Kingdom Fungi• Continued......

Fungal Phyla• 3 phyla but 4 groups:• Phylum Zygomycota (zygomycetes or bread molds):

Meiospores made by zygosporangium (resistant microscopic structure).

• Phylum Ascomycota (ascomycetes or sac fungi): Meiospores made in sac-like ascus. Asci (plural) containing in fruiting body called ascoma (plural ascomata).

• Phylum Basidiomycota (basidiomycetes or club fungi): Meiospores made on club-like basidium. Basidia (plural) contained in fruiting body called basidioma (plural basidiomata).

Fungal Phyla• 3 phyla but 4 groups

• 4th group? Fungi that don’t make meiospores (to our knowledge)

• Called Imperfect Fungi

• Reproduce only asexually (by mitospores)

• Not a true phylum but a temporary holding group.

Fungal Phyla: Zygomycota• Small group (1,000 species)

Fungal Phyla: Zygomycota• Small group (1,000 species)

• Make coenocytic hyphae (no crosswalls).

Fungal Phyla: Zygomycota• Zygosporangium is key

trait: often thick-walled and stress-resistant

• No dikaryotic hyphae: karyogamy followed by meiosis.

Zygosporangiaof 3 genera of zygomycetes

Zygosporangiumphoto

Fungal Phyla: Zygomycota• Make two types of spores:

– meiospores from zygosporangium– mitospores (asexual) from mitosporangia. These

help fungus to spread rapidly.

meiospores

mitospores

Fungal Phyla: Ascomycota• Largest group of fungi (32,000 species)

Morel

Scarletcup

Carbonfungus

Fungal Phyla: Ascomycota• Hyphae septate

• Meiospores (called ascospores) made in ascus in ascoma (fruiting body)

• Dikaryotic hyphae and monokaryotic hyphae together form ascoma.

Ascoma

Fungal Phyla: Ascomycota• Mitospores often made by pinching off cells at tips of

hyphae. These called conidia. Each can start new mycelium.

Fungal Phyla: Ascomycota• Yeasts: an important group of (mostly) ascomycetes• Fermentation by yeasts useful for making alcoholic

beverages and in baking. Worth billions of dollars a year to industry.

Modern industrialwine-making

Fungal Phyla: Ascomycota• Yeasts: an important group of (mostly) ascomycetes• Some yeasts can cause disease: yeast infections and

others.

Yeast infectionbetween toes

Fungal Phyla: Ascomycota• Some ascomata are edible and highly

prized by gourmets• Truffles (worth up to $320/pound)• Morels

Morel

Trufflecut open

Pile oftruffles

Fungal Phyla: Basidiomycota• Large group (22,000 species)

Earth stars

Inky caps

Fungal Phyla: Basidiomycota• Hyphae septate

Fungal Phyla: Basidiomycota• Meiospores made

on club-shaped basidium in basidioma (fruiting structure)

• Dikaryotic hyphae predominate in life of organism, and basidioma made only of these hyphae.

Fungal Phyla: Basidiomycota• Basidiomata

commonly observed.

A stinkhorn A shelf or bracket fungus

A jelly fungus

A mushroom

Fungal Phyla: Basidiomycota• Sometimes form circle as fungus grows from initial

point: “fairy ring”

Fungal Phyla: Basidiomycota• Sexual reproduction: Usually do not make

mitospores, but mycelium can become fragmented to form separate individuals.

Fungal Phyla: Basidiomycota• Humongous fungus!• Largest organism on

planet? • Armillaria in National

Forest in Oregon reported to be 3.5 miles across, cover 2,200 acres. May be 2,400 yr old.

Fig. 36.6Aerial view of smaller forest patches infected by Armillariain Montana

Fungal Phyla: Basidiomycota• Importance:

– decomposers

Rotting logwith basidiomataon it

Fungal Phyla: Basidiomycota• Importance:

– food (basidioma eaten, but beware of poisonous ones)

Amanita (death cap fungus:A poisonous basidioma

Fungal Phyla: Basidiomycota• Importance:

– pathogens of plants (smuts and rusts cause billions of dollars in damage to grain crops). Corn smut

Stemrustonwheat

Ergot on wheator rye

Ergotism, LSD, Salem witch trials

Fungal Groups: Fungi Imperfecti• Large group (17,000 species)

• Hyphae septate

• Reproduction asexual only, by conidia

• Most thought to be Ascomycota fungi, but until sexual reproduction observed we can’t be sure!

Fig. 36.12, showingconidia of severalgenera

Fungal Groups: Fungi Imperfecti• Importance

– decomposers– food rotters (can make toxins: aflatoxins in peanuts)– food production (flavor cheeses: Roquefort, Bleu

cheese)

Bleu cheese

Fungal Groups: Fungi Imperfecti• Importance

– produce antibiotics (ex, penicillin from Penicillium) and other drugs (cyclosporin)

Note inhibited growth of Staph bacterium near fungus colony

Fungal Groups: Fungi Imperfecti• Importance

– plant and animal diseases (human examples: athlete’s foot and ringworm)

Ringworm on leg

Athlete’s foot infections

Special Fungal Mutualisms• Mutualism: relationship between 2 species where both

benefit• Lichens: partnership between fungi and unicellular

photosynthesizer (green alga or cyanobacteria)

Fig. 36.13

Special Fungal Mutualisms• Fungus forms body and protects

and directs photosynthesizer, obtains materials from partner

• Together, can colonize harsh environments.

Fig. 36.14

Lichen Importance• Primary producers in

harsh environments (base of food chains)

• Ex, reindeer in arctic eat large amounts of lichens

• Some are pollution sensitive: used as bioindicators of air quality.

Special Fungal Mutualisms• Mycorrhizae: Association of fungus with plant root• Common: 90% of plants do this!• Mutualism: fungus extends into soil and aids in

uptake of nutrients (P, Zn, Cu in particular) for plant• Fungus obtains sugars from plant.

Special Fungal Mutualisms• Important in revegetation/reclamation of disturbed

areas: if fungi not present, plants don’t do well!.

Plant on left grownwithout mycorrhizal fungi

Special Fungal Mutualisms• Two types: endomycorrhizae in which fungus

penetrates root cells• Ectomycorrhizae in which fungus penetrates between

root cells.

Fig. 36.15aFig. 36.15b

Special Fungal Use: Biocontrol• Biocontrol: Using an organism’s natural enemies

against it• Some fungi attack insect pests• Some fungi capture and consume nematodes

(roundworms) that can cause agricultural problems.

Fly killed by fungusNematode predator fungus showing ring-like traps holding worm

Plants: Kingdom Plantae• Large: 300,000 species

Plants: Kingdom Plantae• Important:

– Gorgeous

Plants: Kingdom Plantae• Important:

– Major producers in terrestrial ecosystems

Plants: Kingdom Plantae• Important:

– Vital for human food, medicines, clothing, building materials, etc.

Foxglove: source ofdigitalin (heart med.)

CornCotton

Lumber from trees

Plants: Kingdom Plantae• Important:

– Create much of the oxygen in atmosphere (and ozone!)

Aquatic plant makingoxygen bubblesduring photosynthesis

Oxygen and Ozone• Ozone is pollutant at Earth’s surface

• At outer atmosphere, oxygen gas produces ozone layer

• Vital, as it absorbs lots of ultraviolet (UV) radiation

• UV radiation damages DNA in skin cells

• Can cause skin cancer.

The Ozone Hole• Some pollutants damage ozone layer

• It’s getting thinner

• At South Pole, a hole has started to appear

• Getting larger.

The Ozone Hole• Some pollutants damage ozone layer (getting

thinner)• At South Pole, a “hole” has started to appear.

The Ozone Hole

• UV light is one cause of skin cancer

• Australia already has highest skin cancer rate on Earth.

Plants: General Features• Chemistry

– chlorophylls a + b, carotenoids (accessory pigments that aid photosynthesis)

– energy stored as starch

Plants: General Features• Chemistry

– cell walls of cellulose

Fig. 5.9a

Plants: General Features• Chemistry

– review: starch and cellulose are both made of glucose.

Fig. 3.27

Plants: General Features• Water-saving features (most)

– cuticle: waxy layer on body surface– stomata: specialized cells that form pores in

surface (let CO2 in for photosynthesis, can close to prevent water loss when it’s dry)

Glowinglayer is cuticle

Plants: General Features• Water transport tissues: vascular tissues

– Xylem: dead cells that carry water. Walls rigid with lignin (reinforcing material, resists decomposition)

– Phloem: living cells that carry sugars.

Phloem tissue

Xylemtissue

Plants: General Features• Reproductive features

– Sporic meiosis (form gametophyte and sporophyte bodies)

– Gametes specialized (oogamy)• eggs: contain genes and stores materials (large)

• sperm: contain genes. Small to be mobile

– Gametangia specialized• made of many cells (multicellular)

• with outside layer of protective cells (sterile jacket)

Plants: General Features• Reproductive features

– Gametangia specialized• antheridium: gametangium that contains sperm

• archegonium: gametangium that contains an egg

ArchegoniumAntheridium

Plants: General Features• Reproductive features

– Egg fertilized in archegonium– Zygote starts to grow in archegonium

• embryo: young sporophyte retained and nourished by parent sporophyte

Young embryoin archegonium Older embryo

Plants: General Features• Reproductive features

– Make only meiospores (no mitospores for asexual reproduction)

– These made in meiosporangia (spore containers), called just sporangia because no mitospores made

– Inside meiosporangia, diploid cells called meiospore mother cells undergo meiosis to make meiospores (sometimes called just spores because no mitospores are made).

Plants: General Features• General

Life Cycle

Fig.37.3

Plants: Where from?• Green algae: One line of green algae

gave rise to all plants

Fig.32.12

Plants: Where from?• Green algae. One line of green algae

gave rise to all plants

• Plantae are monophyletic

Fig.37.2