kempanaickenapalayam village ecosystem
TRANSCRIPT
State of Environment and
Natural Resources 2006
KempanaickenpalayamVillage Ecosystem
Erode District, Tamil Nadu
Centre for Sustainable Technologies,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012
Tamil Nadu Uplands and Plains
Centre for Environment Education Tamil NaduChennai - 600091
CEE
Kempanaickenpalayam Village Ecosystem; State of Environment and Natural Resources 2006
Centre for Environment Education Tamil Nadu
Chennai - 600091
Published by
Centre for Sustainable Technologies,
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore – 560012
Karnataka, India.
Year of publication
2007
Team–CEE TN
Arunkumar S, Manikandan A, Shiva Prabhu G, Mahamuni D
Team–IISc
Deepa Kumar, Girish A C, Hameedulla Khan, Mythri D J, Sannadurgappa S D
Coordinated by
N. Ramjee
CEE- TN
and
N H Ravindranath, Indu K Murthy, Rakesh Tiwari
CST, IISc
Supported by
India Canada Environment Facility
New Delhi - 110066
Contact
N. H. Ravindranath
Centre for Sustainable Technologies
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore – 560012
Karnataka, India.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank Dr. Sandhya Rao, Dr. K Kameshwar Rao, Dr. Ramakrishna Parama, Dr. P Pramod,
Dr. Shailaja Ravindranath, Mr. Mariappa Raju and Mr K R Thiruppathi for the technical support. We thank
Y Joshi for editing the draft report. The invaluable support provided by the people of Kempanaickenpalayam
is deeply appreciated.
Contents
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................1
2. Demography and Rainfall ...........................................................................4
3. Land ................................................................................................................6
4. Livestock ....................................................................................................... 16
5. Water and Soil .............................................................................................18
6. Wild Fauna and Fish Resource ..................................................................21
7. Energy and Sanitation ................................................................................25
8. Overall Trends in Natural Resources ......................................................... 27
1
C onservation and sustainable
management of natural resources
are fundamental to sustainable food
production, water supply and livelihoods.
Natural resources such as land,
biodiversity, water, livestock and soil
are being continually exploited by
human societies, often leading to the
degradation of these resources. Village
ecosystems are complex systems with
inter-linkages between natural resources
and livelihoods of communities.
The state of environment and natural
resource report of a village focuses on
major natural resources, their status and
trends over the years and also the
inter-linkages. With this understanding,
the report highlights key environmental
issues with implications for resources,
livelihoods and sustainability. To
understand the status of and trends in the
resources, indicators were identified and
an inventory of the natural resources
carried out. The agro-ecological zone
(AEZ) approach was adopted in
selecting the vil lage, taking into
consideration the key features of the
selected AEZ and the representativeness
of the vil lage. This facilitates
understanding of the strata of the sub-
AEZ in which the village is located. This
report serves as a model and has been
generated adopting the indicators and
methods developed by the Indian
Institute of Science for monitoring
natural resources.
The report presents general information
of the vil lage in the initial section.
Subsequent sections systematically
address the status of various resources,
and the final section concludes with a
synthesis of the findings, which identify
inter-linkages of various resources and
environmental issues.
1. Introduction
1.1. Utility of a State of theEnvironment Report
This state of village environment report
is important to the following entities:
l Village communities including
farmers and particularly women to
assist them in decision-making on the
use and management of natural
resources.
l Policy-makers at regional, state and
national level to help them design
strategies and policies to conserve
natural resources.
l Distr ict/block/panchayat-level
planners and decision-makers.
l Development departments such as
forests, agriculture, pasture
development, water resource, and
the environment to promote
sustainable practices.
l Educational institutions to create
awareness.
1.2. Agro-Ecological ZoneApproach
India is a large country with diverse
temperature, rainfall, soil, vegetation
and socio-economic conditions. AEZ
categorization is based on the length of
the growing period (LGP), which is
derived from climate, soil and
topography data using a water balance
model and knowledge of crop
requirements. The AEZ approach is
adopted by FAO and other agencies
for all forest, cropland and other
land-resource-related planning
activities.
India has been divided into 20 AEZs based
on rainfall, moisture and temperature
regimes, soil type, land form, etc.
2
The AEZ and village ecosystem approach
is adopted in this study for the following
reasons:
l AEZ is widely used by the Planning
Commission, the Ministry of
Agriculture, National Bureau for Soil
Survey and Land-Use Planning,
agricultural universities, and others.
l A strong functional
interdependence exists among
the natural resources (forests,
watersheds, grasslands, water
bodies, livestock and cropland) at
the village environment level in
each AEZ.
l Decision-making on the use and
management of natural resources
such as forests, biodiversity, grazing
lands and irrigation water occurs at
the village environment level.
l Participatory institutions such as
water sanghas, forest protection
committees and biodiversity
management committees are
organized and function at the
village level.
l Overlaying the natural ecosystem
boundary of an AEZ with
administrative boundaries gives a
unique combination of physical,
biological and socio-economic
perspectives.
1.3. Village Location
l Kempanaickenpalayam village is a
part of Sathyamangalam taluk of
Erode district of Tamil Nadu
(Figure 1).
l Kempanaickenpalayam is located
at 11°312 45.03 N and 77°182 023
E 254 m above the mean sea level.
The vil lage is 10 km from
Sathyamangalam, the nearest town
and the taluk headquarters.
l The village falls under the agro-
ecological sub-zone AEZ 8.3, the
Tamil Nadu uplands and plains of
India and is characterized by hot
moist semi-arid climate and deep
red loamy soil.
1.4. Reason for SelectingKempanaickenpalayam
l Kempanaickenpalayam is an
agricultural village situated at the
foothil ls of the Eastern Ghats
and presents a unique set of
bio-geographical features.
l Very few efforts have been made
in the past to monitor the natural
resources.
Figure 1: Location of the village
TAMIL NADU
ERODE
KEMPANAICKENPALAYAM
3
l Land survey to demarcate and map
different land-use systems as well as
estimate the area under each to
enable comparison with past data
and to understand changes in land-
use pattern.
l Household survey to obtain
information on cropping pattern,
water sources, fuelwood
catchment area, consumption
pattern, etc.
l Field measurements to estimate
biomass in different vegetation
types, fuelwood, water
consumption, dung production by
cattle and assessment of fish
resources and diversity.
l Laboratory measurements to
measure the quality of drinking
water and the status of soil quality
in terms of soil organic carbon.
l Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)
to gather detailed and qualitative
description of village resources,
patterns of use, trends and changes
in the status of resources over the
years.
1.7. Monitoring Period
l The study was conducted during
September 2006 to March 2007
(referred to as "the Current" period).
l The land-use and crop particulars
are for the major cropping season,
namely kharif (October to January).
1.5. Natural ResourcesMonitored
The resources monitored in
Kempanaickenpalayam vil lage
ecosystem include:
l Demography: Population and land
holding pattern.
l Climate: Rainfall pattern.
l Land Resources: Cropland,
wasteland, agro-forestry and
plantations.
l Livestock Resources: Population,
breeds, grazing pattern and dung
production.
l Water Resources: Rivers, canals,
wells and drinking water sources.
l Soil Resources: Organic matter
status.
l Wildlife: Large mammals and birds.
l Fish Resources: Diversity,
production and consumption
patterns.
l Settlements and Infrastructure:
Sanitation, electrification status,
schools, housing areas and roads.
1.6. Methods Adopted
The following methods were adopted to
assess the status of various resource and
resource indicators.
l Secondary records for data on
rainfall, population, land-use
pattern, livestock, etc.
4
2. Demography and Rainfall
2.1. Demography
2.1.1. Population and Land Holding
l The national census conducted in
2001 recorded a population of
6,551 comprising of 3279 males and
3272 females.
l The total number of households is
979.
l Landless agricultural labourers
dominate, and account for 51% of
the total households.
l About 12% of the households are
those of medium farmers with
2.5 to 5.0 acres of land; only 1% of
the households own more than
5 acres of land (large farmers).
l Small farmers (those with less than
2.5 acres of land) account for 8% of
the households (Figure 2).
l Non-agricultural occupations
include weaving (15%) and basket-
making (5%).
2.1.2. Trends
l The population of
Kempanaickenpalayam has
increased over the last few
decades.
2.2. Climate: Rainfall
2.2.1. Current
l The mean annual rainfall of Erode
district is 660 mm.
l The mean annual rainfall of
Sathyamangalam taluk is 769 mm
(average of 70 years).
l The rainfall recorded during 2006
was about 757 mm.
l As Kempanaickenpalayam lies on
the leeward side of the Western
Ghats, it receives most of its rain
from the retreating northeast
monsoon, September to November
being the peak months (Figure 3
and 4).
Figure 2: Current occupation pattern
Medium
farmers
12%
Small
farmers
8% Others
8%Basket-
making
5%
Large
farmers
1%
Landless
labourers
51%
Weavers
15%
Figure 3: Rainfall distribution in 2006
5
In Kempanaickenpalayam, the
communities utilize the forest for their
livelihood activities such as grazing and
collection of fuelwood. About 50
families depend on basket-making, using
bamboo collected from the forest.
About 200 families were dependent on
this occupation until a few decades
ago. Gradually, the number decreased
due to the low income from this
occupation and reduced availability of bamboo because of over extraction.
During the participatory rural appraisal process, members from the basket-making
community stated that earlier they used to extract 3.7 tonnes of bamboo a day.
But now, they extract only about one tonne. Due to overexploitation and
deforestation, bamboo production in the forest has decreased and the number
of households involved in basket-making has declined to one-fourth of that in
the earlier years. Further, market demand
for bamboo baskets has also reduced.
This occupation may become extinct in the
next few years, because the younger
generation of this community is now shifting
to other occupations because of the
difficulty in collecting the bamboo from
the forest and the declining market for
baskets.
Basket-Making
Figure 4: Trends in annual rainfall
6
3. Land
records maintained at the vil lage
administrative office (Figure 5).
l Cropland: Area under crops
decreased gradually from 570 ha to
501 ha (8%).
l Fallow land: Area under fallow land
increased substantially from 99 ha
in 1997 to 165 ha in 2006 (Figure 6).
3.1. Land Use
Kempanaickenpalayam shares its
northern and eastern boundaries with a
state-owned reserve forest; on the west,
it is bound by Kondappanaickenpalayam
village and to the south, by Sellipalayam
village. A stream, named Perumpallam,
flows across the village from the north
to the south. This stream is a major
source of water for the Perumpallam
dam, a small dam north of
Kempanaickenpalayam. The human
settlements are located in the southern
part of the village.
3.1.1. Current Land Use
The total geographic area of
Kempanaickenpalayam is 923 ha. The
major land-use components include
settlements, infrastructure, wasteland,
cropland and fallow land.
l Currently, cropland accounts for
501 ha.
l About 224 ha of land is under water
bodies such as dam, streams and
canals.
l About 91 ha of cultivable land is
fallow.
o currently, 74 ha of land is
permanent fallow, and has not
been cultivated for the
preceding five seasons.
l Settlements including homes and
sites account for 22 ha.
l Roads and infrastructure occupy
about 11 ha.
3.1.2. Trends in Land-use (1997–2007)
Trends in major land-use over the
decade are discussed in this section
based on information compiled from
Figure 5: Trends in major land use
600
500
400
300
200
100
0Crop
land
Water
bodies
Fallow
land
Settle-
ment
Infra-
structure
1997
2000
2006
Figure 6: Changes in area under
cropland and fallow land
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
01997 2000 2006
Are
a (ha)
Cropland Fallow land
l Infrastructure and water bodies:
There is no drastic change in the
area under infrastructure and water
bodies.
l Settlements: A marginal increase in
area (0.35%) under settlements over
a decade.
7
Figure 7: Detailed land use of Kempanaickenpalayam
8
l Sugarcane is the dominant crop,
accounting for 150 ha, about 30% of
the total cropland area (Figure 9).
l Other crops include vegetables,
mulberry, flowers and bund
plantations.
l Food crops such as paddy and pulses
account for less than 15%.
3.2.2. Trends in the Cropping Pattern
l There have been significant
changes in area under cash crops,
cereals, pulses and fodder crops in
Kempanaickenpalayam.
l Area under cereals such as paddy
and maize have drastically
decreased (75%) over the decade
from about 213 ha in 1997 to 53 ha
now.
l Area under pulses shows a trend
similar to that for the cereals and
decreased from 45 ha in 1997 to 16
ha in 2007 (Figure 10).
l Cash crops, on the other hand, show
a reverse trend of increasing area
(Figure 9): area under cash crops
increased from 199 ha to 324 ha
(30%).
o sugarcane cultivation in
particular increased
substantially, from 60 ha in 1997
to 150 ha now.
3.1.3. Factors Contributing
l The prime reason for the decrease
in cropland area is water shortage.
o change in cropping pattern
from short-duration to annual
crops such as sugarcane and
turmeric has increased the
demand for water
o with the availability of water
remaining constant, the fallow
land area has increased.
3.1.4. Implications
l Increase in fallow land has
increased the land available for
grazing.
l Loss of cropland leads to
decreased agricultural activity and
production.
l Landless labourers are forced to
seek employment in non-farm
activities and out migrate as a
result of decreased agricultural
activity.
l Loss of fertile cultivable land.
3.2. Cropping Pattern
3.2.1. Current Cropping Pattern
l Cash crops dominate the cropping
pattern (65%).
o cash crops include sugarcane,
turmeric, banana, tobacco
and coconut.
l Food crops and cereals account for
15% and 11% respectively.
l The major irr igated crops are
sugarcane, turmeric, banana,
tobacco and vegetables (Figure 7
and Figure 8).
l The major rainfed crops include
fodder maize, tapioca, bajra and
pulses.
Figure 8: Major crops 2007
Cash
crops
65%
Food
crops
15%
Cereals
11%Others
6%
Pulses
3%
9
Figure 9: Area under major crops
Sugarcane Fodder maize
CoconutTapioca
10
Figure 10: Change in area under food
and cash crops
200720021997
Cash crops Food crops
400
300
200
100
0
Are
a (ha)
Figure 11: Percentage changes in the
area under major crops
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
% c
ha
ng
e in
are
a
30
-23
-5
-13
Cash Cereals Pulses Fodder
l There is also a drastic reduction
(13%) in fodder cultivation from 161
ha in 1997 to 77 ha now (Figure 11).
3.2.3 Factors Contributing
l Assured market for sugarcane
due to establishment of the
Bannariamman sugar factory in
1986 in the nearby Sathumugai.
l Increased availability of water due
to increase in number of borewells
from none in 2000 to 47 in 2006.
l The people’s perception is that the
construction of Perumpallam dam
in 1992 has helped to maintain the
level of groundwater.
l The increase in irrigated area has
replaced crops with lower
monetary value. In addition, area
under cultivation of long-duration
crops such as sugarcane, turmeric
and banana has increased.
l Lesser human effort needed and
high returns from tapioca compared
to other rainfed crops such as bajra,
pulses and fodder maize.
3.2.4. Implications
l Increased cultivation of water-
intensive crops l ike sugarcane
could increase the number of
borewells in the vil lage and,
consequently, would lower the
water table in the long-run.
l Increased production of cash crops
has increased the monetary returns
from land.
l Decreased production of fodder
crops has resulted in fodder being
in short supply. This has increased
the grazing pressure on the forest.
3.3. Crop Varieties
3.3.1 Current
l Sugarcane variety currently under
cultivation is TC353.
l Paddy varieties currently under
cultivation are ADT43, ADT38, and
CO43.
l Tapioca variety under cultivation is
MVT1 (Mulluvadi).
l Fodder maize varieties grown are
CO25 and BSR1.
l BSR1 and BSR2 are the two varieties
of turmeric.
l Bajra varieties include ICMS 7703,
K4 and CO7.
l Tobacco varieties grown in the
village are I115, VTK1 and vairam.
l Traditional variety of onion is grown
in the village.
11
Kempanaickenpalayam is a semi-arid
village in Erode district. The village has a
seasonal stream, named Perumpallam,
from which the village gets water during
the rainy season; for most of the year, the
stream is dry. The district authorities
decided to construct a small dam across
the Perumpallam stream. The plan for the
construction of dam was first prepared in
1985; construction began in 1988 and the
dam was completed in 1994.
Perumpallam dam is located in the
northern part of the village. The size of the
reservoir is about 442 acres, including a
small part from the neighbouring village
Kondappanaickenpalayam.
The dam has the capacity to irrigate 450
acres of land of which 339 acres are in
Kempanaickenpalayam. Initially, the stored
water was used directly for irr igation.
However, since the water did not last for
more than 40-50 days (not even adequate
for a short-term crop like onion), the village
administration decided to store the water
and use it as a percolation tank. The dam
serves to recharge groundwater and is used
for fish culture.
The construction of the dam has
changed the cropping pattern of the
village. After construction of the dam,
the number of open wells and
borewells has increased considerably,
thereby increasing the irrigated area.
Although sugarcane, turmeric and
banana are the traditional crops,
people started cultivating these
crops extensively after the
construction of dam.
Construction of Dam
Trends in area irrigated
200720021997
Irrigated land Rainfed land
400
300
200
100
0
Are
a (ha)
Change in the irrigation sources
12
l MCU5 and jayalaxmi are the
varieties of cotton.
l Banana varieties currently under
cultivation include robusta,
poovan, rasthali and GENE9.
l T9 is the variety of black gram.
3.3.2. Trends in Crop Varieties
l Until about two decades ago, only
traditional varieties of crops were
cultivated.
l The same varieties of banana have
been cultivated except GENE9 in
the past several years.
l No traditional variety of sugarcane
is grown in the village.
l Sugarcane variety CO8021 was
grown in the past years.
l IR20, CO46, ADT36 were the
varieties of paddy cultivated in the
past decade.
l I115, VTK1 were the varieties of
tobacco, grown earlier.
l MCU12, DCH were the varieties of
cotton cultivated in the past
decade.
3.3.3. Factors Contributing
l The loss of traditional varieties is
due to the extension and promotion
by the agricultural department for
cultivation of improved varieties.
l Changes in market forces and food
habits have contributed to shifts in
crop varieties.
3.3.4. Implications
l Loss of traditional varieties.
l It is feared that the introduced
high-yielding varieties may be more
sensitive to the local pests and may
require application of fertilizers.
3.4. Crop Yields
Majority of the farmers reported a
reduction in the yield of crops over the
years despite shift to high-yielding
varieties and application of fertilizers.
l A large number of farmers cultivating
sugarcane report a decrease in yield
over the last five years.
l An overwhelming 73% of farmers
reported a decrease in turmeric
yield over past five years.
l Farmers growing banana had a
mixed response. While 37%
reported decrease in yield, 26%
reported an increase in the yield
and 37% reported no change.
3.4.1. Factors Contributing
l Incidence of mealy bugs in
sugarcane has affected the yield.
l Decrease in the yield of turmeric
may be due to leaf mites.
3.4.2. Implications
l Increased use of ferti l izers and
pesticides has implications for soil
fertility in the long-run.
3.5. Fertilizer and ManureApplication
3.5.1. Current Use
l Participatory rural appraisal of
farmers revealed increased use of
synthetic fertilizers and decreased
use of organic manure (Table 1).
l Irrigated crops such as sugarcane,
turmeric and paddy are grown using
high input of synthetic fertilizers (1.3
to 1.7 t/ha) along with significant
amount of organic manure (20 to
28 t/ha).
l Rainfed crops such as fodder maize,
bajra, tapioca are not supplied with
13
any synthetic fertilizer (Table 1).
Some farmers use organic farmyard
manure for tapioca (20 t/ha).
Table 1: Fertilizer and manure application
for major crops
Crop Inorganic Organic
fertilizer t/ha manure t/ha
Sugarcane 1.7 28
Turmeric 1.4 20
Banana 1.5 27
Tapioca 0.8 20
Paddy 1.3 20
Onion 0.7 10
Bajra - 20
Fodder maize - 10
Others 0.9 0
l For pest control, farmers in the
vil lage take the advice of the
vil lage agricultural officer and
use pesticides such as
monocrotophos, borate,
dimethoate, butachlor and
endosulphan.
3.7. Agro-forestry
3.7.1. Current
Cropland bunds
l Most farmers practise agro-forestry
by growing trees along their
cropland bunds.
l There is no block plantation of trees.
l A total of 28 species were recorded
along the cropland bunds.
l Coconut is the dominant species
with an average density of 12 trees/
ha. It accounts for 84% of the total
tress along the bunds (Figure 12).
3.5.2. Implications
l Reduction in organic manure,
particularly the disappearance of
the practice of raising a green-
manure crop, over the years may
adversely affect soil fertility and
sustainability of crop yields.
l Excess application of synthetic
fertilizer may lead to increased
salinity of the soil and depletion of
soil biota.
3.6. Pests and Use of Pesticides
l Nearly 30% of the farmers growing
paddy recorded the following pests:
o stem borer, leaf roller, thrips
l Over 50% of the farmers cultivating
sugarcane reported the following
pests:
o mealy bug, white fly
l Turmeric: Thrips are the major pest
reported.
l Tobacco: Cut worm and stem borer
are the major pests reported.
l Banana: Wilt was the major disease.
l Other major species include silk
cotton, neem, areca nut, lemon,
teak, mango and several species of
Acacia.
Roadside vegetation
l The 4-km stretch of road through the
village occupies about 9 ha.
Figure 12: Species composition in
cropland bunds
Coconut
84%
Areca
2% Silk
cotton
3%
Neem
3%
Others
8%
14
Prosopis - Bane to Boon
Prosopis sp. is a weed of national
significance. It is regarded as one
of the worst weeds in India because
of its invasiveness, potential for
spread, and economic and
environmental impacts.
Prosopis originated in Argentina and
spread all over the world. Prosopis
is known to have spread in India
since the 1870s by migrant animals;
first identified in Andhra Pradesh, it
has spread all over the country.
The economic impacts stem from its habit of forming dense, impenetrable
thickets that, combined with its thorns, prevents cattle from accessing watering
holes and makes grazing difficult. Prosopis also reduces the productivity of
grazing land by covering the ground and using valuable soil and water resources.
Other impacts of Prosopis include damage to animal hooves and the poisoning
of livestock, when they consume excessive amounts of its pods.
Environmental impacts, once the species becomes dominant, include changes
in soil quality, which make the soil incapable of supporting native plants and
animals, and safe refuge for feral animals such as pigs and cats.
In Kempanaickenpalayam, Prosopis was observed in the late 1960s as a
multi-stemmed thorny shrub. In Kempanaickenpalayam, Prosopis infestation is
spread over about 150 ha.
At Kempanaickenpalayam, Prosopis sprouts rapidly after the retreating monsoon.
Dark vegetal growth is found along the stream bunds flowing from the
Perumpallam and in the low-lying areas of the region, community land and other
wastelands. It has now become an aggressive weed in Kempanaickenpalayam.
The invasion by Prosopis of agricultural land affects agriculture in the region.
Landowners fear that its growth could reduce crop and livestock production,
and farmers do not allow the shrub to grow in the immediate vicinity.
However, thanks to the thorny shrub's ability to withstand harsh conditions, some
farmers in Kempanaickenpalayam have used Prosopis as a live fence around
their land to protect their crops from the cattle. Because of its ability to
regenerate rapidly, the shrub is looked upon by many as an inexhaustible fuel
source. Many landless people in Kempanaickenpalayam completely rely on it as
their principal fuel source for domestic use. Over 500 households in
Kempanaickenpalayam depend on the shrub as their principal fuel source.
15
l A total of 14 different species were
recorded along the roadside.
l Neem was the dominant species
(39%) along the roadside (Figure 13).
l Silk cotton and Cassia species
make up 25% and 15% of the total,
respectively.
Stream-side vegetation
l The total area of streams is 73 ha.
l About 25 tree species were
recorded along the Perumpallam
stream that runs through the
village carrying water from the
Perumpallam dam.
l Silk cotton was the dominant
species (27%) along the stream
(Figure 14).
l The other major species by the
stream include neem (16%) and
Pithecolobium dulcis (11%).
Figure 13: Tree composition in roadside
vegetation
Silk
cotton
25%
Neem
39%
Acacia
nilotica
5%Cassia sp.
15%Others
16%
Figure 14: Tree composition in
stream-side vegetation
Adina sp.
5%
Pithecolobium
dulcis
11%
Neem
16%
Silk
cotton
27%
Others
35%
Unknown
6%
3.7.2. Trends in Agro-forestry
l Coconut dominates the cropland
bunds while multiple naturally
regenerating trees dominate the
banks of the stream and the
roadside.
l Over 30 different species were
recorded in the village along the
bunds of cropland, streams and
roadsides.
l Out of these, only 10 species are
planted; the rest are naturally
regenerated and retained.
l According to the participatory rural
appraisal involving senior members
of the society, a large variety of
trees were found few decades ago,
and these have dwindled.
This means a loss of biodiversity in
agro-forestry.
3.7.3. Factors Contributing
l Market forces have motivated the
farmers to cultivate coconut along
cropland bunds.
l Income from the minor forest
produce such as neem seeds
and fibre encourages farmers to
protect the vegetation along
the banks of the stream bunds and
the roadsides.
3.8. Grazing Land - Fallow landand Stream-side
3.8.1. Current Grazing Land
l No dedicated grazing land is found
in the village; therefore, the fallow
land and the stream bunds are used
for grazing, supplemented with stall
feeding.
l The total area under fallow land is
165 ha.
l The streams accounts for about
73 ha.
16
l With the increase in l ivestock
population, grazing pressure on the
already meagre grazing area in the
village is increasing.
3.8.2. Trends in Area Available for
Grazing
l The area under fallow land in the
past decade has increased by 4%
(Figure 15).
l The cropping pattern has seen the
low productive lands being
abandoned, leading to increase in
the area under fallow land.
3.8.3. Implications
l Due to the lack of grazing land,
livestock are grazed in the forest
over the past years and because
of livestock grazing, the vegetation
in the forest is subjected to
degradation.
Figure 15: Trends in fallow land area
200
150
100
50
0
Are
a (ha)
1997 2000 2006
99
129
166
17
l Other l ivestock numbers 116
(draught animals such as donkeys
and pack horses).
4.1.2. Trends in Livestock Population
l The population of milch animals
increased from 835 in 1997 to 945 in
2006 (Figure 17).
l The population of sheep and goats
also increased over the past
decade, from 3415 in 1997 to 4060
now (Figure 18).
4. Livestock
4.1. Livestock Population
4.1.1. Current Livestock
l Currently the livestock population
of the village is 5306.
l Sheep and goats dominate (77% of
livestock population) and number
4060.
l The number of milch animals is
945, 18% of the total l ivestock
population (Figure 16).
l The number of bullocks is about 185
(3%).
Figure 17: Trends in sheep and goat population
OthersSheep and
Goats
BullocksBuffaloesCow
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Nu
mb
er
of
live
sto
ck
1997 2002 2007
Figure 18: Trends in sheep and goat
population
Figure 16: Current livestock composition
Goat
and
sheep
77% Milch
animals
18%
Bullocks
3%
Others
2%2006200219981997
40603701
33383415
4500
3000
1500
0
Popula
tion
18
l People switched from traditional
breeds to crossbreeds in the 1980s,
following advice from the local
dairy units.
l Participatory rural appraisal
revealed most cows now reared
are crossbreds: the traditional
breeds account for less than 30%.
4.1.3. Factors Contributing
l The traditional breeds are being
replaced with crossbred animals
because the latter give more milk.
l Stall-feeding has increased due to
increase in the number of crossbred
cows.
l Establishment of a small-scale dairy
in the village and the market it
offers have driven people to opt for
crossbred milch animals as they
give a higher yield.
l Bullocks are replaced by the
tractors for ploughing due to the
human effort involved in rearing
bullocks.
l The increase in sheep and goats
population appears to be linked
with the decline in rainfall over the
past many years.
4.1.4. Implications
l Loss of traditional breeds.
l Increase in the population of sheep
and goats and grazing them in the
nearby forest land have adversely
affected the regeneration
capacity of the forests.
l The high grazing density is leading
to degradation of fallow land.
4.2. Dung Production
l Only 3% of the households have
biogas plants.
l Average production of dung is
10 kg/cow/day .
19
5.1. Irrigation Water
5.1.1. Current Availability
l Borewells and open wells are the
two sources of irrigation.
l Before the 1990s, the only source of
irrigation was open wells.
l In the 1990s, the farmers started
drilling borewells.
l Now there are about 47 borewells
and 247 open wells within the
village.
l The Perumpallam and other streams
that pass through the village serve
as a seasonal source of water but
are not available for irrigation.
l The Perumpallam dam has the
capacity to irrigate about 340 ha
of cropland, but the local
community along with the PWD has
taken a decision not to open the
dam for irrigation, as there are no
perennial sources of water for the
dam.
o the Perumpallam dam at
present is used mainly as a
percolation tank to recharge
the groundwater.
5.1.2. Trends
l Irrigated area has increased in the
recent years.
l In 1997, the total area under rainfed
farming was 339 ha; now it has
decreased to 185 ha due to the
increase in irrigation sources.
l There is a significant increase in the
number of open wells from 63 in
1978 to 247 in 2006.
l There were no borewells in 1978 and
in 2002 there were 4 borewells and
currently there are 47 borewells, a
91% increase over the period 2002
to 2006 (Figure 19).
5. Water and Soil
5.1.3. Factors Contributing
l Construction of the Perumpallam
dam has helped recharge the
groundwater in the village.
5.1.4. Implications
l Free electricity supply by the state
for agriculture has encouraged the
use of borewells. The free supply has
made both the digging of wells and
pumping water from them more
economical than is the case with
open wells.
l Increase in the number of borewells
may lower the water table; the
average depth of borewells is
already 650 feet, indicating the
decline.
Figure 19: Trends in number of borewells
for irrigation
50
40
30
20
10
0
1978 2002 2003 2006
0
4
10
47
Num
ber
of
bore
wells
20
Table 2: Drinking water quality status
Parameters Desirable Permissible Open well Borewell Hand
Limitξξξξξ Limit*ξξξξξ pump
Total dissolved solids# 500 2000 682.4 583.3 788.6
Total hardness as CaCO3
# 300 600 389.1 339.3 484.3
Total alkalinity as CaCO3
# 200 600 479.0 402.8 445.0
Nitrate# 45 100 47.5 29.6 81.9# in mg/L
5.2. Drinking Water
5.2.1. Current Water Sources
l Taps, hand pumps and open wells
are the main sources of drinking
water in the village.
l One part of the vil lage is also
served by a reservoir.
5.2.2. Current Water Quality
l All the parameters except turbidity
(30 NTU) were within the permissible
limits in samples from the reservoir.
l In all other samples, total dissolved
solids (TDS) and alkalinity exceeded
the desirable limits (TDS shows the
hardness of water) but was within
the permissible limits (Table 2).
l Samples from open wells and hand
pumps were found to have slightly
higher concentrations of nitrate
than the desired limit, but all were
within the permissible limit.
5.2.3. Contributing Factors
l Hardness can be due to the
presence of salts of calcium and
magnesium.
l TDS and total alkalinity may be
attributed to the geological
reasons.
5.2.4. Implications
l Water with high dissolved solids will
be usually turbid. It does not have
any implications for human health,
but lowers the consumption of
water by imparting a disagreeable
taste to the water.
l Hard water, although it does not
have any implication for health,
makes the water salty to taste,
thereby lowering the quality of
water and making it less suitable for
cooking and washing.
5.3. Microbial Load
5.3.1. Current
l All the samples from borewells and
the reservoir were free from
coliform bacteria.
l A third (33%) of the open well
samples, 65% of the tap samples
and 78% of hand pump samples had
their total coliform count within
the permissible limits (0–10 MPN/
100 ml). (MPN is the most probable
number.)
l Nearly half (48%) the samples from
open wells and roughly a fifth (22%)
of those from hand pumps had a
total coliform count ranging from
11 to 100 MPN/100 ml.
l In 14% of open well samples, the
total coliform count ranged from
101 to 200 MPN/100 ml.
l A very small proportion (5%) of
the open well samples had a
microbial load greater than 500
MPN/100 ml.
21
l Tapioca, turmeric and tobacco
had 0.59, 0.64 and 0.54% organic
carbon, which indicates highly
fertile soils.
5.4.1. Implications
l Lands in which perennial crops are
grown have high organic carbon.
l Soil ferti l ity status is poor on
croplands and high on fallow and
forest land, where the topsoil is not
disturbed.
Table 3: Soil quality status
Crop or land use % organic carbon
Bajra 0.23
Banana 0.63
Fallow 0.75
Fodder maize 0.43
Onion 0.61
Sugarcane 0.88
Tapioca 0.59
Turmeric 0.64
Tobacco 0.54
Forest 0–15 cm depth 1.58
Forest 15–30 cm depth 1.38
5.3.2. Contributing Factors
l Presence of coliforms in open wells
can be due to contamination by
birds, rotten leaves and faecal
matter.
l Contamination of water from the
hand pumps can be attributed to
improper methods of sewage
disposal and poor sanitation.
5.3.3. Implications
l If the water contains pathogenic
bacteria, r isk of waterborne
diseases is likely to be high.
5.4. Soil Quality
l Sugarcane, banana and tobacco
are the major crops in the area.
l Fodder maize is grown as a dryland
crop and it had 0.43% organic
carbon in the soil (Table 3).
l Soils in bajra crop had the least
organic carbon of all the crops
(0.23%).
l Fallow land had 0.75% organic
carbon whereas forestlands had
1.58% in the topsoil and 1.38% at
15–30 cm depth.
Note: <0.5%, low, 0.5–0.75%, medium and
>0.75%, high
22
6. Wild Fauna and Fish Resource
Table 4: Major woodland birds
Major woodland birds
Ashy prinia Jungle crow
Ashy wren warbler Jungle fowl
Asian koel Large pied wagtail
Baya (weaver bird) Little brown dove
Blossom-headed
parakeet Paddy field pipit
Brahmini myna Pariah kite
Brahmini kite Grey partridge
Common myna Peacock
Common quail Pied bush chat
Common swallow Purple sunbird
Black drongo Red-rumped
swallow
Golden-backed
woodpecker Red-vented bulbul
Greater coucal Rose-ringed
parakeet
House crow Tailor bird
House sparrow White browed
bulbul
Indian robin White headed
babbler
Table 5: Major wetland birds
Major wetland birds
Palm swift
Cattle egret
Common teal
Darter
Teals
Little cormorant
Little egret
Little grebe
Red wattled lapwing
White-breasted water hen
White-breasted kingfisher
The northern and eastern boundary
of the vil lage borders with the
Sathyamangalam reserve forest. Many
wild animals from the forest often make
their way into the vil lage. The
construction of the dam across the
Perumpallam stream has increased the
frequency of sighting of animals such as
elephants.
6.1. Birds
6.1.1. Current
Several woodland birds were sighted
during the study throughout the village
and more near the crop fields. The list of
woodland birds sighted in the village is
listed in Table 4.
l Wetland birds are limited to the
area around the Perumpallam dam
and irrigated crop fields. Villagers
report that large number of
migratory wetland birds like the
teals flock around the Perumpallam
dam.
l Migratory birds are sighted
between September and March.
l Listed below are some of the
common wetland birds sighted in
the village (Table 5).
6.1.2. Trends
l The population of wetland birds has
increased after the construction of
the dam.
l The population of woodland bird is
gradually decreasing due to the
change in the cropping pattern.
(e.g., decrease in the area of
cropland).
6.2. Mammals
6.2.1. Current
Large mammals are sighted in the
northern and eastern part of the village,
23
especially in the Perumpallam dam
area and the hills of Madheswaran,
Malli Amman and Narayanan
(Karumalai).
l Among mammals, wild boar, rabbit,
spotted deer, elephant, civet cat,
wild dog and a few rodents are
some of the commonly sighted
species in the village area.
l Listed below are common
wild animals seen in the
Kempanaickenpalayam region
(Table 6).
Table 6: Major mammal species
Major mammals
Anteater Sambar deer
Civet cat Spotted deer
Elephant Wild boar
Indian gaur Wild dog
Jackal Mouse deer
Panther
6.2.2. Trends
l The frequency with which the
animals enter into the fields has
increased due to the changes in
the cropping pattern. (e.g.,
cultivation of tapioca and
sugarcane attracts wild boars and
elephants).
6.2.3. Implications
l The change in the cropping pattern
has an impact on the wild animal
population.
o wild boar has become a serious
pest to sugarcane, tapioca and
other crops. Their attacks on
the crops has reduced yield in
the recent years.
l The diversity of bird population
(specially the migratory birds) in the
village has increased.
24
6.3.2. Trends
l All water bodies are a seasonal
source of fish but with the
construction of the dam in 1994, the
storage capacity has increased
considerably and the water bodies
now serve as a source of less
commercial pisciculture.
l Seven fish species have
disappeared, namely Channa
maurilius, Channa striatus, Channa
puctatus, Clarius dussumieri,
Channa nama, Applocheilus
lineatus and Cirrhinus reba.
l Fish yield has decreased in all the
water bodies. Four yeas ago,
according to the fish contractors,
fish yield used to be 15 to 20 quintals
per year; now, it is only 3 to 4 quintals
per year.
l Earlier, the number of fishermen was
27; now, due to the reduction in the
fish catch, the number has dwindled
to 7; the rest have opted for other
livelihood options.
l The reservoir was 35 feet deep in
1994. The depth has decreased
considerably due to siltation and
currently stands at 25 feet,
affecting fish growth and yield.
6.3.3. Factors Contributing
l Cereals and fodder crops are grown
on the reservoir bed during the dry
season. The pesticides used in these
fields run off into the reservoir and
affect fish production.
6.3. Fish Resource
6.3.1. Current Status
l Fishing is done in the reservoir,
streams and canals of
Kempanaickenpalayam.
l The checkdam is used for private fish
culture.
l The predominant fish species in
reservoir include catla (Catla
catla), common carp (Cyprinus
carpio), rohu (Labeo rohita),
mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala),
velichimean (Salmostoma
sardinella) and tilapia (Oreochromis
mossambicus).
l In the streams (downstream of
the reservoir), 8 species were
recorded; the predominant
fish species include loaches
(Lepidocephalicthyus guntea)
and ti lapia (Oreochromis
mossambicus).
l In canals, 7 species were
recorded; the predominant fish
species include Oreochromis
mossambicus, pool barb
(Puntius sophore) and loaches
(Lepidocephalicthyus guntea).
l Nearly all (98%) the households in
the village eat fish.
l Every time the water level in the
dam is low, farmers encroach
upon the area for agricultural
activities. Crops such as tapioca,
fodder maize and bajra are
cultivated.
25
7. Energy and Sanitation
7.1. Energy Sources
7.1.1. Current
l Nearly 30% of the households have
improved stoves.
l A large number of these (over 75%)
were installed in the last 5 years.
l Over 20% of these stoves were
installed in the 1980s and 1990s.
l Only 13% of households have a
chimney for their cookstoves.
l Nearly 30% of households have LPG
stoves.
l Fuel savings of 5–15% have been
reported in 27% of the households.
l About 3% of the households own a
biogas plant.
l All biogas plants were installed in
the late 1980s and early 1990s.
l The biogas plants in the village are
large and have an average
capacity of 9 cubic metres.
l An average of 25 kg of dung is used
for each biogas plant per day.
l Biogas is utilized for cooking.
7.1.2. Implications
l The maintenance of improved
stoves is not adequate. The fuel
savings are much lower than the
actual potential of the stoves.
l Majority of households sti l l
cook with less efficient and
smoke-emitting traditional wood
stoves.
l Large amount of fuelwood is
harvested from the forests for
cooking, leading to degradation of
forests.
7.2. Lighting Energy Sources
7.2.1. Current Electrification Status
l About 81% of the households are
electrified.
l In electrified houses, 79% of the
households own other electrical
devices.
l Monthly electricity consumption of
an average household in
Kempanaickenpalayam is 50 kWh.
l Electricity for pumps used for
agriculture is free in Tamil Nadu.
l Almost 97% of the irrigation sources
have been electrified.
7.2.2. Implications
l Reduced drudgery for men and
bullocks.
l Increase in the electrification of
irr igation sources has lead to
reduction in cattle population used
in the animal-drawn water-lifting
devices for irrigation.
7.3. Sanitation
7.3.1. Current Status
l Only 11% of the households have
toilet facility.
l All the toilets are of Indian type.
l About 72% of the toilets have tap
connection.
l There are 2 community toilets in
the vil lage. Due to lack of
maintenance, neither is used by
the villagers.
l Most households (90%) have
cattle sheds separate from the
living area.
26
l Few households (10%) have cattle
sheds as part of the house.
l About 10% households dispose off
kitchen waste by dumping it in the
streams and by the roadside; the
rest use manure pits or garbage pits.
7.3.2. Factors Contributing
l Lack of awareness about hygiene
and health.
l Lack of water facility in toilets.
7.3.3. Implications
l The fact that 89% of the households
do not have the toilets has serious
implications for hygiene, health and
the quality of life of the people
within the village.
l The economic status of the people
has improved but the quality of life
is far below the desired level.
l Disease incidence among the
community and health hazards are
quite high due to lack of awareness
and initiative.
27
8. Overall Trends in Natural Resources
D irect functional relationship exist
between the natural resources in
village ecosystems such as forests, water
bodies, cropland, grazing land and
livestock. A small irrigation dam, which is
now used only for recharge of
groundwater, is a significant element
in the natural resource dynamics
of Kempanaickenpalayam village.
Irrigation and market forces have forced
a shift from traditional and rainfed
agriculture to more water-intensive
agriculture. The dam has been successful
in maintaining the groundwater level so
far but may not support continued
expansion of intensive agriculture in the
future. The dam has also attracted local
wildlife and migratory species of birds
to the village from the surrounding
forests. Life of a significant percentage
of population stil l depends on the
sustainability of forests, water bodies,
cropland and livestock in the village. The
village exhibits significant changes in the
patterns of use of natural resources in the
recent past. Some of the major changes
are mentioned below.
l There has been a notable change in
the land-use pattern of the village
where the cropland has significantly
reduced and fallow land increased
due to changes in the cropping
pattern.
l There is a growing trend of replacing
short-term crops such as paddy and
other cereals with long-term crops
like sugarcane and banana due to
labour shortage and possibility of
higher income.
l The production of food grains is on
the decline while cash crops like
sugarcane are on the increase.
l The population of sheep and goat
has increased significantly over the
last few years.
l The grazing density is very
high due to increase in livestock
population which may lead to
degradation of fallow land and
forests.
l The construction of a dam in
1992 has helped to recharge
groundwater in the village.
l People believe that bird diversity,
specially of the local migratory birds
like cormorants and teals, has
increased after the construction of
the dam.
l The frequency of sighting of large
mammals such as elephant, deer
and wild boar has increased
because of the water availability in
the dam and the cropping pattern
of the village.
28
