kivuguto traditional fermented milk and the dairy … · kivuguto traditional fermented milk and...

BASE Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ.201317(2),383-391 Focus on:

KivugutotraditionalfermentedmilkandthedairyindustryinRwanda.AreviewEugèneKarenzi(1,2),AlbertMashaku(2),AlphonseM.Nshimiyimana(3),BikoroMunyanganizi(2),PhilippeThonart(1)(1)Univ.Liege-GemblouxAgroBio-Tech.PassagedesDéportés,2.B-5030Gembloux(Belgium).E-mail:[email protected](2)NationalUniversityofRwanda.P.O.Box117.Butare(Rwanda).(3)MinistryofAgricultureRwanda.P.O.Box5016.Kigali(Rwanda).

ReceivedonMarch27,2012;acceptedonJanuary7,2013.

Traditionalmethodsoffermentingmilkinvolvetheuseofindigenousmicroorganisms,leadingtotheproductionofavarietyoftastesinfermentedmilkproducts.Kivugutoisafermentedmilkproduct,whichispopularinRwanda.Kivugutoisproducedbytraditionalspontaneousacidificationofrawmilkbyamicroflorapresentbothonutensilsandcontainersusedformilkpreservationandinthenearenvironmentofcattle.Thus,thismethoddoesnotallowtheshelfstabilityoftheproduct.Facedtosuchasituation,moderndairiesnowproducefermentedmilkandotherdairyproductsusingexoticstrains.Themainobjectivesofthispaperarefirstly,toprovidedocumentationonthetraditionalproductionofkivuguto,aswellasitsby-products,andsecondly,todescribethecurrentsituationofthedairyindustryinRwanda.Keywords. Lactic fermentation, traditional technology, cultured milk, dairy industry, Lactococcus lactis, Leuconostoc,Rwanda.

Lait fermenté traditionnel kivuguto et l’industrie laitière au Rwanda (synthèse bibliographique). La fermentationtraditionnelledulait,deloinlapluspratiquéeauRwanda,esteffectuéepardesmicro-organismesindigènes.Celaconduitàlaproductiond’unevariétédesaveursdanslesproduitslaitiersfermentés.Lekivuguto,unproduitlaitierobtenuparcettefermentation,estcaractériséparunmanquedemaitrisedequalitéaussibiendansl’espacequedansletemps.Elleestproduitepar l’acidification spontanéedu lait cruparunemicroflore rencontréedans lesustensilesutiliséspour la conservationdulaitetdansl’environnementprochedubétail.Faceàunetellesituation,leslaiteriesmodernesproduisentdulaitfermentéetautresproduitslaitiersenutilisantdessouchesexotiques.L’objectifprincipaldecetravailestdedocumenterlaproductiontraditionnelledukivugutoetsessous-produits,etd’extrapoleràlasituationactuelledel’industrielaitièreauRwanda.Mots-clés.Fermentationlactique,technologietraditionnelle,laitfermenté,industrielaitière,Lactococcus lactis,Leuconostoc,Rwanda.

1. INTRODUCTION

Rwanda is locatedbetween latitudes1°04’and2°51’South and longitudes 28°45’ and31°15’East. It is alandlocked country situated between Burundi in theSouth,TanzaniaintheEast,theDemocraticRepublicof Congo in the West and North-West and Ugandain theNorth. Its altitudeabove sea levelvaries from1,000m to 4,507m, with the highest point situatedat the Karisimbi volcano, one of six in a chain ofvolcanoes extending from the far east of Congo totheNorth-WestofRwanda.Rwandahas a temperatetropicalhighlandclimate,withtemperaturevariationsacrossthecountryofbetween14°Cand25°C.There

are two rainy seasons in the year, from February toJuneand fromSeptember toDecember, and twodryseasonsfromJune toSeptemberandfromDecembertoFebruary.Rainfallvariesgeographically,withtwiceasmuchaverageannualprecipitationintheWestasintheEast.TheseenvironmentalconditionsgiveRwandaa mild and cool climate, which guarantees goodpasture, providing sustainablewelfare conditions foranimals.Animalhusbandryhasbeenan integralpartof the Rwandese culture for many centuries. Cattle,in particular, have served as a symbol of politicalpower and have been the traditionalmainstay of theRwandese economy (Adekunle, 2007). Rwanda isfaithfultoitsagro-pastoraltraditionand,assuch,over

384 Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 201317(2),383-391 KarenziE.,MashakuA.,NshimiyimanaA.M.etal.

thecenturies,thecowhastakenonanimportanceinallareasofthecountry’sculture.Inallthesocialactivitiesassociatedwithcows(language,ceremonies,speeches,customs and taboos in their honor), the symbolicvalueoftheanimalstranscendstheireconomicvalue.Nevertheless,cowshavebeenexploitedforcenturiesbytheRwandesepeoplefortheirmeat,skinandmilk.It isbelieved thatmilkhasbeenconsumedsince thedomesticationofcattle.Milk representsan importantfood,anditsnutritionalvalueaswellasitsmanyhealthbenefits have beenwell known toRwandese societysinceancienttimes.Milkconsumptionusedtobetheprivilege of a few rich families and, as such, cowshave played a somewhat divisive role in Rwandesesociety.Today,attemptsarebeingmadetobuildanewsocietywhereallpeoplesharethesamevalues.Aspartof this approach,opportunities arebeingcreatedanddifferent policies are being implemented in order todevelopthelivestocksub-sectorandthedairyindustryin particular. Agriculture now contributes 40% toRwanda’snationalGDP(GrossDomesticProduct),ofwhich8.8%comesfromlivestock(animalresources).AccordingtoRutamu(2008),annualmilkproductioninRwanda in2005wasestimatedat178,598tonsofmilk, and thisquantity isnot sufficient to satisfy theneedsandrequirementsofthepopulation.TheaveragemilkconsumptioninRwandais0.035lperpersonperday(13lofmilkperpersonperyear)and75%ofthatmilkisconsumedinruralareas.Giventhissituation,thecountryisforcedtoimportmilkfromUgandaandKenya.TheMinistryofAgriculture (MINAGRI)hasset up strategies and programs to improve the dairyfarmer’s capacity and organizational skills, with anemphasisonthedairychainandonthestrengtheningoftheinstitutionalframeworkatcentralandlocallevels(MINAGRI,2009).Inthepresentpaper,anoverviewof traditional technology for producing kivugutoand its by-products is presented.New trends for thedevelopmentofthedairyindustryinRwandaaswellasinformationonmilkconsumptionandthemilkmarketarealsodiscussed.

2. KIVUGUTO AND ITS BY-PRODUCTS

2.1. Kivuguto processing technology

Inthetraditionalmethodofproducingkivuguto,oncethe cowhasbeenmilked, themilk is placed in a jarcalledaninkongoro.Afterthis,themilkispouredintoabig,clean,woodenjarcalledanicyansiandisleftatroomtemperatureinawarmandcleanplacecalledanuruhimbi.Inordertokeeptheproductsafe,thejarisusuallycoveredeitherwithastraw-wovenlidknownasanumutemeriorwithalidmadefromacalabash.Afermentationperiodofatleast2to3daysisrequired

in order to obtain good kivuguto.Figure 1 shows aflow chart for the traditional processing of kivugutoand its by-products. The typical flora that createsthe traditional sourmilk, kivuguto, was not, to date,specificallyselectedandappliedinproducingthedrinkindairy.Thisfloraisverycomplexandvariesfromonelocationtoanother,asit isthecaseforalltraditionalcurds. In addition, the lactic flora lives alongside apathogenicflora,whichalsovariesdependingon thelevel of the personal hygiene of those preparing thekivuguto. Nevertheless, despite the disadvantages oftheprocess,traditionalfermentationremainsthemostconvenient method in Rwanda. The microorganismsusedareindigenousstrains,whicharelefttodevelopnaturallyduring theproductionprocess.However, inordertostandardizethisprocess,theneedhasarisenfortheselectionandapplicationofspecificstrains.Thesemicroorganisms are responsible for the acidification,texture, flavor and other organoleptic characteristics,which give the kivuguto curd its highly appreciatedtaste.Thismicrofloraisfoundincontainerscommonlyused for storing milk. Its habitat is also easilylocated in the near environment of cattle (pasture,paddock, cattle dander, air, etc.). The preparation ofthe kivuguto curd varies between regions. In mostcases, rawmilk is stored directly in a vessel until itfermentsspontaneouslyviamicroorganismscontainedin themilk.Thesemicroorganismscomeeither frominside container or from the air in the surroundingenvironment. Note that in all methods of kivuguto

Figure 1.Diagramshowingtheprocessingofkivugutoanditsby-products—Schéma de préparation du kivuguto et de ses dérivés.

Kimuri or butter Amacunda or

buttermilk

Raw milk

Coagulation

Churning process

KivugutoKivuguto

Cooking butter Cosmetic butter

KivugutomilkandRwandadairyindustry 385

production,thevesselisnothermeticallysealed.Also,fromtimetotime,thekivugutoofapreviousbatchisusedinsmallquantityasastarteraddedintonewfreshmilk.Inothercases,rawmilkisfirstheatedtoboilingpointandthencooledtoroomtemperature.It isthenstoredfor24-36hbeforecoagulation.

InareasofeasternRwanda,thecontainersinwhichthemilkisstoredundergospecialpreparation:washingwiththehotsmokederivedfromburningtwospeciesofplant,oneofwhichisanherbofthePoaceae(grass)family,andtheotherashrubcalledCombretum molle.Thegrassusedisfirststrippedof itsrootsandall itsleaves,leavingasingleshortstem,whichisthendriedinthesun.Thesedriedstems(rods)arethencollectedinto small bundles and are stored for more than sixmonthsinthehouse.Duringthistime,smokefromthekitchencoversthebundlesofrodswithareddishlayer.At the endof thisperiod, these rods areburned in asmallpotfittedwithonelargeandonesmallopening.First,therodsareinsertedintothelargeopeningofthissmallpotandareburnt,secondthemouthofavessel–asmallwoodenvessel(inkongoro),orasmallgourd–isplacedoverthesmalleropeningofthepotinordertocaptureallthesmokethatemerges.Afterawhile,thevesselisremovedandtheinsideiswipedwithakindofclothmadeoutoftreebark.Thevesselisthenplacedback over the emerging smoke, then removed andwipedinsideagain,andsoon.Theexerciseisrepeatedseveraltimesinordertomaketheinsideofthevesselvery smooth.At theendof theprocedure, thevesselis kept closed. When milk is placed in a containerprepared in this way, the fermentation process takesabout36h,andaverygoodcurdisproduced,withasolidtexture.Forlargercontainers,thewashingprocessiscarriedoutusingsmokeobtainedbyburningasinglelargestemoftheshrub,whichhasnotbeencompletelydried.Thestemisburnedandthevesselisheldupsidedowndirectlyoverthesmokingstem.Thevesselisthenwipedseveraltimesasbefore.Inbothprocedures,thefermentedmilkstoredinthesecontainershasasmelland tasteofsmoke,which ishighlyappreciatedbothbyRwandesepeopleandbyothersintheregion.Whatisclearisthatthissmokingprocessensuresthatthesecontainersareclean,sothatthereareusuallyveryfewpathogensaffectingthetextureofthecurd.

2.2. The traditional churning process

Milk stored in a small gourd will ferment to givekivugutomilk,whichisthenusedinthisliquidform.On theotherhand,whenmilk is left to ferment inalarge gourd (igisabo), or in a calabash (Figure 2),additional processing is applied to the resultingkivugutomilk.Herethekivugutoischurnedtoproducekimuri (butter)oramacunda (buttermilk).Inorder toproducetheseproducts,thekivugutoisfirstofallstirred

whileitbubblesinabutterchurnusuallyintheformofthecalabashinwhichthemilkwasfermented.Thischurningprocess takesat least2h.During this time,thefatfromthekivugutocoalescesandtheseparationbetweenliquidandsolidsbecomesmoremarked.Thefatisremovedandtheliquidleftbehindinthechurnis buttermilk, a product drunk as such. Buttermilkproduced in this way has a characteristically sourtaste caused by lactic acid bacteria involved inmilklactosehydrolysisduringfermentation.Theextractedfatisthenusedinoneoftwoways.Itmaybeheatedwithsomenaturalperfumingadditivestobeusedasacosmeticbodycream.Ontheotherhand,thefatmaybewellpreservedforahalf-yearorafull-yearperiod,allowingthemanufactureofasolidtastingyellowfatcalledbutteroramavuta akuze,whichisgoodforfoodpreparation. Sometimes, this butter is seasoned withadditional ingredients such as onions, garlic, etc., inordertoaddflavortomeals.

3. CHARACTERIZATION OF KIVUGUTO

3.1. Microflora

Inapreviousstudy(Karenzietal.,2012),weinvestigatedthe characteristics of kivuguto. Using two samplesofkivuguto fromnorthern and southernprovincesofRwanda,weselectedthemicroorganismsresponsiblefor the fermentationof theproduct and formulatedastarterculturecomposedofthreestrains:CWBI-B1466Lactococcus lactisregisteredintheGenbankdatabaseunder accession number JF313446, CWBI-B1465Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. mesenteroides,accession number JF313445 and CWBI-B1470Leuconostocpseudomesenteroides, accessionnumberJF313454.Kivugutohasalotofsimilaritieswithkule naoto, a traditional fermented milk of Kenya. Thedominant lacticacidbacteriaofkule naotobelongtothe genusLactobacillus, followed byEnterococcus,

Figure 2. A traditional butter churn or igisabo — Une baratte traditionnelle ou igisabo.


LactococcusandLeuconostoc (Matharaetal.,2004).Kivuguto also presents some similaritieswithurubu,atraditionalfermentedmilkofBurundi(Nzigamasaboetal., 2009). To date, the microorganisms of urubuhavenotbeenselected.Isonoetal.(1994)foundthatthemajormicroorganismsoftheMasaifermentedmilkin Northern Tanzania consist of Lactococcus lactisssp. lactis and Lactobacillus confus. Since 1992, asimilarstudywascarriedoutontraditionalfermentedmilkofZimbabwe,amasi (Feresu,1992).Assays forformulatingastarterculturefortheproductionofamasiwere conducted with isolates of Lactococcus lactissubsp. lactis biovar lactis, Lactobacillus plantarumandLeuconostoc mesenteroides subsp.mesenteroides(Mutukumira, 1996). However, a sensory panel wassubsequently found to prefer amasi produced by asingle strain of Lactococcus (Gadaga et al., 1999).Lactococcus lactis is the strain responsible for thefermentationofanisraelimilkcalledzivda.Thestrainis found inmany dairy products and is usedmainlyfor its acidifying property. In Sudan, a combinationof lactic acid bacteria and yeasts is responsible forthe fermentation of the traditional fermented milk,rob. The predominant lactic acid bacteria in robfermentation have been found to be Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactococcus lactisandStreptococcus salivarius(Abdelgadiretal.,2001). The predominant yeasts have been identifiedas Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida kefyr(Abdelgadir et al., 2001). This association of lacticacidbacteriaandyeastsisalsofoundinthefermentedmilk of Ethiopia, and in the kefir and koumismilksof Eastern European countries. The taste of thesefermented milks displays an alcoholic flavor and isless sour, properties that are not well appreciated inCentral and East Africa. Kivuguto also resemblesto yogurt, the well-known example of a fermentedmilkproduct.However, the taste is different and thestrainsoffermentingbacteriaused inyogurtarealsodifferent:Lactobacillus bulgaricusandStreptococcus thermophilus.Taste is the sole reasonwhypeopleoftheGreatLakesRegion(Africa)continuetopreferthetraditionalkivuguto,althoughyogurtisalsosoldatthelocalmarket.Ofallthefermentedmilksdiscoveredtodate,theonemostsimilartokivugutoisthefilmjölkofSweden,intermsofbothconsistencyandflavor.WhenpeoplefromCentralAfricastayinEurope,theyusuallyconsumethismilkmorethantheydoyogurt.Filmjölkisamesophilicfermentedmilk,which,likekivuguto,isalsocomposedoftwostrainsofLactococcus lactisand Leuconostoc mesenteroides. Filmjölk flavour isalsoverysimilartolbenofMorocco(Tantaoui-Elarakiet al., 1987), a buttermilk fermentedbyLactococcus lactis subsp. lactis biovar diacetylactis,Leuconostoc lactis,Leuconostoc mesenteroidessubsp.cremorisandLeuconostocmesenteroidessubsp.dextranicum.

3.2. Acidification and physico-chemical properties of kivuguto

The acidification process of kivuguto is created bytwo strains: CWBI-B1466 Lactococcus lactis andCWBI-B1470Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides.Thethirdstrainresponsiblefortheacidificationofkivuguto –Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. mesenteroides –doesnotgrowonitsowninmilk.InordertoreachtheisoelectricpointatpH4.6,CWBI-B1466Lactococcus lactis takes 8h whilst CWBI-B1470 Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides takes 14h. At that point, thetitratable acidity is more than 80°D. After 4h offermentation,acoagulumbeginstoform.Foraperiodof up to 8h, the kivuguto appears as a semi-solidpleasantlysourproduct.However,beforeitissuitablefor drinking, it needs to be blended.Kivuguto keepswell for up to 36days at 4°C,maintaining its goodflavor; its visco-elastic properties also increase withthedurationofstorage.

4. THE DAIRY INDUSTRY IN RWANDA

4.1. Dairy policy

The livestock (animal resources) sub-sector fallsundertheresponsibilityoftheMinistryofAgricultureandAnimalResources (MINAGRI). Since 2006, theactivitiesofthissub-sectorhavebeenimplementedbytheRwandaAnimalResourcesDevelopmentAuthority(RARDA),aspartoftheglobalprogramoftheNationalAnimalResourcesPolicy.InRwanda,thereisnodairysub-sector as such, but cattle farming plays a veryimportantroleinthesocio-economicactivitiesof thecountry.Farmingofgoats,sheep,pigs,chickens,fishandrabbitsislesswelldeveloped.Todate,thelivestock(animal resources) sub-sector has been representedmostly by cattle development projects. In 2003, theDairyCattleDevelopmentSupportProject(PADEBL)was created as a separate project with the specificobjectiveofsatisfyingdomesticdemandformilkandbeef,aswellasofincreasingtheincomeoffarmers.Thisprojectcontributedtotheimplementationofthe“Onecow per poor family” (Girinka) program, launchedin2006 toprovidecows forpoor families.PADEBLis also responsible for milk quality management: itcreated and now ownsmanymilk collection centers(MCCs),eachwithitsowncoolingsystem.PADEBLisfinancedbytheAfricanDevelopmentBank(ADB).From 2010, MINAGRI restructured its activities.MINAGRI comprises a Permanent Secretariat tocoordinatetheministry’spoliciesandprogramsthroughtwo units at central level: the Strategic Planning &Program Coordination Secretariat (PPS) and theInternalResourceManagement&FinanceUnit; and


throughtwoboardsatdecentralizedlevel:theRwandaAgricultureBoard(RAB),andtheNationalAgricultureExportDevelopmentBoard(NAEB).RABcomprisesfour departments: Agriculture Extension (formerlyRADA– the Rwanda Agriculture DevelopmentAuthority), Livestock (Animal Resources) Extension(formerly RARDA), Research (formerly ISAR) andInfrastructure & Mechanization. Within the newstructure, the sub-sector coordinates the issuing ofcertificates authorizing imports of domestic animals,semen, fertilized eggs, seeds, plants and cuttingsand other animal husbandry products. It also worksin livestock research, training and information. Inadditiontoinheritingthe“Onecowperpoorfamily”(Girinka) program, the sub-sector is also responsibleforthe“Onecupofmilkperchild”program,andthe“PoultryandHatchery,InseminationandSmallStock”program (RAB,2012).TheGirinkaprogramaims atenablingeverypoorhouseholdtoownandmanageaproductivedairycow,enablingthefamilytoimprovetheir livelihood through increased milk and meatproduction and to improve the soil fertility of theirlandfortheircropsusingtheavailablemanure(RAB,2012).The“Onecupofmilkperchild”programisaschoolmilk program fundedby theEuropeanUnion(EU)toprovidemilktochildreninnurseryandprimaryschools in order to address the country’s problemofseverechildmalnutrition(RAB,2012).

4.2. Milk production and processing

Milk production in Rwanda was estimated to havereached372,619tonsby2009(DMS,2009),followingtremendouseffortsmadebythegovernmentandotherstakeholders. Inorder topromotemilkproduction inthe country, emphasis was placed on bovine geneticimprovement (strengthening the use of artificialinsemination,andtheimportingofexoticcows).MostofthemilkinRwanda(48%)isproducedintraditionalor extensive grazing system in the Eastern Province(Rutamu, 2008). The 2006 Agriculture Surveyindicatedthattherewere1.2millioncattleinRwanda,ofwhich13.6%weremilkingcows.Thesurveyalsoindicated that there were a total of 157,479milkingcattle;improvedbreedsconstituted23%ofthatgroup,pure breeds 6% and crosses 17% (PADEBL, 2009).In2010, theNISR (National InstituteofStatisticsofRwanda) revealed the number of dairy cattle in thecountry to be 207,507, corresponding to an increaseof 25%. The overall total number of cattle wasconfirmedtobe1,548,521,with15.5%ofthesebeingrepresentedbyexoticbreeds(Modderman,2010).TheRwandese dairy industry currently consists of fivedairy companies: Inyange Industries, Nyanza Dairy,EasternSavannah,RubiliziDairy,MasakaFarmsplusseveralcheeseprocessingunitsmainly located in the

WesternProvince(20cheeseprocessingunits),withafewothers being found in other parts of the country(RBS,2011).TwoofthesecheeseprocessingunitsarelocatedinNyanzaDistrictandtwomorearefoundinGasaboDistrict.AccordingtoRutamu(2008),themilkprocessingcapacityavailable inRwandaisestimatedat 188,000l per day, but only 3.3% of this capacityisused.Today, thesedatamayberevised, ifwetakeinto considerationmilk processed for cheesemakingandtheexistenceofnewdairyprocessingunits.MilktechnologyisappliedintheRwandesedairyindustryin the processing of the following dairy products:pasteurizedmilk,skimmedmilk,cream,flavoredmilk,fermented milk and yogurt, UHTmilk, and cheesessuchasGouda,butter,icecream.

4.3. Milk consumption and importation

High population growth in Rwanda has led to anincreaseindemandforlivestockproductsthatishigherthancanbesatisfiedbydomesticproduction.Thishasforcedthecountrytoinvestitsfewfinancialresourcesin the massive importation of milk (Rutamu, 2008).From1999to2007,thetrendinmilkimportsdecreasedfrom 1,280t to 450t (MINAGRI et al., 2007). It isverydifficult tomakeanaccurateestimationofmilkconsumptioninRwanda,becausealargevolumeofmilkissoldintheinformalmarket.In2007,approximately62,000,000lwereconsumedonfarmsandabout35%of rawmilkwas lostdue tospoilingbefore reachingthemarketorbeingprocessed(TechnoServe,2008).In2008,achainanalysisestimatedthat96%ofalldairyproductsaresoldintheinformalmarket,e.g.insmallinformalmilkshops.Kigalicityhasmorethan1,500milk shops (Modderman, 2010). Milk is consumedeitherfreshoraftercoagulation.AsRwandesepeopleprefer fermentedmilk, it is very difficult to estimatethepercentageoffreshmilkconsumedoutofthe96%ofalldairyproductssoldattheinformalmarket.

4.4. The dairy value chain in Rwanda

MichaelPorterwasthefirsttousetheconceptofthe“value chain”. Within a firm or organization, boththeserviceprovidedandtheproductmadeaddvalueaccordingtotheactivitiesandprocessesemployedbytheorganization.Valuechainstraditionallyrefertothechainofactivities thatproductspass throughas theygainvaluebeforereachingtheconsumer(TechnoServe,2008).Along the chain, theorganization is split intoprimaryactivitiesandsupportactivities(Porter,1998).The dairy value chain in Rwanda follows twomainsegmentsofactors,withthesegmentsbeingcomposedof multiple nodes. The two segments are linked toinputproviders (Figure 3)organizedby theMinistryfor Agriculture and Animal Resources (MINAGRI)


through the Rwanda Livestock sub-sector and otherstakeholders (other state organizations, NGOs andindependenttraders).

Dairy value chain input providers. Since 2006,under theMinistryofAgriculture,RARDA(RwandaAnimalResourcesDevelopmentAuthority)andISAR(Institute of Agronomic Sciences of Rwanda) havesupported the dairy value chain at different levels.ThemissionofRARDAwastocontributetowardsthegrowthofanimalproductionthroughthedevelopmentofappropriatetechnologies,andbyprovidingadvisory,outreach and extension services to stakeholders inthe animal resources sector (RARDA, 2010). Since2003, PADEBL (Dairy Cattle Development SupportProject) has contributed to a sustainable increase inmilkandmeatproduction,throughtheintroductionofappropriatetechnologicalpackagesintostockbreedingin villages and peri-urban areas (MINAGRI, 2009).ISAR was the body responsible for research anddevelopment at MINAGRI. ISAR’s mandate was tocarry out research on agronomy, and on animal andenvironmental sciences (ISAR, 2010). The RwandaBureau of Standards (RBS), under the Ministry ofTrade and Industry (MINICOM), is the statutorybody charged with the enforcement of standardsand the certification of all products and services inthe country (RBS, 2011). The Rwanda CooperativeAgencies (RCA) is a public institution in chargeof the promotion, registration and regulation of

cooperatives in the country.The livestock sub-sectorreceives a lot of support from RCA for the dairydevelopment, since many cooperatives are involvedinthedairychain.Otherstakeholdersinthelivestocksub-sector are ADB (African Development Bank),BNR(BanqueNationaleduRwanda),BPR(BanquesPopulairesduRwanda),BRD(RwandaDevelopmentBank) and other commercial banks; NISR (NationalInstituteofStatisticsofRwanda);independenttraders(veterinarians,transporters,etc.);farmers’cooperativesand many NGOs (non-governmental organizations).Today, the three support institutions of MINAGRI:RARDA,ISARandPADEBLarepartoftheLivestocksub-sector within the new structure and they havethe samemissionaspreviously in termsof thedairydevelopmentprogram.

Dairy value chain actors.Informalactorsarepresentthroughout the two segments. From the farmer tothe consumer, dairy activities are conducted bydairy processors, supermarkets, collection centers,transporters, and traders and retailers. Farmers arecategorizedaccordingtothefeedingsystemtheyuse:free-grazing,semi-grazingorzero-grazing.Individualcattlefarmersgenerallypracticefree-grazingandtheyproducemilk for domestic consumption.Sometimes,surplusmilkissoldtoaretailer,atransporteroracoolingsystemowner.Thiscattlehusbandrysystemrepresentsthevestigeoftheoldsystem;MINAGRIdiscouragesthis system and supports instead zero grazing. Zero

Figure 3.ThedairyvaluechaininRwanda—Chaine de valeur de la filière laitière au Rwanda.

ThediagramisadaptedfromPorter’s(1998)GenericValueChain,wheretheprimaryvaluechainactivitiesaredividedintotwosegmentsaccordingtothefarmer’schosenfeedingsystem.TheprimaryvaluechainactivitiesaresupportedbytheMinistryofAgriculturethroughitsspecializedservices,andbybanks,farmers’cooperatives,NGOsandindependentmilktraders—La figure est une adaptation de la chaine de valeur générique de Porter (Porter, 1998) où les activités primaires de la chaine de valeur sont divisées en deux segments en fonction du système d’élevage. Cette chaine de valeur génère des activités primaires grâce au soutien du Ministère de l’Agriculture à travers ses centres et instituts spécialisés, ainsi que des banques, des ONG, des coopératives, des fermiers et des commerçants de lait.

Peri-urbandairy farmers Supermarkets

Milk collectioncenters

Small scaledairy farmers

Transporters/Vendors



Informal milkkiosks

Dairyprocessing

plant

Banks,farmers,cooperatives

NGOs,independent milktraders

MINAGRI

(Livestock

Sub-sector)

Consumers

INPUT

PADEBL RARDA ISAR RBS/RCA


grazing is practiced mostly by peri-urban farmers.ThesefarmsarewellequippedaroundKigalicity,andtheownershaveinvestedbothinlargenumbersofcattleandinequipmentinordertosupplydairyprocessingunits.Semi-grazingsystemshavesufficient landand,withalowlevelofinvestment,theyareabletoproducemilktosupplyaretailer,atransporter,acoolingsystemowner or a processor. The processor then suppliesdairyproductstosupermarkets.Semi-grazingandfree-grazing husbandry farmers are categorized as “smallscale farmers” along the dairy value chain. Coolingsystems mainly belong to PADEBL and to somefarmers’cooperatives.Thesecoolingsystemsareheldin milk collection centers (MCCs). Transporters aremainlytraders,whouseeitherbicyclesorvehiclestotransportmilk.However,sometransportersarepaidbyfarmersonlyforcollectingmilkfromthefarmandthentakingittothecollectioncenterortoaretailer.Thesetransporters supplymilk from small farmers tomilkshopsordirectlytoconsumers.Thosewithvehiclessellmilktoprocessors,directfromthecollectioncenters.Milk retailers consist of bicycle milk traders sellingmilkfromdoortodoor,milkshopssellingonlymilkortea,andordinaryshopssellingmilkalongsideotherhouseholdproducts.TechnoServe(2008)estimatedtheprofitmarginwithineachnodeofthedairyvaluechaintobeasfollows:15%forinputproviders,62%-28%-44%fordairyfarmersdependingonhowcowsarefedrespectively open- semi- zero- grazing, 15-25% fortransporters,6%forcoolingsystemowners,16%forprocessors,10%forsellersofrawmilkand15-20%forsupermarkets.Todate,thedairyvaluechaininRwandahasbeenscattered;neverthelessanorganizedstructureisintheprocessofbeingestablished.PADEBLbeganareorganizationofthedairyindustryin2009bysettingupsomemilkcollectioncentersequippedwithcoolingsystems. However, thus far, the number of MCCsequipped in this way has remained below the levelneeded.

5. MILK DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES

The Rwandese government development program,Vision 2020, aims to transform agriculture froma subsistence level to a productive, high-value,and market-oriented farming industry, which isenvironmentally friendly andhas an impactonothersectorsoftheeconomy(RARDA,2011).Inthisregard,a new value chainwill take into account the qualityofmilkalongthevaluechain.Vision2020takesintoaccountthegrowingpaceoftheRwandeseeconomyingeneralaswellastheLivestocksub-sector,focusingonthe target of exportingdairyproducts.Consequently,theLivestocksub-sectorwill setupadevelopmentalprogram. It will also accelerate the restructuring of

thedairyindustryinthewholecountrywithregardtothecoldchain,asmilkisaverytemperaturesensitiveproduct. At the same time, distributing and tradingmilkinordinaryplasticmaterialandonbicycleswillbe prohibited. The establishing of MCCs in all thedairybasinsofthecountryisseenasthebestsolution.Mobile cold storage system respecting HACCPstandards may replace the current set of standardsformilk transport. Establishing cold-storage systemson farms will provide another solution in the fightagainst microorganisms that pose a threat to humanhealth. Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes,and Salmonella are destroyed by pasteurization orby simple boiling. However, microorganisms suchas Staphylococcus aureus, despite being killed bypasteurization, are still harmful due to the toxinsthey produce. Thus, the protection system close tothe farmmust be based on a strategy of prevention.RBSmustassistwiththeimplementationofstandardsfromthecowon the farmto theconsumer.All thesemeasureswillbemadepossibleby improvingfirstly,cattle breeding, genetics and nutrition and secondly,standardsofmilkpreservation,storage,packagingandtransportation. For that purpose, a business plan fortheperiod2008 to2020hasbeenestablishedaspartof a dairy developmental program introduced by theLivestock sub-sector, basedmainly on the identifieddairybasins.ThenewstructureoftheLivestocksub-sector has served to highlight the targets fixed from2008 to 2020 in this dairy development program,aimed at stimulating the development of a modernlivestock industry in Rwanda through sustainablegrowth,increasingvalueadded,andaccesstomarkets.Fivepillarshavebeenidentifiedforthesupportofthisprogram(Umaretal.,2011):– communitylivestockinfrastructuresupport;– publiclivestockinfrastructuresupport;– supportforthe“Onecowperpoorfamily”program;– supportforproductivityenhancingtechnologies;– capacitybuilding.

Theprogramhasplannedcertainobjectives,withRwandabeingexportersofmilkandmilkby-products(Table 1) by 2020. The program will set up furthermilkcollectioncenters,livestockwateringsystemsandmarkets, veterinary clinics andquarantine stations inalldairybasins.Poorfamilieswillbenefitfromhavingcross-breedheiferstosupportfoodsecurityandincomegeneration.Trainingingeneticandfeedingtechniqueswillbeprovidedforstaffandfarmersinthelivestockindustry, in the form of study tours, short courses,seminars, conferences and workshops. The ultimategoalistheintegrateddevelopmentofthedairyindustry(DMS, 2009) in which all stakeholders must play arole in coordinating the production, processing anddistributionofhighqualitymilkanditsby-products.


6. CONCLUSION

Littleresearchhasbeenconductedonkivuguto.Inthepresentpaper,thetraditionaltechnologyusedtomakethisfermentedmilkaswellasitsby-productshasbeendescribed.ThedairyindustryinRwandahasalsobeendiscussed.Proposedimprovementsinthedevelopmentofmilkproductionandthedairysub-sectorinRwandaat all levels and with all stakeholders have beenoutlined. Information provided on the value of thewhole dairy chain raises some interesting issues intermsoftradeinRwandaandintheregion.Thisstudyispartofaglobal researchprojectonkivugutomilk,withtheaimofproducingthisfoodstuffinindustry.

Acknowledgements

TheauthorsaregratefultotheUniversityofLiege,GemblouxAgro Bio-Tech, the National University of Rwanda, theCUD (CommissionUniversitaire pour le Développement)for financial assistance, Dr Tharcisse Seminega andDrJuvenalHigiroforfinalreading.

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populationNational need (tons)

National production (tons)

Imports (tons)

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Total supply (tons)

Surplus deficit compared to national need (tons)

2008 9,674,975 386,999 364,084 500 100 5 387,604 -23,5202009 9,955,549 398,222 368,623 250 50 5 398,527 -29,9042010 10,244,260 409,770 379,642 125 50 5 409,950 -30,3082011 10,541,344 421,654 416,845 75 50 5 421,784 -4,9392012 10,847,043 433,882 490,052 50 50 5 433,987 56,0652013 11,161,607 446,464 518,224 446,464 71,7602014 11,485,293 459,412 549,312 459,412 89,9002015 11,818,367 472,735 583,521 472,735 110,7862016 12,161,099 486,444 621,078 486,444 134,6342017 12,513,771 500,551 738,743 500,551 238,1922018 12,876,671 515,067 790,003 515,067 274,9362019 13,250,094 530,004 845,922 530,004 315,9182020 13,634,347 545,374 906,857 545,374 361,483Source:DMS,2009.


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