greenhouse gas emissions from transport and urban land uses.

4. Context

In 1990, Western Australia contributed approximately

10% of the total 622 million tonnes (in Mt CO2

equivalent) of greenhouse gases emitted in Australia,

making it the fourth largest contributor in the

country (NGGI, 1997). Western Australia’s net

greenhouse gas emissions for 1990 totalled 42.5 Mt of

CO2 equivalents (CO2-e), increasing by 16% to 49.3

Mt CO2-e in 1995 (NGGIC, 1998).

4.1 Urban land use planning

Metropolitan and regional urban areas emit a

significant proportion of greenhouse gases in WA.

Conventional urban development, which places an

emphasis on greenfield developments, has resulted in

the segregation of land uses and a consequent heavy

reliance on private cars for transport to reach both

services and employment (Energy Victoria et al, 1996).

The urban land use sector emits greenhouse gases

through clearing for urban land use (i.e. loss of

vegetation), energy requirements of buildings (such

as heating and cooling), and the resultant travel

requirements of the population. The continued

growth of the Perth metropolitan area has resulted in

clearing of remnant bushland and changes to land use

patterns in agricultural areas on the periphery of

Perth and regional centres. This reduces the amount

of vegetation available to sequester greenhouse gas

emissions or act as a sink and, accordingly, increases

net emissions.

The life-cycle costs of building materials also

contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. This includes

emissions generated from energy used in the

production and extraction of raw materials, heating

and cooling resulting from poor insulation, and

emissions produced when structures are demolished.

It is recognised that more compact forms of urban

development have lower greenhouse gas emissions

from transport than dispersed forms (Dess & Millard,

1998). The growth of Perth using conventional urban

development has resulted in what is commonly called

suburban sprawl. This type of urban development

usually segregates land uses and tends to be

inadequately serviced by public amenities,

employment and public transport, and is difficult for

walking and cycling. This has consequently resulted

in increased reliance on the motor vehicle (Newman,

Kenworthy & Vintila, 1992).

In recent years, however, there has been a trend

towards smaller block sizes within the Perth

metropolitan area. In the past seven years, the average

size of green title blocks has decreased by over 130 m2.

In 1991, the median size of a green title residential lot

was 729 m2. This decreased in 1992 to average 698 m2

and again in 1998 to average 593 m2 (MfP

unpublished, 1999).

Additionally, a number of medium density urban

developments (such as Ellen Brook, Mindarie Keys,

Harbour Rise, Subi Centro and East Perth) are being

implemented in the Perth metropolitan region. This

new, more compact form of urban development is

similar to the concept of the ‘urban village’.

Both on a national and international scale, the urban

village model in its various forms is being promoted

as a means of achieving more sustainable cities.

Urban villages are suburban centres with a variety of

housing types, offices and shops, local employment

opportunities, good access to public transport, safe

and attractive streets and a range of community

facilities within easy walking distance. Their design

promotes energy efficiency and they provide

opportunities for people to travel by means other

than the car (i.e. walking, cycling and public

transport) (Dess & Millard, 1998).

The concept of the urban village has been developed

to address the social, environmental, economic and

transport problems that exist within the conventional

urban environment. Studies undertaken in Victoria,

such as the Greenhouse Neighbourhood (Loder and

Bayly et al, 1993) and the Urban Villages Project

(Energy Victoria et al, 1996), investigated the effect on

greenhouse gas emissions from mixed use, medium

density development in metropolitan environments

in comparison to more conventional urban forms.

The Urban Villages Project estimated that the

introduction of this type of development on the

urban fringe of Melbourne could result in a 26%

reduction in heating and cooling related emissions

and a 57% reduction in car related emissions (Energy

Victoria et al, 1996).

Figure 1: Greenhouse gas emission levels (Mt CO2-e) fromcommuting to work from East Perth and the Urban Fringe.

Figures based on comparison of the East Perth Redevelopmentmodel with traditional urban development on the urban fringe.

Source: Kenworthy & Newman 1992.

Research also suggests that urban redevelopment

based on the urban village model is more effective in

reducing greenhouse gas emissions for journey to

work trips than traditional urban development on the

metropolitan fringe (Figure 1) (Kenworthy &

Newman, 1992). It is likely that applying urban

village principles on the urban development fringe

would also achieve reductions in greenhouse

emissions as compared with traditional development

on the urban fringe.

4.2 Greenhouse gas emissions and transport

In 1990, emissions from mobile energy (transport)

sources in Western Australia totalled 6.9 Mt CO2-e.

This is equal to 20.5% of greenhouse gases emitted

from the energy sector and represents 13.5% of total

greenhouse gas emissions in Western Australia

(NGGIC, 1998). Although there were changes in

absolute emissions (i.e. mobile sources emitted 7.6

Mt CO2-e in 1995), the relative contribution of each

sector to Western Australia’s emissions in 1990 and

1995 remained stable. Emissions from mobile sources

in WA in 1995 represent just over 11% of total

6 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999

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0.02

0.04

0.06

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Urban FringeEast Perth

GH

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emissions from mobile sources in Australia

(NGGIC, 1998).

The majority of greenhouse gases from mobile

sources are emitted from road transport (Figure 2),

primarily from cars (Figure 3). Rail transport is

accountable for around five per cent of greenhouse

gas emissions, although it should be noted that this

does not include emissions from generating

electricity for electric rail systems. Emissions from air

transport have increased from nine percent of mobile

sources to twelve percent between 1990 and 1995 and

emissions from sea transport have decreased from ten

to six percent (NGGIC, 1998).

Figure 2: Greenhouse gas emissions from mobile sources in 1990and 1995 by mode (NGGIC, 1998)

In 1995, road transport was responsible for 77.4% of

greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector

in Western Australia, of which 50.4% is attributed to

passenger cars (Commonwealth of Australia, 1998b)

(Figure 2). Emissions from motorcycles, buses and

medium sized tucks are negligible (0.2, 2.0 and 2.2%

of total WA emissions respectively); however,

emissions from heavy trucks and light commercial

vehicles (LCVs or light trucks) are fairly substantial

(10.7 and 11.8% respectively).

Figure 3: Greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector inWA in 1995 (NGGIC, 1998).

Unless transport management strategies are put in

place, the continued growth of Perth is predicted to

lead to an 18% increase in vehicle kilometres travelled

(VKT) per capita in 2011 based on 1990 levels

(Figure 4) (Transport, 1995a). The growth of the

metropolitan area will result in enhanced emissions

of greenhouse gases from vehicles through increased

traffic congestion, extended travel times and extended

travel distances. However, as cars emit over half the

emissions from mobile sources, reducing the demand

for car travel and increasing the use of non-car modes

of transport are key elements in limiting greenhouse

gas emissions from transport.

Figure 4: Forecast population and vehicle kilometres travelled inPerth to 2021 (Transport, 1995a).

June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council

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1995

Transport sectorRailRoadSeaAir

GH

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Road transport mode

GH

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(Mt

CO

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MotorcyclesBusesHeavytruck

Mediumtruck

Lighttruck

Car

50

100

150

200

250

300

VKT per personVehicle kilometres travelledPopulation

20212016201120062001199619911986Year

Inde

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4.3 Business as usual

In order to evaluate the effectiveness of measures to

reduce greenhouse gas emissions over a period of

time, it is necessary to establish a base case or

‘business as usual’ (BAU) scenario of greenhouse gas

emissions. A base case BAU estimation is projected on

the assumption that no specific actions are taken to

reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

The Bureau of Transport and Communications

Economics (BTCE) first estimated long term base

case projections for greenhouse gas emissions from

transport within Australia (BTCE, 1995). These

estimates have since been revised using more up-to-

date information on likely technological

improvements. Models used by BTCE to predict the

BAU scenario include CARMOD, TRUCKMOD and

AVMOD (BTCE, 1996). These models can be adapted

to predict transport growth for Western Australia.

BTCE estimates that greenhouse gas emissions from

cars in Australia will grow by around ten per cent over

the period from 1996 to 2015 (Figure 5). This estimate,

however, assumes that there will be a significant

slowing in the growth of car ownership in Australia.

According to the BTCE report, Australia, like the

United States, is nearing the “saturation” point of

vehicle ownership. The Australian saturation level has

been estimated to be between 490 and 540 vehicles per

1000 persons (McRobert, 1997), but the current figures

of car ownership in Perth are already greater than

580 per 1000 persons (Transport et al, 1995).

BTCE, however, concludes that by modelling this

trend, coupled with a slowing in population growth

and reduced new car fuel and emissions intensities,

passenger vehicle (car) emissions of greenhouse gases

are projected to decline after 2010 (BTCE, 1996). The

conclusions about declining personal vehicle travel in

Australia are contrary to many European studies that

project a continuation of vigorous personal travel

demand and burgeoning car ownership (McRobert,

1997), and contrary to the MTS which estimates the

ratio to be around 630 cars per 1000 people by the

year 2010 and still growing (Transport et al, 1995).

Accordingly, the BTCE emissions projections may

significantly underestimate potential emissions from

cars in 2010.

The estimates of greenhouse gas emissions from

trucks and light commercial vehicles (LCVs) suggests

a completely different scenario. During the same

period, the growth in commercial road freight is

expected to increase by more than 90% and the levels

of emissions will be similar to that of cars sometime

after 2015 (BTCE, 1996). Figure 5 illustrates BTCE’s

projections for greenhouse gas emissions from the

road transport sector in Australia to the year 2015.

Figure 5: Predicted road emissions by vehicle type (Mt CO2 equivalents) (BTCE, 1996)

Extrapolating the BTCE projections for greenhouse

gas emissions from the Australian transport sector for

2010, based on the 1995 WA proportions of the

Australian vehicle task (ABS, 1996), suggests that

greenhouse gas emissions from road transport will

increase by nearly 150% in Western Australia. This

increase is just under ten per cent greater than that

projected for the whole of Australia.

Greenhouse gas emissions from passenger vehicles

(cars) in Western Australia are projected to increase

to 109% of 1990 levels to 3.7 Mt CO2 (Table 2).

Emissions from LCVs will increase the most

dramatically however, to nearly 2.6 Mt CO2 or over

209% of 1990 levels. It should be noted that Western

8 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999

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10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

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BicyclesArticulated trucksRigid trucks

Year

LCV'sBusesMotorcyclesCars

20142010200620042002200019981996199419921990

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Australia has proportionally more vehicles, with the

exception of passenger cars, than the average in

Australia. This is more than likely due to the size of

the State and the relatively small population and low

density development of Perth.

June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council

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Table 2: Predicted increases in greenhouse gas emissions (Mt CO2) from the road transport sector in Western Australia(assuming similar WA proportions of the Australian transport task in 2010 to those in 1995)

(Commonwealth of Australia, 1998).

Cars Motor- Buses LCVs Rigid Articulated Totalcycles trucks trucks

Aus %incr. from 1990 to 2010 114.79% 83.71% 108.94% 246.44% 124.48% 161.31% 136.15%

WA: Australia task ratio 0.95 1.15 1.08 1.18 1.17 1.01

WA %incr. from 1990 to 2010 109.05% 96.27% 117.66% 290.80% 145.64% 162.92% 147.8%

WA GHGE 1990 3.4 0.03 0.14 0.89 0.25 0.89 5.60

WA GHGE 2010 3.7 0.03 0.16 2.58 0.36 1.45 8.28

Estimations of domestic aircraft movements are also expected to grow strongly, with rail and maritime emissions

remaining comparatively low (BTCE, 1996) (Table 3).

Table 3: Predicted increases in greenhouse gas emissions from the Australian transport sector in 2010 in comparison with 1990 levels (BTCE, 1996).

Australia road rail air sea total

%incr. from 1990 to 2010 136.19% 128.00% 234.82% 71.53% 138.05%

These estimates suggest that the main focus for

reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transport

should be towards actions that reduce emissions from

cars, commercial road vehicles and domestic aircraft.

5. Greenhouse gas abatementstrategies for transport andurban land use planning

There are a number of strategies that can reduce

emissions of greenhouse gases from the land use

planning and transport sectors. They fall into five

broad categories:

• Improved transport and urban land management,

including better integration of modes,

infrastructure, and urban planning and design;

• Reducing the demand for travel;

• Encouraging sustainable modes of transport;

• Improving fuel consumption of the vehicle fleet,

covering both vehicle technology and vehicle mix;

and

• Increasing the use of alternative fuels in the

vehicle fleet and/or revised specifications for

conventional fuels.

Each category is discussed below.

5.1 Improved transport and urban land

management, including better integration

of modes, infrastructure, and urban

planning and design

5.1.1 Traffic management

Effective traffic management has the potential to

reduce greenhouse gas emissions through the

reduction of congestion and the time required for

travel, through modification to parking management,

increases in road capacity, congestion pricing or the

introduction of intelligent transport systems.

Mechanisms currently implemented in Western

Australia include:

• the introduction of the Perth Parking Policy and

supporting legislation. The Perth Parking Policy

aims to reduce the extent of all-day commuter

parking in the Perth CBD as this is an area that

experiences congested approach roads and has

accessible public transport. The policy also

addresses the issue of commuter parking fees; and

• an investigation of the use of high-occupancy

vehicle (HOV) lanes including dedicated bus or

transitways.

In addition, Transport (WA) in collaboration with

the City of Perth has developed and is implementing

Access to the City for People, which is a comprehensive,

long term traffic management initiative for central

Perth. ‘Access’ ensures the efficient movement of

people, goods and services to, from, within and

around Perth. It focuses on improving the streets for

people, and ensuring efficient public transport and

other traffic flows, and first rate access for cyclists.

It is recognised that the Perth Parking Policy will not

greatly reduce emissions; however, it will stop the

growth of all day parking within the city, thereby

reducing the growth in greenhouse gas emissions

from commuters. For greater greenhouse benefit, all

day parking charges would need to be substantially

increased. This would encourage greater use of public

transport by commuters. Additionally, parking

charges for short stay bays could be substantially

increased; but due to the potential impact on

commercial industries, this is not likely to be

introduced. It should also be noted that greenhouse

benefits obtained from modification to parking

charges and bay numbers will not provide ongoing

increasing gains.

Other traffic management projects, such as road user

charges or the introduction of intelligent transport

systems, may be more effective in reducing the

amount of travel by car as the decision to use a car has

greater economic considerations. Road user charges

are a method of making road users pay for the

congestion they impose on others. These systems are

expensive to install and raise issues of privacy and

equity that would need to be resolved. Road user

charges applied in Perth could reduce vehicle

emissions significantly; however, consideration of

social cost and equity issues is necessary prior to a

decision to implement them. BTCE suggests that road

user charges would produce an overall benefit to

society (i.e. ‘no regrets’ measure, see Section 6.1) and

calculates a cumulative reduction in Perth in

greenhouse gas emissions of 7.01 Mt CO2-e between

1996 and 2010 (BTCE, 1996). Western Australia has

no plans as yet to undertake feasibility studies

regarding the introduction of congestion pricing.

Intelligent, electronic traffic management systems

can reduce emissions from motor vehicles by

achieving more consistent speeds of travel and

reducing the amount of congestion, especially on

high-volume routes. It is unlikely, however, that

expansion of these systems in Perth would achieve

significant greenhouse gas emissions reductions prior

to 2010.

Heightened speed limit enforcement is an additional

traffic management strategy that would decrease fuel

consumption and consequent greenhouse gas

emissions, as well as increasing road safety. This

strategy has been implemented in the UK and the UK

Climate Change Consultation Paper suggests that

between 0.4 – 2.8 Mt CO2 could be saved up to 2010

through strict enforcement of the 70 mph speed limit

on the motorways (Local Transport Today, 1998).

This strategy may not be as effective in Western

Australia due to the lower volume of public travel;

nevertheless, the implications for road freight

transport should be assessed.

Reducing access to the central business district (CBD)

to allow only public transport and high occupancy

vehicles would reduce greenhouse gas emissions from

the most congested areas of the city. The majority of

cars journeying to the CBD contain one person only.

If one vehicle could be used to transport many

10 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999

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people, the amount of greenhouse emissions would

be reduced. Implications for the retail outlets in the

city may be severe because the majority of trips are

made by shoppers. Commuters represent only 21% of

trips to the CBD.

5.1.2 Integration of transport modes

Bringing about balanced transport use requires

involvement from all areas of the transport and land

use sectors. It requires action by many players, and

raising their awareness is fundamental to realising the

aims of the NGS.

Enhancing transfer of freight between modes could

improve environmental performance. Rail in particular

could play a greater role in freight movement with good

sea-rail and road-rail terminals. Quantification of

greenhouse savings is dependent on the level of transfer

of road freight to either rail or sea modes.

A recent study by Transport (WA) regarding long

term land transport access to Fremantle Inner

Harbour recommended that the movement of freight

to and from North Quay by rail should be maintained

in the long term. Further investigations will be

undertaken to ensure that the transport of freight by

rail to and from the port is carried out in the most

effective and efficient manner.

Intermodal integration in freight transportation has

been expanded recently in Perth with the

establishment of Specialized Container Transport’s

(SCT) new rail facility at Forrestfield. SCT has

introduced a highly efficient non-containerised

service that allows small individual consignments to

be carried economically.

In addition, the Transport Infrastructure Project

group established by Transport (WA) will investigate

and introduce ways of attracting investment for new

proposals to establish intermodal freight terminals or

proposals for new road and rail links that improve

intermodal container movement.

At this time, Western Australia has no plans to

implement pilot projects using electronic trading

facilities. This will need to be pursued by the

Commonwealth, including the potential for

Government subsidies to encourage intermodal

transport.

5.1.3 Infrastructure

5.1.3.1 Public transport infrastructure

Generally, greenhouse emissions from public

transport per head are less than for private vehicles,

and consequently a greater share of travel by public

transport offers greenhouse benefits. It is suggested,

however, that Perth’s public transport system needs to

be improved if it is to be a viable and attractive travel

choice for a greater range of people. Investment in the

system in terms of infrastructural service provision is

needed to do this.

Transport (WA) has developed the Better Public

Transport: Ten-Year Plan for Transperth which sets out

detailed proposals to improve public transport,

including bus, train and ferry services, in the Perth

metropolitan area over the next 10 years. This

strategy recognises the need to develop efficient

public transport systems that are responsive to

customer demands, particularly through

improvements to service reliability, comfort and

personal safety.

The Ten-Year Plan provides for the introduction of

dedicated bus transitways on Kwinana Freeway

between Perth City and South Street, Murdoch, and

between Rockingham and Fremantle. It also provides

for bus priority measures, primarily traffic signal

priority at critical intersections, on all proposed

System 21 routes and on the new cross-suburban

service, the Circle Route, as well as local-area

intersection treatments at congested times.

Dedicated bus lanes are proposed to be provided for

the Causeway, and sections of Adelaide Terrace, St

Georges Terrace, William Street, Barrack Street,

Beaufort Street and Mill Street to improve peak

period bus services.

The extension and electrification of the Perth urban

passenger rail system has promoted public transport

use in Perth (Figure 6). Electric rail systems are the

June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council

5

most energy efficient motorised transport per

passenger kilometre (Kenworthy, pers comm).

A master plan for the expansion of the Perth

passenger rail system to Mandurah, via Kenwick,

Jandakot and Rockingham has recently been released.

It is proposed that the South West Metropolitan

Railway will be constructed to Jandakot by 2005.

This rail system is expected to reduce the number of

car trips to and from the CBD, thereby reducing

congestion, car use and associated greenhouse gas

emissions. Using the existing suburban rail passenger

service as a conservative base-case model (although

the proposed new railway is likely to be more

efficient), a comparison can be made between the

future shift of passengers to rail travel from current

use of the private motor vehicle.

Operational modelling indicates that the South West

Metropolitan Railway will reduce greenhouse gas

emissions by approximately 0.026 Mt CO2–e per

annum for the Perth to Rockingham service and

0.055 Mt CO2–e per annum for the Perth to

Mandurah service (N Hammer, pers comm). This is

equal to 0.34% and 0.72% respectively of total

emissions from mobile sources in WA (based on 1995

figures).

It should be noted, however, that the generation of

electricity to provide power for the rail system emits

greenhouse gases. These have been estimated at 0.023

Mt CO2–e and 0.033 Mt CO2–e respectively (N

Hammer, pers comm). Consequently the greenhouse

gas benefit is likely to slightly outweigh the

greenhouse cost of the electricity generation.

Greenhouse gas benefits from the rapid transit system

will be greatly improved if and when Western

Australia reduces its dependence on coal for the

generation of power.

5.1.3.2 Public transport fares

Reducing fares through Government subsidies is one

method of increasing public transport patronage in

capital cities (BTCE, 1996). Research suggests that

reducing fares to 80 per cent of normal levels would

reduce commuting travel by private cars by about

twelve per cent and reduce total emissions from all

passenger transport in urban areas (private car and

public transport) by about four per cent (BTCE,

1996). This effectively translates to an emission

reduction of around 0.15 Mt CO2-e per annum.

However, practical experience demonstrates that

lower fares require additional government

expenditure to maintain service levels and investment

in the system. If the quality of service is sacrificed in

an effort to reduce expenditure, this can have a

greater detrimental effect on public transport

patronage than the reduced fares, and so requires

careful consideration.

5.1.3.3 New public transport modes and

technologies

The NGS recommends that a forum be established to

investigate new public transport modes and

technologies and to evaluate best practice options

applicable to various Australian urban conditions. A

working group under the Australian Transport

Council (ATC) may be suitable as a forum for this

investigation, with provision made for inputs from

the private sector and appropriate research

organisations.

Modes currently being investigated in Western

Australia include bus priority systems, transitways,

light rail and ferries. A discussion paper entitled An

Overview of Light Rail Technology and its Potential

12 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999

5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

97-9896-9795-9694-9593-9492-9391-9290-9189-9088-8987-88

Patr

onag

e (m

illio

ns)

Electrification

Northernsuburbs line

Figure 6: Increases in patronage of the Perth urban rail system(Source: P Italiano,Westrail)

13

Within An Australian Environment has recently been

released by the WAPC (WAPC, 1998). The paper

presents opportunities for and constraints on

introducing this transport mode into areas of the

Perth metropolitan area.

For light rail transit to be introduced into Perth, it

would need to be developed in close association with

land use planning to ensure there is an adequate

market. At this stage, no sites have been identified as

being appropriate for light rail development. It is

therefore unlikely that light rail transit would have

any impact on greenhouse gas emissions in WA

within the timeframe of 1990 to 2012, although the

potential for light rail to reduce greenhouse gas

emissions generally is quite high.

Transport (WA), MfP and the Swan River Trust are

currently commissioning a study on behalf of the WA

Government to determine the feasibility of providing

additional ferry services on the Swan and Canning

Rivers. The study will involve extensive public

consultation of potential users within the identified

catchment area.

As this study is still in draft form, it is unlikely that

there would be a significant increase in additional

ferry services in the near future. However, it is not

likely that ferries would largely replace car use in

Perth due to the urban structure and travel patterns

of commuters. Consequently, reduced emissions

through increases in the use of public ferry transport,

although unlikely, are equivocal by 2010.

5.1.3.4 Freight infrastructure

The need for greater investment in the rail network

was identified in the recent Tracking Australia inquiry

1998. The 1997/98 Federal Budget allocated $1.6

billion to roads and $250 million over four years to

rail (ARA, 1997). Increased levels of funding would

expand the capacity for low emission rail freight

transport and aid in enhancing the competitiveness

of the rail freight industry. Greenhouse emissions

reductions would then result from the transfer of

road freight to rail.

5.1.4 Integration of land use and transport planning

Urban design can play an important role in enabling

a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from urban

areas (Energy Victoria et al, 1996). Altering the

current structure, approach and design of urban

environments will reduce distances required to be

travelled, support the use of alternate modes of

transport to the car and allow improved integration

of transport systems.

Many Western Australian Local Governments, in

conjunction with the Ministry for Planning (MfP)

and Transport, are in the process of preparing and

implementing integrated land use and transport

strategies for major urban regions. Regional

Strategies, which promote appropriate mixed use

developments near public transport systems,

complement other strategies prepared by State

Government agencies such as the State Planning

Strategy (WAPC, 1996), Metropolitan Transport

Strategy (MTS) (Transport et al, 1995), Metroplan

(DPUD, 1990) and the Way Ahead (Metropolitan

Transport) (Transport, 1995b).

The MTS proposes directions for moving from a

transport system that is dominated by low occupancy

car use to a more balanced transport system, in which

public transport and non-motorised transport

options are feasible for many trips. Many of the

strategies already mentioned in this report, such as

Better Public Transport: Ten-Year Plan for Transperth

and Access to the City for People, form the basis for the

MTS. If the targets in the MTS can be achieved by

2029 and are on target for 2011, it is estimated that

greenhouse gas emissions from private cars within

the Perth metropolitan area will be reduced by nearly

25% of BAU emissions. This approximates 1Mt CO2-e

per annum. The cost of implementation of the MTS

is very difficult to determine, however, as

Government is undertaking many initiatives to

execute the MTS.

MfP’s policy for Development Near Railway Stations

(Policy DC 1.6, WAPC, 1990) promotes medium and

high-density residential and commercial precincts

June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council

5

around railway stations. This policy is currently being

revised to broaden its application. Implementation of

this policy will result in increased public transport

usage and reduced private vehicle trips.

The NGS also recommends the utilisation of

subdivision design features that support a reduction

in car dependence in new residential developments.

The recently released Liveable Neighbourhoods:

Community Design Code (WAPC 1997), which is

currently undergoing a trial implementation period,

promotes the development of sustainable

communities with mixed land uses and a balanced

transport system, including the incorporation of

higher residential and commercial densities in

appropriate areas and in new residential

developments. The Community Design Code also

promotes the application of subdivision design

elements to reduce the reliance on private vehicles for

transport within the community.

Another method of reducing greenhouse gas

emissions from the urban land use sector is to modify

the layout of new housing areas and subdivisions.

Improved block layout can reduce the amount of

services required, for example street lighting and

bitumen for roads. It can also assist in improving the

solar efficiency of buildings by orientating housing

blocks in the most effective way, predominantly to

capture winter sun and reduce summer sun.

Captured energy can be utilised for heating, light and

hot water. Streets should also be orientated

predominantly north-south/east-west to optimise

solar energy opportunities (WAPC 1997).

Use of the Community Design Code has been

promoted to Local Government and developers

through seminars and presentations, and training has

been provided for Local Government officers and the

development industry in the use of the code.

To date, two inner high to medium density urban

redevelopments of note have been undertaken in East

Perth and Subiaco. Both of these redevelopment

projects have been established near existing public

transport infrastructure which provides the

developments with an easily accessible integrated

transport network.

The Urban Villages Project estimated that the

introduction of this type of development on the

urban fringe of Melbourne could result in a 26%

reduction in heating and cooling related emissions

and a 57% reduction in car related emissions

(Energy Victoria et al, 1996). It is likely that applying

urban village principles on the urban development

fringe in Perth would also achieve reductions in

greenhouse emissions as compared with traditional

development on the urban fringe. This, coupled with

new developments based on the Community Design

Code should achieve significant reductions in

greenhouse gases.

MfP and Transport (WA) are currently working with

Local Governments to encourage increased densities

in appropriate areas, ideally near public transport and

major commercial, retailing and employment centres

within their locality, through the development of

Local Agenda 21 strategies and other actions. The

estimated savings from local transport measures

depend on the extent that Local Governments

become involved in emission reduction strategies.

An extreme method of reducing the growth of

emissions from transport in urban areas would be to

restrict further development and/or growth. The

provision of a green belt around the current

metropolitan area (through establishing a system of

reserves) would effectively limit the growth of the

metropolitan area. This would allow urban

development to occur only in existing vacant areas

and areas suitable for redevelopment. Higher density

living would be a likely consequence and this,

together with limiting expansion of the metropolitan

area, would reduce greenhouse gas emissions from

transport through reducing VKT.

The estimation of the level of greenhouse abatement

from land use planning strategies is not generally

possible at this time due to a lack of available data.

The TULUP Working Group recommends that a

research program should be undertaken to investigate

14 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999

5

15

potential policy responses that support more efficient

outcomes from decisions on urban land

development. The research program should include a

study of the impacts on and effectiveness of urban

consolidation policies in the reduction of greenhouse

gas emissions. This may include an assessment of the

costs and benefits of applying urban consolidation

policies in Australian cities in relation to social and

environmental impacts, public infrastructure, and

transportation and land use patterns. Additionally,

the study could estimate the extent to which different

urban land use types can be manipulated to reduce

energy demands by retrofitting urban development

and by better transportation linkages and vertical

integration of industrial production streams, storage

and distribution methods.

June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council

5

Actions

3. Continually improve and upgrade public transport systems with the aim of achieving maximum

transport efficiency.

4. Actively pursue the development of measures to promote best practice in integrated urban land use and

transport planning including policy guidelines and a ‘Good Practice Guide’ for integrated urban land

use and transport planning.

5. Investigate the potential to include transport impact assessment as performance criteria for new

development and redevelopment proposals.

6. Undertake a study similar to the Victorian Urban Villages project in Western Australia to identify

possible sites for urban redevelopment where the Community Design Code can be applied. Development

plans for these sites should then be prepared.

7. Promote energy effective subdivision and block layout to Government, industry and developers.

5.2 Reducing the demand for travel

Travel Demand Management (TDM) strategies have

the ability to reduce the need to travel, and promote

preferred modes of travel, including walking and

cycling. These initiatives have major application in

urban areas and provide a range of complementary

benefits in terms of improvements in local air

quality and traffic congestion (Commonwealth of

Australia, 1998).

It should be recognised, however, that there has been

limited success in the abatement of greenhouse gas

emissions from the implementation of TDM

strategies in Australia (McRobert, 1997). This may be

attributed to the strong ‘car culture’ that exists within

Australia which will make any change in personal

travel behaviour difficult to effect. Other hurdles to

successful reduction in greenhouse gas emissions

from TDM initiatives are the misalignment of the

public transport system with travel destinations and

the need for dual modal trips. Consequently, in

addition to reducing the demand for personal

transport such as the car, it is also necessary to

provide fast, frequent and reliable public transport

throughout the region. The provision of transport

infrastructure should be coordinated with urban land

use planning, as mentioned in the Section above.

The need to reduce travel demand and to encourage

alternatives to single occupant vehicle trips is

recognised in strategic policies, but needs to be

effectively translated to development outcomes. For

example, current policy favours development around

transit nodes but this is not enforced. More action is

needed, on the part of State and Local Government

and the community, to develop transit based urban

villages in Perth.

BTCE projects that greenhouse gas emissions from

road freight vehicles, and in particular light

commercial vehicles, will more than double between

1994 and 2015 (BTCE, 1996) (Figure 5). This

projected growth creates an imperative for action such

as investigating methods of reducing the demand for

greenhouse intensive modes of freight transport.

As the transport of freight is generally considered at a

national level, there are few initiatives solely

undertaken within Western Australia. At State level,

Transport (WA) has identified the need to investigate

methods of reducing emissions from freight

transport in the Perth Metropolitan Freight Transport

Strategy (PMFTS) (Transport et al, 1998). The

PMFTS, and the integrated freight transport plans

derived from it, aim to guide public and private sector

investment in transport infrastructure and services to

develop an overall integrated freight transport system

for the Perth metropolitan region.

5.2.1 ‘Just in time’ delivery

Greenhouse gas emissions from light commercial

vehicles and light trucks are expected to increase in

Western Australia to almost three times 1990 levels by

2010 (Table 2). One potential reason for this dramatic

increase in urban freight emission levels is the

escalation of the practice of ‘just in time’ delivery. ‘Just

in time’ delivery has become standard practice in

logistics management for retail and other industries,

as it decreases storage and warehousing costs. This

results in increased number of truck trips and

resultant greenhouse gas emissions.

Consideration of the costs of this practice and how it

could be managed to minimise external costs are

important. There appears to have been little research

in this area, and better information would aid

discussion of strategies to manage freight movements

to meet greenhouse abatement, air quality and traffic

management objectives.

5.2.2 Telecommuting

Telework or telecommuting has the potential to reduce

greenhouse gas emissions through reducing the

amount of people commuting to work at peak times.

Tele-access can also avoid or lessen the number of

vehicle trips. This reduces congestion and the number

of vehicle kilometres travelled. It should be noted,

however, that benefits will only be observed if the

workers usually travel to work as a single driver in a car.

Western Australia is currently undertaking an

assessment of telecommuting. Transport (WA) has

developed and is trialling a formal tele-access process

that is applicable to other State Government agencies

and other major employers. The investigation

includes a review of regulations relating to work

conditions, insurance and other matters and the

project is proposed to be promoted to selected

industry/employer/employee groups, including the

public sector. Due to changes that are likely to be

required to legislation to permit formal tele-access

work programs, it is unlikely that telecommuting will

achieve a measurable decrease in greenhouse gas

emissions by 2010.

The MTS proposes that telecommuting will replace

around two per cent of metropolitan non-commercial

vehicle trips by 2010. This equates to a reduction of

greenhouse gases of around 0.1 Mt CO2-e per annum.

5.2.3 Ride sharing and car pooling

Car pooling is an effective way of reducing both

congestion during peak travel times and the number

of vehicle kilometres travelled. Car pooling is most

effective in areas that are frequently accessed, such as

universities, hospitals and the central business

district.

Car pooling or ride sharing programs are currently

implemented at Curtin University, University of

Western Australia and Murdoch University. Plans are

under way to extend these programs and to include

other travel demand management initiatives in these

and other major destinations. It is not anticipated

that car pooling will noticeably reduce greenhouse

emissions due to the limited promotion of ride

sharing programs and lack of support.

5.2.4 Competitive neutrality within the freight

industry

One aspect of managing travel demand is to ensure

that the most appropriate mode of travel is used. Rail

and sea transport provide low greenhouse emission

modes of freight movement in comparison to road

16 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999

5

17

transport due to their potential to carry a greater

mass or volume of freight and therefore reduce VKT.

It is recognised that over 80% of all freight carried by

road transport travels no more than eighty kilometres

from origin to destination and therefore rail and sea

are not viable for the majority of freight movements.

However, there is a need to increase rail and sea

transport of long haul freight.

Rail and sea transport are constrained by their nature

to certain areas within the freight sector. Sea freight is

economical and requires comparatively minor

amounts of energy but is limited to transporting

freight from one port to another. Similarly, rail freight

is energy efficient yet constrained by infrastructure,

particularly in urban areas.

It is accepted that both road and rail transport have a

major role to play in the Australian economy;

however, there are some competitive neutrality issues

that need to be resolved. Issues of competitive

neutrality between road and rail exist in the areas of

diesel fuel excise, access pricing, road cost recovery

and Government regulations (ARA, 1997). These

details need to be resolved to level the playing field

between road and rail and create a more efficient

transport network.

There are a number of legislative issues that may

impede full exploitation of sea transport as a viable

alternative to long haul road transport. These include

the limitation of the amount of cargo a foreign-

flagged vessel may carry between Australian ports,

known as cabotage. Cabotage was introduced to

preserve the interests of Australian-flagged vessels

carrying similar cargo; however, no Australian

shipping companies currently provide a container

service between Western Australia and the eastern

seaboard. A number of foreign-flagged ships are

capable of offering such a service if the matter of

cabotage is addressed.

In addition, the Federal Government imposes heavy

rates of duty on foreign-flagged vessels carrying

coastal cargo between Australian ports. Lifting this

impost would also improve the competitiveness of sea

freight transport.

The crucial factor in achieving increased

competitiveness of rail and sea freight transport is to

ensure competitive neutrality between road, rail and

sea transport in areas such as infrastructure

investment, diesel fuel excise, duty on bunkers,

regulations, permits, access pricing and road cost

recovery. The addressing of these elements has the

greatest potential for shifting long haul road freight to

rail or sea with subsequent significant reductions in

greenhouse gas emissions. Quantification of these

benefits would require substantial investigation due

to a lack of information regarding the factors

affecting demand for the shipping and rail industries.

June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council

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18 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999

5Actions

8. Promote and implement car pooling and ride sharing programs in State Government agencies.

9. Promote better understanding, acceptance and use of telecommuting initially within State Government

organisations, then within the community. Develop ‘Practice Guidelines’ to facilitate opportunity for

working via tele-access.

10. Investigate methods to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from freight transport, focussing on reducing

emissions from light commercial vehicles and increasing the mode share of less greenhouse intensive

methods of freight transport.

11. Investigate the impact of ‘just-in-time’ delivery on greenhouse gas emissions. Consideration of the costs

and benefits to social, economic and environmental factors is essential.

12. Encourage the Federal Government to investigate the consequences of removing cabotage and duty on

foreign-flagged vessels carrying coastal cargo between Australian ports. Consideration of the impact on

the competitiveness of the Australian shipping industry would need to be made.

13. Encourage the Federal Government to resolve issues of competitive neutrality between road and rail

freight.

5.3 Encouraging sustainable modes of

transport

As previously noted, transit oriented, mixed use,

medium to high density development can reduce

need for vehicle travel by residents. Appropriate land

use design, provision for alternative modes,

information and marketing and other strategies can

reduce travel demand and vehicle emissions. In

addition, a more balanced transport system, which

involves greater utilisation of public transport,

walking and cycling, will be less greenhouse intensive.

The substitution of public transport (where

sustainable or low emission fuels are used), walking

or cycling for car-based travel significantly reduces

greenhouse gas emissions, particularly in urban areas.

These actions also improve local air quality and

reduce traffic congestion.

5.3.1 Individualised marketing – TravelSmart

In Western Australia, Transport (WA) has been

conducting an ‘individualised marketing’ campaign

known as TravelSmart, which promotes the use of

public transport, cycling and walking. TravelSmart is

a sophisticated marketing program which empowers

people to use alternative modes of transport that lead

to fuel savings, financial benefits and reductions in

environmental impacts.

TravelSmart has been extremely effective in reducing

vehicle kilometres travelled by motor cars and in

transferring these trips to pedestrian, cycling and bus

modes. The pilot project in South Perth demonstrates

this effectiveness, as car trips were reduced by 10%,

public transport use increased by 21%, cycling

increased by 91% and walking by 14%. A further

survey of travel behaviour one year later showed that

these changes were sustained. The changes translate to

a decrease in VKT of 14% and a consequent decrease

in transport CO2 emissions of 0.012 Mt CO2 in 1998.

This extrapolates to a projected saving of 0.02 Mt CO2

in 2010, based on projected increases in both VKT and

the number of vehicles per 1000 persons.

The behavioural changes resulting from TravelSmart

were undertaken voluntarily by the community.

Where possible, people chose alternative

transportation modes to the motor car. No system

improvements such as additional public transport

services were required and no measures that

19

constrained people’s mobility such as parking

restraints were adopted.

A cost benefit analysis was performed on the

TravelSmart program. It showed that a benefit to

cost ratio of 13 to 1 is achievable if individualised

marketing is applied to the whole community (B

James, pers comm). This analysis included a

financial assessment of the investor (ie State

Government) and respondents (i.e. motor car

drivers), and a socio-economic assessment of

impacts to the broader community.

Extrapolating the results of the South Perth pilot

program to include the inner suburbs of Perth, an

area containing approximately 30% of the WA car

population, suggests that a 0.16 Mt reduction in CO2

emissions can be achieved during the year 2000. This

is equal to a 4.2% reduction in CO2 emissions from

passenger cars within Western Australia. Emissions

savings in 2010 are projected to equal 0.3 Mt CO2.

The cost of implementing TravelSmart in the suburbs

surrounding the CBD, a population of approximately

500,000 people, is projected at $18 million over three

years. Relative to transport infrastructure projects,

this amount is small.

5.3.2 Cycling

Bikewest, a directorate of Transport (WA), has

developed and is implementing Bike Ahead: The

Bicycle Strategy for the 21st Century which is a

comprehensive strategy to improve infrastructure

and facilities for cyclists, consistent with the National

Bicycle Strategy. Bikewest aims to increase the mode

share of cycling in line with the MTS targets through

the constant review of standards and systems for

public transport. This will facilitate bicycle access by

establishing an integrated network of pedestrian and

cycle routes in existing built up areas. If the MTS

targets are achieved, the emission of greenhouse gases

from private vehicles in the metropolitan area is

expected to decrease by nearly 2% of Perth

metropolitan VKT by 2010. This extrapolates to a

saving of around 0.1 Mt CO2-e per annum.

Bikewest is also currently investigating methods to

increase cycling within the community. Social

marketing techniques will be used to promote the

benefits of cycling among non-cyclists. This research

will determine factors which are perceived to make

cycling attractive and those which make it

inconvenient.

5.3.3 Walking

Transport (WA) is in the process of developing a

Metropolitan Region Pedestrian Strategy. One

objective of the strategy is to reduce the dependence

on the car for personal transport through increasing

the number of walking trips made by the community,

with the aim of reaching targets outlined in the MTS.

This would achieve emission reductions in the

vicinity of 0.14 Mt CO2-e per annum through a

reduction in Perth metropolitan VKT of over three

per cent.

5.3.4 Increasing public transport patronage

Fiscal advantages for public transport companies

could be introduced to improve services offered by

contractors such as reimbursement of excise tax on

petroleum products. If this money is used to improve

services, this may encourage the community to better

utilise the public transport system. However, this

action may not be particularly effective in Perth, due

to the currently low level of contracted services.

Fiscal measures to encourage use of public transport

for professional commuter traffic could also be

introduced. An alternative method would be to

reduce incentive for business travel. Measures may

include the reduction in tax deduction of business

travel expenses or incentives for employer subsidy of

employee public transport passes. The potential level

of abatement would depend on the amount of

participation and promotion of these incentives.

June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council

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20 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999

5

5.4 Improving fuel consumption of the vehicle

fleet, covering both vehicle technology and

vehicle mix

There is no dispute that technological solutions are

capable of reducing the amount of greenhouse gases

produced from fuel combustion; however, there are

many barriers to advances in fuel and vehicle

technology. Pollution control technology on its own

cannot reduce the amount of CO2 produced by a

vehicle. Greenhouse gas emissions can only be

reduced by reducing fuel consumption or changing

the type of fuel used.

Despite technological advances, vehicle fuel

efficiency of the Australian fleet has not improved

during the last decade. Australia has the least efficient

cars in the OECD, with a national average fuel

consumption (NAFC) in 1996 of 8.9 litres per 100

km. Comparative figures for 1988 show the

Australian NAFC at 9.10 litres per 100 km, compared

with the UK at 7.4 litres per 100 km and Italy at 6.8

litres per 100 km (DEST, 1996).

Factors influencing the improvement in vehicle fuel

efficiency include modal shifts (from public transport

to personal car travel), decreasing vehicle occupancy

and a switch to more powerful cars (McRobert,

1997). The potential for reductions in fleet fuel

consumption is limited by the use of large six cylinder

vehicles. In 1984 only 19 per cent of cars purchased

has six or more cylinders. This increased to 33 per

cent in 1987-88 and to at least 45 per cent in 1994-95

(DEST, 1996). More powerful cars generally mean

additional power and consequently increased fuel

consumption and emissions. It will be difficult to

reduce the fleet average below 6 L/100kms without

substantially reducing the number of large six

cylinder vehicles in use.

5.4.1 Vehicle emission standards

Another barrier to improved vehicle technology is the

leisurely pace with which new emissions standards

are adopted within Australia. Changes in standards

controlling vehicle fuel efficiency and emissions

technology are generally the responsibility of the

Commonwealth, as the National Road Transport

Commission (NRTC) and the National Environment

Protection Council (NEPC) are the key bodies for the

recommendation of environmental standards for

motor vehicles. Transport (WA) is represented by the

Director General of Transport on the Motor Vehicle

Environment Committee (MVEC), which is

responsible for the coordination of a joint NRTC and

NEPC work program.

The Australian Government has agreed, however, that

by the year 2006 emission standards in Australia will

be compatible with the UN ECE (Euro) standards.

The timeframe for adoption of the Euro standards is

currently under review by the Commonwealth.

In Australia, there is no legislation that will ensure

on-going improvement in vehicle and fuel efficiency

(McRobert, 1997). The introduction of this sort of

legislation in the US has, in addition to reducing

levels of CO2 emitted per vehicle, increased the

amount of research into cleaner vehicle technology

(Amann, 1992).

5.4.2 Vehicle tuning

Results of the National In-Service Vehicle Emissions

Study (FORS, 1996) show that tuning cars can deliver

fuel consumption benefits as well as reductions in

vehicle emissions. A recent study by BTCE has

revealed that if all private vehicles are serviced every

six months, a greenhouse emission reduction of

around two percent VKT can be achieved (BTCE,

1996). This relates to a reduction of approximately

Actions

14. Extend the TravelSmart individualised marketing program to include the inner suburbs of the Perth

metropolitan area.

15. Promote sustainable forms of transport such as cycling and walking with the aim of achieving the

MTS targets.

21

0.1 Mt CO2-e per annum in WA, however, this level of

reduction will reduce as older cars are removed from

the vehicle population.

This greenhouse benefit may only be achieved if the

tuning of cars twice a year is made compulsory. This

has social and equity considerations that would need

to be carefully assessed prior to introducing

compulsory tuning.

5.4.3 Targets for reducing emissions from commercial

and freight vehicles

As previously noted, greenhouse gas emissions from

LCVs and articulated trucks are projected to increase

dramatically by 2010. To counteract this effect,

stringent targets for the reduction of greenhouse gas

emissions from commercial and freight vehicles could

be established. This has the potential to greatly reduce

emissions from the commercial and freight sectors

but may increase freight costs in the short term until

alternative fuels have been developed or an expansion

to rail freight infrastructure and utilisation occurs.

5.4.4 Vehicle emissions testing

At State level, a comprehensive review of

management measures designed to reduce vehicle

emissions from both individual vehicles and across

the fleet, including methods to improve the

maintenance of in-service vehicles to reduce fuel

consumption, will be undertaken as part of the

development of an Air Quality Management Plan

(AQMP) for Perth (WA Government, 1998). The

management plan will investigate methods of

reducing emissions that affect local air quality;

however, methods are usually complementary to

those reducing CO2 emissions.

The State Government’s Response to the Report of

the Select Committee on Perth’s Air Quality

(Government of WA, 1998) also included the

commitment to evaluate the cost effectiveness of a

range of vehicle emissions testing and vehicle disposal

incentive schemes including the evaluation of

Vancouver’s AirCare program. The AirCare program

is a light duty vehicle inspection and maintenance

program that is operating in the Lower Fraser Valley

of British Columbia. Annual compliance with

AirCare standards is a requirement of vehicle

registration and insurance renewal.

Vancouver’s AirCare Program, which inspects

approximately 1 million passenger cars and light

commercial vehicles per year – an amount similar to

that in WA, is estimated to have saved 23 million litres

of fuel or 0.057 Mt CO2 during the five year period to

31 August 1997 (ICBC, 1998). This equates to an

average reduction of 0.011 Mt CO2 per year which is

comparable to a 0.15% reduction in emissions from

mobile sources in Western Australia. This suggests

that the establishment of an inspection and

maintenance program in Perth would not achieve

significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions

from vehicles though the benefits to local air quality

are substantial and should not be trivialised.

5.4.5 Car scrapping programs

Removing old, fuel-inefficient, polluting vehicles

from the existing vehicle fleet may aid in the

improvement of overall fleet fuel economy. Car

scrapping programs can also have positive effects in

other areas, such as local air quality, through the

reduction in tail-pipe emissions. The United States

and Canada have implemented successful car

scrapping programs, for example the SCRAP-IT

program in Vancouver.

The ‘Scrap-It’ program, which forms part of the

Motor Vehicle Emissions Inspection and

Maintenance Program (as known as ‘AirCare’), has

been highly successful in removing polluting vehicles

from the vehicle fleet. Scrap-It is a voluntary program

for residents in British Columbia to trade older, high-

polluting vehicles for incentives toward cleaner forms

of transportation. The incentives include money that

can be put towards a new natural gas vehicle, a new

vehicle, a 1988 or newer used vehicle, a bicycle, or a

supply of transit passes. To qualify for the program, a

vehicle must be a model dated 1987 or older, and it

must be insured and have failed an AirCare test at

some point in the vehicle’s history.

The Scrap-It program reduced greenhouse gas

emissions by between 1,500 and 4,300 tonnes per year

June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council

5

per 1,000 vehicles scrapped in situations where

people chose a new car, used car or transit pass. This

equates to a cost effectiveness of around $130 per

tonne CO2 abated per year (Scrap-It Program

Steering Committee, 1997), which is a rather high

abatement cost. Consequently, the abatement of CO2

alone is not likely to justify the introduction of a car

scrapping program in WA.

Research has also shown that car scrapping schemes

may only be beneficial when targeted at very old

models and less-developed vehicle fleets. In addition,

only registered vehicles should be purchased as part

of the program and an appropriate price paid for the

scrapped vehicles (US DOE, 1996 as cited in ECMT,

1997). Accordingly, a large amount of research would

be required prior to implementation of a car

scrapping program in Western Australia or Australia.

The Federal Government, however, has recently

announced plans for a car scrapping program. It is

suggested that owners of cars more than twenty years

old would be given a payment of $1000 to consign

their old cars to the wreckers. This program takes no

account of the emission performance of the car and

will not ensure the owner purchases a vehicle with

‘cleaner’ emission performance or increased fuel

economy and lower fuel consumption.

5.4.6 Incentives for fuel-efficient vehicles

Fiscal measures could be introduced to promote the

sale of more efficient vehicles. Dealerships could be

rewarded for selling a greater proportion of

‘environmentally conscious’ cars. Vehicle

manufacturers could also be approached to

manufacture vehicles with lower emission levels than

required by Australian standards. Import restrictions

on highly polluting vehicles could be imposed to

reduce the occurrence of accepting imported vehicles

with low emission performance.

Changing the general preference of Australians for

large capacity engines towards smaller, more fuel

efficient cars has the potential to significantly reduce

greenhouse emissions. Consumers could be

encouraged to modify their preference for 6 cylinder

cars and purchase a vehicle with a smaller engine

capacity through education programs. The

Government could reduce registration charges for

small cars or provide stamp duty concessions when

changing over to a smaller car. A small car would be

defined as less than 2000cc engine capacity.

Alternatively, vehicle registration charges could be

formulated on the basis of engine size, power rating

and type of fuel.

5.4.7 Information programs on efficient vehicle use

It is widely recognised that the way drivers use their

vehicles can significantly affect vehicle fuel

consumption and emissions. It has also been shown

that differences in driving style can account for a

variation of up to fifty per cent in fuel consumption

among drivers using the same cars (ECMT, 1997).

Factors of driver behaviour that may lead to

improved fuel consumption include:

• avoiding excessive idling of the engine;

• driving smoothly and avoiding high revs;

• limiting high speed driving as fuel consumption

and pollution increase significantly above 80km/h

and even more so above 100 km/h;

• maintaining adequate tyre pressure; and

• eliminating unnecessary sources of drag.

Additionally, the RAC is currently conducting an

education campaign, supported by Transport (WA),

designed to raise the awareness for Western

Australian motorists about environmental issues

concerned with motor vehicle use. The RAC’s “Air

Care” campaign aims to reduce air pollution from

motor vehicles by increasing public awareness of how

proper car maintenance can assist with maintaining

Perth’s relatively good air quality. Even though this

campaign is aimed at local air pollution issues,

regular in-service maintenance will also improve

vehicle fuel efficiency and thereby reduce emissions

of CO2.

It is recommended by the TULUP Working Group

that a long term, Government funded information

campaign be initiated to educate Western Australian

drivers in ways to reduce vehicle fuel consumption.

22 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999

5

23

Emphasis should be made of the environmental

consequences and economic gains that may be

achieved from modification to current driver

behaviour. The following “tips to reduce your

transport related greenhouse gas emissions” could be

included in a brochure:

• Buy a fuel-efficient car. Ask your car dealer for a

Fuel Consumption Guide to check the fuel

efficiency of the car you are considering buying.

• Drive smoothly and avoid stop-start traffic. Save

up to 30% of greenhouse emissions.

• Tune your car regularly. Save up to 15% of

greenhouse gas emissions.

• Ensure tyres have maximum recommended air

pressure so they roll more easily. Save up to 100

kilograms CO2 each year and extend tyre life.

• If possible walk, ride a bike or catch public

transport.

• Every litre of petrol saved reduces greenhouse

emissions by 2.5 kilograms.

• Remove unnecessary weight from the car – 50

kilograms less weight decreases greenhouse gas

emissions by nearly 2%.

• Removing roof racks and external sun visors

when not required can save hundreds of

kilograms per year. (Adapted from AGO, 1999)

In the area of freight transport, “TruckSafe”, the

industry accreditation program developed by the

Road Transport Forum (RTF), is currently being

promoted in Western Australia. The TruckSafe

program is similar to a quality assurance program

and contains various modules that specify

objectives for best practice for trucks in the

transport industry. The RTF is in the process of

developing a module for environmental

management for road transport companies as an

optional addition to the TruckSafe program.

Other innovations, largely in the area of road freight

transportation, include:

• the trialling of alternate vehicle combinations

which allow greater payloads hauled by a single

prime mover;

• aerodynamic developments which allow greater

fuel efficiency of road freight vehicles;

• on-board computers which allow a range of

advances which increase operating efficiency; and

• the integration of engines and transmissions to

provide fuel economy dividends.

5.4.8 Environmental Strategy for the Motor Vehicle

Industry

An Environmental Strategy for the Motor Vehicle

Industry is proposed to be pursued by the

Commonwealth Government and the motor vehicle

industry, in consultation with States and Territories

through MVEC and other stakeholders (including the

fuel industry and motoring organisations) where

appropriate.

The Environmental Strategy for the Motor Vehicle

Industry was announced in June 1997. This strategy

aims to significantly enhance the environmental

performance of the automotive industry through a

range of measures including:

• negotiation of improved NAFC targets for new

vehicles for 2005 and 2010 (with an expectation of

at least a 15% improvement over ‘business as

usual’ by 2010);

• extension of the NAFC framework to include

LCVs and 4WDs up to 3.5 tonnes;

• continuation of the Fuel Consumption Guide and

publication of fuel consumption data on the

internet;

• negotiations with individual car manufacturers

on initiatives they might take to improve the fuel

efficiency of the models they produce;

• model specific fuel efficiency labels for new motor

vehicles;

• fuel efficiency targets for the Commonwealth fleet

from 2003;

• the development of partnerships with consumer

groups (both private and fleet) to encourage

attention to fuel efficiency;

• a review of fuel quality in Australia, covering

issues such as the phasing out of leaded fuel and

June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council

5

24 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999

5

Actions

16. Encourage the Australian Federal Government to adopt emission standards that are compatible with the

UN ECE standards as soon as is practically possible.

17. Actively participate in the oversighting of fuel efficiency and fuel technology investigations through

MVEC.

18. Initiate an information campaign to educate Western Australian drivers in ways to reduce greenhouse

gas emissions. Emphasis should be on the environmental consequences and economic gains that may

be achieved from modification to current behaviours and attitudes.

19. Encourage involvement and registration in the TruckSafe accreditation program, including

participation in environmental management. The potential for transport related concessions for

TruckSafe accredited companies should also be investigated.

5.5 Increasing the use of alternative fuels in

the vehicle fleet and/or revised

specifications for conventional fuels

Increased use of available alternative fuels, such as

LPG, CNG and ethanol, will result in reduced

emissions of CO2 from the transport sector. There is

widespread uncertainty, however, about the scope for

other alternative fuels to reduce greenhouse gas

emissions (McRobert, 1997). In addition to the

consideration of end use or tail-pipe emissions, the

emissions generated from the extraction, production

and distribution of the energy source need also to be

examined.

At present, about 80% of the world’s demand for

transportation fuels for road, rail, air and sea travel

are met by derivatives from the fossil fuel, petroleum.

Petrol is the major derivative of petroleum used as a

motor vehicle fuel. The major fossil fuel alternatives

to petrol are:

• diesel;

• liquid petroleum gas (LPG);

• compressed natural gas (CNG);

• ethers – methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE)

produced from natural gas and butane;

• electricity from coal/oil/gas; and

• methanol produced from natural gas or coal.

The investigation and development of viable

alternative fuels for the transport sector has been

necessitated by the steadily dwindling supply of fossil

fuels as well as heightened awareness about the

environmental consequences of the dependence on

fossil fuels. Some alternative transport fuels are derived

from non-fossil, or partly renewable, sources such as

grain or other agricultural crops. However, these crops

often require fertilisers which are made from fossil

fuels and are not, therefore, totally renewable.

The major non-fossil alternative fuels are:

• ethanol; and

• hydrogen.

5.5.1 Petrol

Most cars today run on petrol because it is a relatively

cheap, convenient, safe and reliable fuel that yields

good vehicle performance complete with a good

vehicle range capability. It can also be stored and

handled easily. Exhaust emissions from petrol-driven

cars include, in addition to CO2 and water vapour,

hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and CO (Australian

Institute of Petroleum, 1998).

the introduction of higher octane fuel; and

• harmonisation with international vehicle

emission standards by 2006, a measure more

focused on air quality rather than greenhouse

emissions.

25

5.5.2 Diesel

Diesel cars have better fuel economy than petrol-

driven cars and are cheaper to maintain; however, the

capital costs of a diesel are greater due to components

that are more costly than an equivalent petrol engine.

The diesel combustion system is very efficient. Diesel

fuels emit less CO2 per kilometre travelled than any

other fuel of fossil origin. Emissions of carbon

monoxide, hydrocarbons, benzene, butadiene and

formaldehyde are also lower than for petrol engines

(Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1998).

The sulfur content of diesel fuels is of increasing

interest in terms of the potential effects of

particulates on health. Reduction in sulfur levels

creates difficulties such as fuel pump failure, reduced

engine durability, more expensive fuel and an

increase in CO2 emissions from the refining

operations necessary to remove the sulfur. Elevated

levels of particulates have been linked to serious

health problems.

A range of Australian and international studies has

shown that the health effects of air pollution are

extensive and include increases in mortality,

incidence of respiratory illness, hypertension, strokes,

heart disease and damage to the IQs of children. Most

of the health damage and associated costs arise from

increased deaths due to exposure to particles

(Australia Institute et al, 1999).

In Australia, the total economic cost of particulate

pollution has been estimated at around $8 billion per

annum. Around $4 billion of this figure may be

attributable to particle emissions from road vehicles,

principally those that run on diesel (Australia

Institute et al, 1999).

Western Australia recently announced its intention to

replace 133 buses in the Transperth fleet; 128 of

which were to be powered with diesel fuel. Significant

community concern was expressed with regard to the

use of diesel fuel and the potential impact of this on

the environment. In response to these concerns, an

Expert Reference Group (ERG) was established to

provide independent, expert advice on the most

appropriate fuel for Perth’s buses in the long term.

The ERG claims that ultra low sulfur diesel, known as

city diesel, with a continuous regenerating particulate

trap gives lower full cycle CO2 emissions per

kilometre than LPG or CNG (Bult et al, 1998). Buses

powered by diesel were also found to have the highest

reliability and the lowest maintenance costs.

However, research suggests that new diesel

technology may produce more small particle

pollution, increasing the risk to health.

In April 1998, the WA Premier agreed to replace

some of the buses in Transperth’s fleet over the

period of twelve years. If Transperth replaces 848

buses with engines utilising ultra low sulfur diesel

fuel, as described in the Report on the Findings of

the ERG (Bult et al, 1998), this should reduce CO2

emissions by approximately 0.3 Mt per year. This is

equal to four per cent of greenhouse gas emissions

from transport sources.

5.5.3 Liquid petroleum gas (LPG)

LPG is produced as a secondary result when raw

natural gas is processed into pipeline quality natural

gas. LPG is also produced when crude oil is refined.

The use of LPG is widespread, with an estimated

250,000 vehicles running on it in Australia. Of these,

around 180,000 are privately owned. Estimates are

that exhaust and evaporative greenhouse emissions

are approximately 15 per cent lower from LPG than

from petrol vehicles. LPG is a non-renewable

resource (Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1998).

LPG is available Australia-wide through the service

station networks. When converted to a gas, LPG

expands up to 270 times. This means that the liquid

form, which is easily achieved, is a very efficient way

of carrying large amounts of gas. In general economic

terms, however, LPG is unattractive as it requires a

subsidy, in the form of an excise exemption, as an

incentive to consumers who must cover the costs of

conversion of the vehicle to operate on LPG

(Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1998).

5.5.4 Compressed natural gas (CNG)

Methane is the principal component of natural

gas, generally comprising between 87 per cent and

June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council

5

97 per cent by volume hydrocarbon, depending on

the source of the gas. Natural gas is lighter than air

and will dissipate into the atmosphere if leakage

occurs. It is non-toxic and non-reactive and can be

compressed for use as an automotive fuel – CNG.

The major issues with CNG for cars are the

economics associated with conversion and the short

range between refuelling. A CNG-fuelled car with a

75 litre tank is about 150 kg heavier than a petrol-

driven car of the same size (Australian Institute of

Petroleum, 1998). When properly operated and

maintained, leakage of CNG is minimal, although it

should be noted that methane is an even more active

greenhouse gas than CO2.

Cars running on natural gas are estimated to emit

twenty per cent less greenhouse gases than diesel and

petrol cars (Australian Gas Industry, 1998). Use of

CNG also substantially reduces particulate

emissions, particularly from the new, dedicated CNG

engines now available for buses and trucks. Natural

gas is also about half the cost of other fuels due to

fuel excise tax exemptions. Additionally, as natural

gas is produced locally the cost of obtaining this fuel

is drastically reduced.

Many State Governments have perceived the benefits

of CNG for city bus fleets. TransAdelaide currently

operates one of the world’s largest fleets of CNG

buses and NSW State Transit has awarded a contract

for the supply of 300 new ultra low floored CNG

powered buses. The NSW decision came after an

exhaustive analysis of financial considerations and

follows four years of experience operating CNG buses

at State Transit. During this time, it was found that

savings in fuel costs more than offset increases in

capital and maintenance costs (State Transit, 1997).

Operational needs of natural gas vehicles must be

supported by a carefully planned infrastructure. In

many countries, the overall costs of natural gas

vehicle operation, including capital, maintenance and

fuel, are much less than the total cost of running

conventionally fuelled vehicles (International

Association for Natural Gas Vehicles, 1998).

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) Infrastructure

Program

To encourage companies to switch their fleets to

compressed natural gas, the Prime Minister’s

statement allocated $3.8 million over four years to

facilitate the establishment of a distribution network

of service stations supplying CNG. An additional $3.8

million was announced by the Government during

the 1998 election campaign. The program aims to

establish a minimum refuelling network within

urban areas in collaboration with natural gas

companies and local government authorities.

This action, however, seems to be in direct opposition

with plans by the current Government to reduce the

price of diesel fuel. The GST Package proposes to cut

the price of diesel by 25 cents/litre for vehicles with a

gross or loaded weight exceeding 3.5 tonnes. While the

target is large trucks, the threshold covers almost all

trucks as well as some 4WD and All-Terrain Vehicles.

This change in policy position has the potential to

create a major disincentive for the transport sector to

embrace the benefits of gaseous fuels.

A fall in the price of diesel will increase demand for

diesel. Using elasticities calculated by the BTCE and

the Australian Road Research Board, it is estimated

that the reduction in the price of diesel will lead to an

increase in diesel consumption and diesel pollution

over the longer term (by 2010) of at least 7.6%

(Australia Institute et al, 1999). This will, in turn, lead

to increased production of greenhouse gases through

reduced levels of utlisation of other alternative fuels.

For example, the New Zealand government provided

incentives through the late 1970s and early eighties to

promote CNG use. This resulted in sales of CNG for

motor vehicles growing from 0.1 PJ to 5.4 PJ between

1979 and 1986 (GASEX, 1996). In New Zealand

incentives were removed between 1984 and 1986, and

the excise on diesel was cut by 15 cents/litre in 1989

and 11 cents/litre in January 1991. Between 1989 and

1998, diesel consumption grew in New Zealand by

around 130% while alternative fuels fell by around

66% (Australia Institute et al, 1999).

It is recommended that a balance between these two

competing interests be found, possibly by

26 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999

5

27

maintaining the reduction in the diesel excise while

providing an incentive for users to convert to and

continue to use gaseous fuels. Grants could be also

provided for a portion of the capital cost of

conversion of each LPG or CNG powered vehicle.

5.5.5 Methanol

Methanol is a clear liquid alcohol that can be

produced from natural gas, coal, crude oil and

biomass crops such as wood and wood residues as

well as directly from catalytic synthesis. At present,

however, natural gas is by far the most economically

and environmentally viable source of methanol.

Methanol is a high cost fuel compared with petrol,

but relatively cheap compared with other options. It

has only half the energy content of petrol, which

results in greater fuel consumption per unit volume

and shorter travelling range.

Methanol has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas

emissions but would need to be produced from

biomass to make a possible contribution. Methanol

derived from natural gas using current technology

offers at best only a small greenhouse gas emission

benefit over petrol.

Methane is a major greenhouse gas. The use of

methanol as fuel can lead to large unburnt fuel

emissions of methanol and methane; however,

methanol produces neither soot particles nor sulphur

oxides and emits lower levels of CO, hydrocarbons

and nitrogen oxides. Methanol is extremely toxic and

therefore hazardous to handle. It is also corrosive,

requiring modification of a conventional vehicle’s

fuel system (Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1998).

5.5.6 Ethanol

Ethanol is presently the most widely used alternative

fuel in the world. It is mostly produced from crops

which contain sugar or by pretreatment of starch

crops or cellulose. Ethanol is less toxic and corrosive

than methanol, although its technical performance

and emission levels are similar (Australian Institute of

Petroleum, 1998).

A positive environmental aspect is that ethanol is a

renewable resource, unlike oil, gas or coal, and in

some cases may even be produced from waste

material. However, there are drawbacks. Ethanol has a

high affinity with water and this can cause

environmental problems. For example, if ethanol is

spilt in a small watercourse or drain it will dissolve

and be almost impossible to recover. Ethanol is,

however, more easily biodegraded or diluted to non-

toxic concentrations than petrol (Australian Institute

of Petroleum, 1998).

As with methanol, the potential greenhouse gas

savings depend on the feedstock and process used for

production. Ethanol’s full fuel cycle greenhouse gas

emissions are said to range from 30 – 180% from

maize and 0 – 115% from wood, of the emissions

from the petrol it replaces. CO2 from the combustion

process alone is similar for alcohol fuels and petrol on

an energy equivalent level (Australian Institute of

Petroleum, 1998).

Ethanol has the potential to become an important

renewable fuel for the Australian transport sector over

the long term (Australian Institute of Petroleum,

1998). At present ethanol production is two to three

times more expensive than petrol production;

nevertheless, the Federal Government has allocated $2

million to build an ethanol pilot plant to demonstrate

new technologies for the production of ethanol.

5.5.7 Hydrogen

There are two common feedstocks for hydrogen

production – water and hydrocarbons, such as are

found in methane. Hydrogen is produced from

water by hydrolysis using electricity. The major

positive aspects of hydrogen are that there is an

almost limitless supply of water and that hydrogen is

non-toxic. Because electricity is most often derived

from fossil fuel-powered stations and is also

required for electrolysis, the full life cycle process

may involve considerable CO2 emissions. For the

total environmental effect of hydrogen to be

positive, the electricity used in its production should

be generated from renewable sources such as solar,

wind or hydro-power.

June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council

5

The main technical difficulty with hydrogen is

storage. In compressed or liquid form, it needs a

heavy and expensive tank. Other disadvantages of the

use of hydrogen gas include the cost of liquification

and safety factors due to it high level of flammability

(Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1998).

Currently, hydrogen is used as a fuel only in space

rockets. However, some vehicle manufacturers are

developing hydrogen powered engines which may be

tested as prototypes in about three years’ time

(Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1998).

5.5.8 Increased use of alternative fuels

Increased use of alternative fuels with low greenhouse

gas emissions could be obtained through

encouragement and promotion of the benefits of

alternative fuels for the environment. Incentives such

as fuel tax exemptions could also be introduced;

however, current use suggests that this will not ensure

the use of alternative fuels is significantly increased.

Enforcement of alternative fuels is likely to be costly

and problematic, especially if the infrastructure

required to support the introduction of alternative

fuels, such as modified engines, has not sufficiently

progressed. Social and equity issues would also need

to be considered.

28 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999

6

Action

20. Investigate the potential for compensating subsidies to encourage development and use of alternative fuels

6. Evaluation of greenhouse gasabatement measures

The actions in this report have been evaluated in

terms of the possible maximum level of greenhouse

abatement achievable per annum at full

implementation and the cost of implementing these

actions for Government per annum. The TULUP

Working Group acknowledges that this evaluation is

not sufficient to identify cost effective abatement

actions; however, it has committed to a further

investigation to obtain more quantitative data.

The following estimations are approximations of

Government funding required per annum for

implementation of each action. This approximation

should not be considered to represent the ‘real’ cost of

abatement of CO2, as the total cost of abatement

should include an estimate of social and

environmental costs (and benefits) to the community

at large as well as financial costs. The estimation of

cost per kilogram CO2 abated presented in this

report, however, is useful for comparing the

effectiveness of abatement actions in terms of

funding required for implementation. The costs to

Government have been quantified approximately, but

costs and benefits to the community are only

qualitatively identified.

The TULUP Working Group emphasises that the

estimates produced in this report are based on many

assumptions and information available at the current

time. Decisions on implementation of greenhouse

abatement measures should not be made until a full

analysis of the costs and benefits, both environmental

and societal, have been made. This is particularly

relevant in the transport and urban planning sectors

due to the high cost of the provision of infrastructure

and the level of benefit to the community in social

terms.

The majority of actions in this report are not likely to

be cost effective to implement in terms of reductions

in greenhouse gas emissions only. This is because the

economic gain from just the resultant reduction in

greenhouse gas emissions is not likely to be large

enough to justify the expense of implementation of

the action. As previously mentioned, the abatement

of greenhouse gas emissions is a secondary outcome

for the bulk of actions in this report, as the measures

and actions were designed and implemented for

other purposes (Tables 4, 5,6).

6.1 ‘No regrets’ measures

‘No regrets’ measures are those that have financial,

social and environmental benefits to the community

29

at large, in addition to reducing greenhouse gas

emissions and which, over time, are sufficient to

outweigh the direct and indirect costs associated with

the measures. Within this framework, benefits and

costs are considered from a community rather than

an individual perspective, although individual

impacts and equity considerations should be

addressed over-all timeframes, including the short,

medium and long term.

As no social or environmental cost/benefit analysis

has been undertaken for the actions in this report,

none of the strategies identified have been classified

as ‘no regrets’ measures. Further investigation is

planned to determine the true cost of the actions in

this report. The implementation estimates of the

measures have therefore been categorised as either

low to medium, high or very high. These

classifications are defined in Section 7.

7. Summary of greenhouse gasabatement measures andactions

The following tables summarise the actions

mentioned in this report. Table 4 outlines actions that

are currently being undertaken in Western Australia

by various agencies. As previously noted, the

estimations of greenhouse gas emission abatement

are based on many assumptions such as the

achievement of the MTS targets. Consideration

should be given to the level of accuracy required prior

to using the following information for greenhouse

policy decisions. The TULUP Working Group cannot

be expected to predict with accuracy changes in

community attitudes and behaviours.

Additionally, the TULUP Working Group

recommends that the additional or primary benefits

(tabulated below) that can be achieved from each

action should be taken into consideration in future

policy decisions.

The actions in this report have been classified in

terms of the magnitude of implementation cost for

Government as follows:

• Low to medium cost measures – cost of

implementation is less than $30 per tonne CO2

per annum;

• High cost measures – the next magnitude, where

the cost of implementation is estimated between

$30 and $300 per tonne CO2 per annum; and

• Very high cost measures – cost of implementation

estimated to be over $300 per tonne CO2 per

annum. Very high cost measures are unlikely to be

implemented on the basis of greenhouse

abatement only due to the significant costs

involved; however, benefits achieved in other areas

generally outweigh the cost.

June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council

7

Table 4: Predicted reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) from implementation of actionscurrently being undertaken by Government agencies

Action Primary benefits GHGE Implemen- Other considerationsreduction tation

per annum cost

30 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999

7

Urban villageprinciples

Integrated land use planning,community formation, transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality

20%reduction in‘village’ VKT

Low tomedium

Urban village model applied onurban fringe – 25% job self-containment. Depends on size ofdevelopment. 26% reduction inheating and cooling emissions, 57%reduction in car related emissions.

LocalGovernmentactions

Integrated land use planning,transport efficiency, reduced caruse, local air quality

Variable Low tomedium

Dependent on level of participationand promotion

TruckSafe Transport efficiency, safety, localair quality

Variable Low tomedium

Dependent on level of participationand promotion

Perth ParkingPolicy

Reduced car use, local air quality Negligible Low tomedium

Fees should be increased to obtainadditional benefits

Encouragementof use ofalternative fuels

Local air quality Negligible Low tomedium

Dependent on level of participationand promotion

Car pooling Transport efficiency, reduced caruse, local air quality

Negligible High Dependent on level of participationand promotion

Bike Ahead Transport efficiency, reduced caruse, local air quality, health

0.1 Mt CO2-e

High 1.8% Metro VKT. Dependent on levelof participation and promotion

MetropolitanPedestrianStrategy

Transport efficiency, reduced caruse, local air quality, health

0.14 Mt CO2-e

High 3.4% Metro VKT. Dependent on levelof participation and promotion

Intelligenttransportsystems

Transport efficiency, reduced caruse, local air quality

Negligible High Potential for abatement increase iflevel of implementation increased

MTS Transport efficiency, reduced caruse, local air quality

1 Mt CO2-e Very high GHGE from cars reduced by 25%BAU by 2010

SWMRMP Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality

0.026 – 0.055Mt CO2-e

Very high Electricity generation GHGE intensive.Abatement incr. if move away fromcoal-fired power generation

Bus prioritysystems andtransitways

Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality

0.06 Mt CO2-e

Very high MTS target for public transportusage would reduce emissions by0.16 Mt CO2-e

Regionalstrategies

Integrated land use planning Negligible Very high

31

Table 5:Actions unlikely to be implemented without additional funding

Action Primary benefits GHGE Implemen- Other considerationsreduction tation

per annum cost

June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council

7

TravelSmart Increase public awareness,reduced car use, local air quality

0.3 Mt CO2-e

Low tomedium

Undertaken in Perth’s inner suburbs– 500,000 people

Telecommuting Reduced car use, local air quality 0.1 Mt CO2-e

Low tomedium

Dependent on level of participationand promotion

Fuel efficiencystandards

Local air quality Variable Low tomedium

Dependent on stringency ofstandards

Vehicle emissionstandards

Local air quality Variable Low tomedium

Dependent on stringency ofstandards

Education andinformationprograms

Safety, local air quality Variable Low tomedium

Dependent on level of participationand promotion

HOV lanes Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality

negligible High

Additional railinfrastructure

Improved public and freighttransport efficiency, reduced roadtransport, local air quality

Variable Very high Dependent on accessibility andquality of service

Table 5 identifies actions that have yet to be allocated

funding, together with those that may have

greenhouse benefits but are not likely to be cost

effective to implement in terms of greenhouse

abatement only. It should be noted that the

effectiveness of these actions largely depends on the

level of promotion undertaken by relevant agencies

and the level of participation by the community.

The estimation of abatement and cost of these actions

is, however, only an indication of scale of magnitude.

Not enough information currently exists to allow a

reliable assessment of the effectiveness of these

actions under Western Australian conditions. Further

investigation of the costs and benefits of each action

is recommended prior to decisions regarding

potential implementation. This is proposed to be

undertaken by appropriate Government agencies.

Table 6 contains actions that have been identified as

having some greenhouse benefit, but which, for

certain reasons, may not be implemented due to their

estimated cost effectiveness or the potential social

repercussions. Many of these actions may also involve

major changes to Government policy or an increase

in the level of regulation and control on community

lifestyle by the Government.

The level of abatement indicated is representative of

the reduction that could be achieved at full

development of the action. The levels of abatement

are as follows:

High above 1.0 Mt CO2-e per annum

Medium 0.1 to 1.0 Mt CO2-e per annum

Low 0.01 to 0.1 Mt CO2-e per annum

Negligible below 0.01 Mt CO2-e per annum

No cost estimates of implementation for the actions

in Table 6 have been performed as it is considered

that cost of implementation by the Government is

not representative of the “real” cost of the action. A

comprehensive cost benefit analysis is planned to be

undertaken to identify social, economical and

environmental consequences of greenhouse

abatement actions in the urban land use and

transport sectors and this will provide support for the

greenhouse abatement decision-making process.

Table 6: Other greenhouse abatement actions

Action Other benefits Potential Other considerationslevel of

abatement

32 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999

7

Targets for reducing GHGE fromcommercial and freight vehicles

Local air quality High Competitiveness of freight industry

Maintenance of speed limit Improved transport efficiency,safety, local air quality

Low

Compulsory tuning of vehicles Local air quality Low Equity and social implications.Benefit reduces as older cars removedfrom population

Vehicle emissions testing Local air quality Low Equity and social implications. Benefitreduces as emission standards tighten

Fuel efficiency targets forGovernment fleets

Local air quality Low Benefit reduces as emission standardstighten

Reducing access to the centralbusiness district

Local air quality Low Implications for retail industries andpublic transport infrastructure

Fiscal advantages for publictransport companies

Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality

Low

Fiscal measures to encouragepublic transport use byprofessional commuter traffic

Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality

Low Measures to reduce incentive forbusiness travel

Fiscal measures that promotesale of more efficient vehicles

Local air quality Low Social considerations

Establishing a green-belt aroundthe Perth metropolitan area

Urban consolidation Variable Dependent on level of additionaldevelopment

Ferries Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality

Negligible Journeys are more likely to be forpleasure than commuting

Car scrapping programs Local air quality, safety Negligible Equity and social implications.Benefit reduces as older cars removedfrom population

Removal of cabotage Competitiveness of national seafreight industry

Unknown Impact on local industry, loss ofrevenue

Removal of duty on foreign-flagged vessels

Competitiveness of national seafreight industry

Unknown Impact on local industry, loss ofrevenue

Reduce PT fares to 80% currentlevels

Increased public transport use,reduced car use, local air quality

Medium Level of resultant service due to lackof funding

Increased use of methanol andethanol fuels

Local air quality Medium Dependent on advancement oftechnology

Improved sea-rail, road-rail andsea-road terminals

Improved freight transportefficiency, reduced road use, localair quality

Medium Dependent on accessibility andquality of service

Reduced registration charges forfuel efficient cars with smallerengines

Local air quality Medium Potential for stamp duty concessionswhen changing over to a smaller car

Light rail Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality

Medium Feasibility of service in Perth

Road user charges Reduced car use, local air quality Medium Equity, social implications such asprivacy

Import restrictions on highlypolluting vehicles

Local air quality Medium

33June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council

88. Conclusions

Although Australia contributes just over 1% of total

global greenhouse gas emissions, its per capita

emissions are amongst the highest in the world (Dess

& Millard, 1998). Australia also has one of the highest

levels of car use in the world, second only to that of

North America (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999;

Kenworthy & Laube et al, 1999). Consequently,

Australians should be made aware of the need to

reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transport

sector.

The long term solution to reducing greenhouse gas

emissions from transport and urban land use sources

is to reduce the amount of combustion of fossil fuels.

Various methods of achieving this have been

discussed in this report and include reducing vehicle

consumption through engine and fuel technology

and the use of alternate fuels, modification to

community attitudes and behaviours towards public

transport and alternative modes of transport to the

car, and reducing the need to travel through means

such as land use and transport planning.

Regional planning is one of the most effective tools to

ensure integration and an efficient transportation

system. The achievement of a more integrated

transport and land use system can only be achieved

through high level Government commitment and

active community participation. Emissions from the

land use planning sector relate largely to the level of

use of the car for private travel. Appropriate and

effective land use planning will achieve reductions in

greenhouse gas emissions through consequent

reductions in car use.

Planning can only indirectly affect transportation

demand, though its effect can be very powerful in

shaping choices in personal transportation. Planning

can provide an urban system where modes such as

public transport, walking and cycling become natural

choices because they are more convenient than

driving for many trips. Personal choice of transport

mode, especially for the car, will always be a factor in

transport. However, in terms of urban land use

planning, it is important to distinguish between

genuine choice and car dependence. If urban land

uses are presently structured to make the car a

necessity of life, thus eliminating real choice, the goal

of urban land use planning for the future must be to

ensure that a genuine choice between modes is

possible for most trips.

Improving the fuel efficiency of vehicles using

conventional fuels, encouraging consumer preferences

toward vehicles of greater fuel efficiency, and

promoting the use of ‘alternative’ fuels of relatively

low greenhouse intensity are important actions to

limit greenhouse gas emissions from transport

(Commonwealth of Australia, 1998). Improved

vehicle and fuel efficiency will not be able to stabilise

the growth in emissions, let alone reduce emissions

from transport, however, if the use of motor vehicles

continues to grow. Any benefits observed from

increased vehicle and fuel efficiency will be negated by

the predicted increase in the number of vehicles and

the distance travelled per vehicle.

The reduction in the reliance on the car for personal

travel may be the most effective method to achieve

long term reductions in greenhouse gas emissions

from the transport sector. This may be attained

through effective land use planning and

implementation of urban village concepts and the

implementation of travel demand strategies,

together with improved integration of transport and

urban land use. This will result in reduced

dependence on individual cars and trucks through

making greater use of car pools, buses, trains,

bicycles and walking; and through the provision of

efficient, convenient and affordable public

transport, as well as other alternatives.

A role for the car will still remain where travel

demand is slight or very dispersed, however. This role

will be best met by encouraging the use of the

smallest most fuel efficient vehicle practicable,

consistent with safety needs.

The majority of the actions outlined in this report are

currently being implemented with the abatement of

greenhouse gases a secondary effect. This report has

recommended actions to reduce greenhouse gas

emissions from the transport and urban land use

sectors, such as extension of the TravelSmart

program. TravelSmart is capable of reducing the

amount of low occupancy vehicle use, and resultant

vehicle emissions, as it promotes the use of non-car

transport alternatives.

The development of strategies in other areas will

require some preliminary investigations to determine

potential costs and benefits. The potential for

transport and energy impact assessment for new

development proposals to reduce greenhouse gas

emissions from the urban land use sector should be

investigated as well as a survey of appropriate sites in

Perth for urban redevelopment. In the area of freight

transport, the investigation of the impacts of just-in-

time delivery and the removal of cabotage and duty

on foreign-flagged vessels carrying coastal cargo will

aid in the development of greenhouse gas reduction

strategies for the freight sector.

There is also a need for community consultation and

education to ensure that the community is aware of

the need for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions

and the benefits that may be achieved in other areas.

34 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999

8

35

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ARA (1997) Rail Facts Sheet No 3: Competitive neutrality. Australian Railway Association Inc, October 1997.

Australia Institute, Australian Conservation Foundation & Australian Medical Association (1999) Joint Submission

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Australian Institute of Petroleum (1998) Petroleum Topics: Alternative Transport Fuels. AIP Website, Melbourne.

Australian Gas Industry (1998) Gas Facts. Australian Gas Industry Website.

BTCE (1995). Greenhouse emissions from Australian transport: Long term projections. Bureau of Transport and

Communications Economics Report 88. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

BTCE (1996) Transport and greenhouse: Costs and options for reducing emissions. Bureau of Transport and

Communications Economics Report 94. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Bult, B., Bishop, K., Bray, A., Martin, G., Morgan, P. & Stanley, J. (1998) Euro 2 & Beyond: Fuel for Transperth’s bus

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Commonwealth of Australia (1998). The National Greenhouse Strategy. Australian Greenhouse Office, Canberra.

Cosgrove, D, & Garrett, D. (1992). The Australian domestic transport task. Australasian Transport research forum,

17th, 1992, Canberra, ACT, 17 (Part 1), p 231 – 249. Bureau of Transport and Communications Economics,

Australia.

Dess, M, & Millard, B. (1998) Reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving air quality through sustainable

urban development. Paper to Clean Air and Environment ‘98 – 14th International Clean Air and

Environment Conference, Melbourne, 18-22 October 1998.

DEST (1996) More with less: initiatives to promote sustainable consumption. Commonwealth Department of the

Environment, Sport and Territories.

DETR (1998) A New Deal for Transport – Better for Everyone: The Government’s White Paper on the Future of

Transport. Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions, London.

DPUD (1990) Metroplan: A planning strategy for the Perth metropolitan region. Department of Planning and

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ECMT (1997). CO2 Emissions from Transport. European Conference of Ministers of Transport. OECD Publications

Service, Paris.

Energy Victoria, Victorian EPA, Department of Infrastructure & Energy Research and Development Corporation

(1996) Urban Villages Project: Encouraging sustainable urban form. August 1996.

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Government of Western Australia (1998) The Western Australian Government’s Response to the Report of the Select

Committee on Perth’s Air Quality, Perth, Western Australia.

ICBC (1998) AirCare® Program Review and Evaluation of Benefits: Program years one to five, September 1992 to

August 1997. Prepared by S. J. Stewart and D I Gourley, Insurance Corporation British Columbia.

International Association for Natural Gas Vehicles (1998) Advantages of NGVs. IANGV Website.

Kenworthy, J., Laube, F. with Newman, P., Barter, P., Raad, T., Poboon, C. and Guia, B. (Jr) (1999) An International

Sourcebook of Automobile Dependence in Cities 1960-1990. University Press of Colorado, Boulder (March).

Kenworthy, J & Newman, P. (1992) The economic and wider community benefits of the proposed East Perth

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University, Perth, WA.

Local Transport Today (1998) Government sets out transport plans to help reach Kyoto CO2 targets. Local

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Loder and Bayly Consulting Group, R J Nairn and Partners Pty Ltd, Sustainable solutions Pty Ltd & PPK

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Transport and Urban Form), Institute for Science and Technology Policy, Murdoch University,

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Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. (1999) Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence. Island Press,

Washington DC (January).

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NGGIC (1998) Australia’s State and Territory Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990 and 1995: Western Australia. National

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Scrap-It Program Steering Committee (1997) Scrap-It Program: Evaluation of the Scrap-It Pilot Program, August 1997.

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Transport (1995b) The Way Ahead: Metropolitan transport directions for Western Australia. Department of

Transport, Perth. December 1995.

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Referen

ces

Appendix 1

Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning Working Group

Terms of Reference

1. Role

The prime role of the technical panel is to provide a forum and network to acquire, offer and facilitate advice,

through the Chair, to the WA Greenhouse Council about the implementation of the National Greenhouse Strategy

and the WA Greenhouse Strategy, with respect to the integration of land use and transport planning.

2. Terms of Reference

Provide advice and assistance to the WA Greenhouse Council on:

• the implications to WA of implementing the measures contained in module 5 and the relevant sections of

module 3 of the National Greenhouse Strategy. The working groups will need to identify measures already

being implemented, those requiring enhancement and those requiring initiation;

• determining priorities for implementing transport and urban planning and design aspects of the National

Greenhouse Strategy and the WA Greenhouse Strategy;

• identifying cost effective measures for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transport and urban planning

and design.

The working group will consult with other working groups and other organisations as appropriate.

3. Proposed Representation

Mr Gary Prattley (Chairman) Ministry for Planning

Dr Chris Whittaker Department of Transport (Deputy Chairman)

Representative Main Roads WA

Mr Michael Waite Department of Environmental Protection

Representative Westrail

Mr Alan Layton WA Road Transport Association

Representative Australian Gas Association

Representative Urban Development Institute of Australia

Prof Barrie Mellotte Royal Australian Planning Institute

Mr Mike Upton Royal Automobile Club of WA

Representative WA Municipal Association

Representative Public Transport area

Mr David Wake Conservation Council of WA

Mr Behnam Bordbar Institute of Engineers Transport Panel

Dr Jeff Kenworthy Murdoch University

Mr Simon Williamson Chamber of Minerals and Energy

4. Meetings

The panel will meet at least once per year and more frequently as required to perform its role.

38 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999

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5. Support for the WA Greenhouse Council

Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning Working Group

Work program

1. Through the WAGC, keep Cabinet informed of State, National and International developments with regular

status reports.

2. Consider the measures outlined in Module 5 of the NGS and those outlined in the Western Australian

Greenhouse Strategy (WAGS).

i) Correlate measures from the NGS and the WAGS with existing programs, policies and actions.

ii) Identify the costs and benefits to WA from each of the measures.

iii) Identify new actions/priorities which can be cost effectively undertaken in WA.

3. Investigate a mechanism to monitor and report on WA’s greenhouse gas contribution from transport (and

urban land use).

i) Investigate the ability to provide base line data using 1990 as the base year for transport (and urban land

use) and where possible provide relevant information.

ii) Estimate the projections for the year 2010 for the ‘business as usual’ case.

4. Provide at an appropriate stage, as a routine ancillary note for development of a State Interest Analysis, a

preliminary comment on social, environmental, economic and cultural impacts on affected parties of proposed

measures and, where practicable, options.

5. Identify any cost effective measures for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from the transport, urban land use

and planning sector not included in the National Greenhouse Strategy and propose strategies for implementing

these measures.

6. Contribute to and provide comment in any media release or information provided under the auspices of the

Council related to energy supply and use.

7. Prepare for the WAGC a progress plan which takes account of Australia’s requirement under the Framework

Convention for a Work Program by 2005.

June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council

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Appendix 2

List of AbbreviationsADR Australian Design Rules

ADR Australian Design Rules

AGO Australian Greenhouse Office

AQMP Air Quality Management Plan

ATC Australian Transport Council

AVMOD BTCE spreadsheet model of the scheduled domestic aviation fleet composition and aircraftutilisation

BAU business as usual

BTCE Bureau of Transport and Communications Economics

CARMOD BTCE spreadsheet model of the Australian car fleet

CBD central business district

CNG compressed natural gas

CO2 carbon dioxide

CO2-e CO2 equivalents

DEP Department of Environmental Protection

ECMT European Conference of Ministers of Transport

EPRA East Perth Redevelopment Authority

ERG Expert Reference Group

ESD ecologically sustainable development

FORS Federal Office of Road Safety

FPA Fremantle Port Authority

GHGE greenhouse gas emissions

HOV high occupancy vehicle

LCV light commercial vehicle

LPG liquid petroleum gas

LRT light rail transit

MfP Ministry for Planning

MRWA Main Roads WA

Mt megatonnes (106 tonnes)

MTBE methyl tertiary butyl ether

MTS Metropolitan Transport Strategy

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MVEC Motor Vehicle Environment Committee

NAFC national average fuel consumption

NCP National Competition Policy

NEPC National Environment Protection Council

NGGI National Greenhouse Gas Inventory

NGGIC National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Council

NGS National Greenhouse Strategy

NRTC National Road Transport Commission

NMVOC non-methane volatile organic compounds

OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

PJ Petajoules (1015 joules)

PT public transport

PMFTS Perth Metropolitan Freight Transport Strategy

RTA Road Transport Association

RTF Road Transport Forum

SCOT Standing Committee on Transport

SCT Specialised Container Transport

SMVU Survey of Motor Vehicles Usage

SWMRMP South West Metropolitan Railway Master Plan

TDM Travel Demand Management

TIP Transport Infrastructure Project

TRUCKMOD BTCE spreadsheet model of the Australian truck and light commercial vehicle fleet

TULUP Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning Working Group

VKT vehicle kilometres travelled

WAGC Western Australian Greenhouse Council

WAPC Western Australian Planning Commission

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