journal of research in biology volume 3 issue 2

An International Research Journal for Biology

Volume 3 Issue 2 May 2013

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List of Editors of Editors in the Journal of Research in Biology

Managing and Executive Editor:

Abiya Chelliah [Molecular Biology]

Publisher, Journal of Research in Biology.

Editorial Board Members:

Ciccarese [Molecular Biology] Universita di Bari, Italy.

Sathishkumar [Plant Biotechnologist]

Bharathiar University.

SUGANTHY [Entomologist]

TNAU, Coimbatore.

Elanchezhyan [Agriculture, Entomology]

TNAU, Tirunelveli.

Syed Mohsen Hosseini [Forestry & Ecology]

Tarbiat Modares University (TMU), Iran.

Dr. Ramesh. C. K [Plant Tissue Culture] Sahyadri Science College, Karnataka.

Kamal Prasad Acharya [Conservation Biology]

Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway.

Dr. Ajay Singh [Zoology]

Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur

Dr. T. P. Mall [Ethnobotany and Plant pathoilogy]

Kisan PG College, BAHRAICH

Ramesh Chandra [Hydrobiology, Zoology]

S.S.(P.G.)College, Shahjahanpur, India.

Adarsh Pandey [Mycology and Plant Pathology]

SS P.G.College, Shahjahanpur, India

Hanan El-Sayed Mohamed Abd El-All Osman [Plant Ecology]

Al-Azhar university, Egypt

Ganga suresh [Microbiology]

Sri Ram Nallamani Yadava College of Arts & Sciences, Tenkasi, India.

T.P. Mall [Ethnobotany, Plant pathology]

Kisan PG College,BAHRAICH, India.

Mirza Hasanuzzaman [Agronomy, Weeds, Plant]

Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh

Mukesh Kumar Chaubey [Immunology, Zoology]

Mahatma Gandhi Post Graduate College, Gorakhpur, India.

N.K. Patel [Plant physiology & Ethno Botany]

Sheth M.N.Science College, Patan, India.

Kumudben Babulal Patel [Bird, Ecology]

Gujarat, India.

CHANDRAMOHAN [Biochemist]

College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University.

B.C. Behera [Natural product and their Bioprospecting]

Agharkar Research Institute, Pune, INDIA.

Kuvalekar Aniket Arun [Biotechnology]

Lecturer, Pune.

Mohd. Kamil Usmani [Entomology, Insect taxonomy]

Aligarh Muslim university, Aligarh, india.

Dr. Lachhman Das Singla [Veterinary Parasitology]

Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, India.

Vaclav Vetvicka [Immunomodulators and Breast Cancer]

University of Louisville, Kentucky.

José F. González-Maya [Conservation Biology]

Laboratorio de ecología y conservación de fauna Silvestre,

Instituto de Ecología, UNAM, México.

Dr. Afreenish Hassan [Microbiology]

Department of Pathology, Army Medical College, Rawalpindi, Pakistan.

Gurjit Singh [Soil Science]

Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Amritsar, Punjab, India.

Dr. Marcela Pagano [Mycology]

Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei, Brazil.

Dr.Amit Baran Sharangi [Horticulture]

BCKV (Agri University), West Bengal, INDIA.

Dr. Bhargava [Melittopalynology]

School of Chemical & Biotechnology, Sastra University, Tamilnadu, INDIA.

Dr. Sri Lakshmi Sunitha Merla [Plant Biotechnology]

Jawaharlal Technological University, Hyderabad.

Dr. Mrs. Kaiser Jamil [Biotechnology]

Bhagwan Mahavir Medical Research Centre, Hyderabad, India.

Ahmed Mohammed El Naim [Agronomy]

University of Kordofan, Elobeid-SUDAN.

Dr. Zohair Rahemo [Parasitology]

University of Mosul, Mosul,Iraq.

Dr. Birendra Kumar [Breeding and Genetic improvement]

Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, India.

Dr. Sanjay M. Dave [Ornithology and Ecology]

Hem. North Gujarat University, Patan.

Dr. Nand Lal [Micropropagation Technology Development]

C.S.J.M. University, India.

Fábio M. da Costa [Biotechnology: Integrated pest control, genetics]

Federal University of Rondônia, Brazil.

Marcel Avramiuc [Biologist]

Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, Romania.

Dr. Meera Srivastava [Hematology , Entomology] Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner.

P. Gurusaravanan [Plant Biology ,Plant Biotechnology and Plant Science]

School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India.

Dr. Mrs Kavita Sharma [Botany]

Arts and commerce girl’s college Raipur (C.G.), India.

Suwattana Pruksasri [Enzyme technology, Biochemical Engineering]

Silpakorn University, Thailand.

Dr.Vishwas Balasaheb Sakhare [Reservoir Fisheries]

Yogeshwari Mahavidyalaya, Ambajogai, India.

Dr. Pankaj Sah [Environmental Science, Plant Ecology]

Higher College of Technology (HCT), Al-Khuwair.

Dr. Erkan Kalipci [Environmental Engineering]

Selcuk University, Turkey.

Dr Gajendra Pandurang Jagtap [Plant Pathology]

College of Agriculture, India.

Dr. Arun M. Chilke [Biochemistry, Enzymology, Histochemistry]

Shree Shivaji Arts, Commerce & Science College, India.

Dr. AC. Tangavelou [Biodiversity, Plant Taxonomy]

Bio-Science Research Foundation, India.

Nasroallah Moradi Kor [Animal Science]

Razi University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Iran

T. Badal Singh [plant tissue culture]

Panjab University, India

Dr. Kalyan Chakraborti [Agriculture, Pomology, horticulture]

AICRP on Sub-Tropical Fruits, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,

Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal, India.

Dr. Monanjali Bandyopadhyay [Farmlore, Traditional and indigenous

practices, Ethno botany]

V. C., Vidyasagar University, Midnapore.

M.Sugumaran [Phytochemistry]

Adhiparasakthi College of Pharmacy, Melmaruvathur, Kancheepuram District.

Prashanth N S [Public health, Medicine]

Institute of Public Health, Bangalore.

Tariq Aftab

Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

Manzoor Ahmad Shah

Department of Botany, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, India.

Syampungani Stephen

School of Natural Resources, Copperbelt University, Kitwe, Zambia.

Iheanyi Omezuruike OKONKO

Department of Biochemistry & Microbiology, Lead City University,

Ibadan, Nigeria.

Sharangouda Patil

Toxicology Laboratory, Bioenergetics & Environmental Sciences Division,

National Institue of Animal Nutrition

and Physiology (NIANP, ICAR), Adugodi, Bangalore.

Jayapal

Nandyal, Kurnool, Andrapradesh, India.

T.S. Pathan [Aquatic toxicology and Fish biology]

Department of Zoology, Kalikadevi Senior College, Shirur, India.

Aparna Sarkar [Physiology and biochemistry] Amity Institute of Physiotherapy, Amity campus, Noida, INDIA.

Dr. Amit Bandyopadhyay [Sports & Exercise Physiology]

Department of Physiology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, INDIA .

Maruthi [Plant Biotechnology]

Dept of Biotechnology, SDM College (Autonomous),

Ujire Dakshina Kannada, India.

Veeranna [Biotechnology]

Dept of Biotechnology, SDM College (Autonomous),

Ujire Dakshina Kannada, India.

RAVI [Biotechnology & Bioinformatics]

Department of Botany, Government Arts College, Coimbatore, India.

Sadanand Mallappa Yamakanamardi [Zoology]

Department of Zoology, University of Mysore, Mysore, India.

Anoop Das [Ornithologist]

Research Department of Zoology, MES Mampad College, Kerala, India.

Dr. Satish Ambadas Bhalerao [Environmental Botany]

Wilson College, Mumbai

Rafael Gomez Kosky [Plant Biotechnology]

Instituto de Biotecnología de las Plantas, Universidad Central de Las Villas

Eudriano Costa [Aquatic Bioecology]

IOUSP - Instituto Oceanográfico da Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil

M. Bubesh Guptha [Wildlife Biologist] Wildlife Management Circle (WLMC), India

Rajib Roychowdhury [Plant science]

Centre for biotechnology visva-bharati, India.

Dr. S.M.Gopinath [Environmental Biotechnology]

Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore.

Dr. U.S. Mahadeva Rao [Bio Chemistry]

Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia.

Hérida Regina Nunes Salgado [Pharmacist]

Unesp - Universidade Estadual Paulista, Brazil

Mandava Venkata Basaveswara Rao [Chemistry]

Krishna University, India.

Dr. Mostafa Mohamed Rady [Agricultural Sciences]

Fayoum University, Egypt.

Dr. Hazim Jabbar Shah Ali [Poultry Science]

College of Agriculture, University of Baghdad , Iraq.

Danial Kahrizi [Plant Biotechnology, Plant Breeding,Genetics]

Agronomy and Plant Breeding Dept., Razi University, Iran

Dr. Houhun LI [Systematics of Microlepidoptera, Zoogeography, Coevolution,

Forest protection]

College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, China.

María de la Concepción García Aguilar [Biology] Center for Scientific Research and Higher Education of Ensenada, B. C., Mexico

Fernando Reboredo [Archaeobotany, Forestry, Ecophysiology]

New University of Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal

Dr. Pritam Chattopadhyay [Agricultural Biotech, Food Biotech, Plant Biotech]

Visva-Bharati (a Central University), India

Table of Contents (Volume 3 - Issue 2)

Serial No Accession No Title of the article Page No

1 RA0335 Checklist of land birds in Tenkasi and Ambasamudram Taluk, Tirunelveli District: at the Foot Hills of Southern Western Ghats.

Sudhakaran MR, Valliselvam K, Esakkiammal M and Jayanthi A.

797-808

2 RA0298 Heavy metal accumulation by Amaranthus hybridus L . Grown on waste dumpsites in South-Eastern Nigeria.

Uka UN, Chukwuka KS and Okorie N.

809-817

3 RA0322 Treatment of digestive tract ailments in cattle with herbal folk-medicines: A preliminary study in Ganjam District. Dibakar Mishra.

818-827

4 RA0330 An assessment of Floristic Diversity of Daroji Sloth bear Sanctuary, Hospet, Bellary District, Karnataka, India. Harisha MN and Hosetti BB.

828-839

5 RA0331 Butterfly fauna of Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Hospet,

Bellary District, Karnataka, India.

Harisha MN and Hosetti BB.

840-846

6 RA0334 Toxicity of copper to tropical freshwater snail (Pila ovata).

Ariole CN and Anokwuru B.

847-851

http://jresearchbiology.com/documents/RA0335.pdf






Jou

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esearch

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Biology

Checklist of land birds in Tenkasi and Ambasamudram Taluk, Tirunelveli

District: at the Foot Hills of Southern Western Ghats

Keywords: Land birds, ambasamudram, diversity.

ABSTRACT:

Birds present everywhere and are important ecological indicators. The study area Tenkasi (8.97°N 77.3°E) and Ambasumudram (8.7°N 77.47°E) region of Tirunelveli district, Tamilnadu state is at the foothills of Southern Western Ghats. Studies on distribution of birds in this part have been recorded from the yester years but due to various reasons it had been confine towards aquatic ecosystem. To fulfill this lacuna, present study was carried out. A total of 100 species of land birds were documented that belongs to 36 orders and 48 families. Study on nesting pattern, breeding pattern was also carried out. 30% of the birds had their breeding periods during rainy season and 50% of the birds had their breeding periods during harvesting time. Insectivores breeds during rainy season and granivores breeds during harvest season which supports ‘food availability-breeding time’ hypothesis.

797-808 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 2

This article is governed by the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which gives permission for unrestricted use, non-commercial, distribution and reproduction in all medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

www.jresearchbiology.com

Journal of Research in Biology

An International

Scientific Research Journal

Authors:

Sudhakaran MR,

Valliselvam K,

Esakkiammal M and

Jayanthi A.

Institution:

Department of Zoology,

Sri Paramakalyani College,

Alwarkurichi 627 412 India.

Corresponding author:

Sudhakaran MR.

Email:

[email protected]

Web Address: http://jresearchbiology.com/documents/RA0335.pdf.

Dates: Received: 07 Feb 2013 Accepted: 14 Feb 2013 Published: 22 Feb 2013

Article Citation: Sudhakaran MR, Valliselvam K, Esakkiammal M and Jayanthi A. Checklist of land birds in Tenkasi and Ambasamudram Taluk, Tirunelveli District: at the Foot Hills of Southern Western Ghats. Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 797-808

Journal of Research in Biology An International Scientific Research Journal

Original Research

INTRODUCTION

Diversity studies have assumed a greater

urgency, partially as a result of incorporating habitat and

demographic information towards conservation. Birds

use diverse habitat and select their own habitat for

successful living. Out of more than 9,000 bird species of

the world, Indian subcontinent contains 1,300 species or

over 13% of the world’s bird species (Grimmet et al.,

1999). The study area Tenkasi and Ambasamudram

region of Tirunelveli district, Tamilnadu state is at the

foothill of Southern Western Ghats. This area has part of

Kalakad Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) and

Courtallam hills, got a rich amount of flora and fauna

and a good vegetation that give food and nest resources

for birds. Nearly 160 species of birds were observed to

present in KMTR (Joshua and Johnsingh, 1988). An

annotated check list of the birds of Tamilnadu is not

available, but more than 450 species are likely to occur

(Rathinam, 2002). Studies on distribution of birds in this

part have been recorded from early 1945 (Webb-Pelope,

1945), but the studies had limited towards wet-land

birds. It is mainly due to the climatic condition prevails

in this area. This region enjoys both the north east and

south west monsoon, with good wetland ecosystem that

provides habitat for aquatic birds. Koonthankulam bird

sanctuary is present in this region that inhabits more than

100 species of wetland birds. Hence most of the studies

on birds (Johnson,1971; Wilkinson, 1961;

Subramaninan, 2003; Johnsingh, 2001) were restricted

towards wetland birds and their conservation. As birds

are observed to be an ideal bioindicator and a useful tool

for studying a variety of environmental problems, the

habitat ecology of bird community should be evaluated

for their conservation (Kattan and Franco, 2004).

The Indian bird population has been declining due to

habitat loss, fragmentation, anthropogenic disturbances

that necessitates documentation, monitoring and

conservation.

In order to bring forth the avian diversity in this

area, an extensive survey was made to document the land

bird distribution with a note on their habitat and breeding

in Ambasumudram and Tenkasi Taluk of Southern

Tamilnadu.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Area

Tenkasi (8.97°N 77.3°E; Elevation 554 feet) and

Ambasumuram (8.7°N 77.47°E; Elevation 229 feet)

taluk are regions of Tirunelveli district of Tamilnadu

(map) described as a microcosm of the state, owing to its

mosaic and diverse geographical and physical features

such as lofty mountains and low plains, thorn scrub

jungles, rivers and cascades, thick inland forest, sandy

soils and fertile alluvium, a variety of flora, fauna, and

protected wild life. The mean daily maximum

temperature is 32.1ºC. The weather is quite hot in

May and June and the maximum temperature some

times reaches 43ºC. This region enjoys winter

(December to March), Summer (April-June), Southwest

monsoon (June to September and North east monsoon

(October to November). The month of November is

generally with maximum rainfall. The average rainfall in

the district is 814.8 mm per annum.

Sudhakaran et al., 2013

798 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 797-808

Map: Study Area

Survey

This study on survey of land bird was conducted

from January 2012 to December 2012 for a period of one

year. Weekly field observations were made throughout

the study period, a total of 52 observations were done

during the study and birds in the study area

were documented. Survey was done in the nesting sites,

and information were gathered from local peoples and

villagers. With high precise birds were monitored during

morning (06 00 to 10 00 hrs) and evening

(15 00 to 18 30 hrs). Binoculars and monoculars were

used for observation. Nest sites were surveyed there by

getting information from local villagers. Birds were

identified using key reference books of birds of India

(Salim Ali, 2002) and Tamilnadu (Rathinam, 2002).

Diveristy Indices

Species richness was calculated by using

Margalef’s index and species dominance was calculated

by using Berger-Parker index. They were calculated by

using the formulae given below,

Margalef’s index

Species richness measures provide an instantly

comprehensible expression of diversity. It is calculated

using the formula,

Dmg = (S – 1)/ In N

Where,

S = Number of species present in each taluk

N = Number of individuals

Berger-Parker diversity index

Berger-Parker index is employed to determine

whether there is any change in the dominance of species

in each taluk. It expresses the proportional importance to

the most abundant species. The formula for calculating

the Berger-Parker index is

d = N max/N

Where,

N = the total number of individuals

Nmax = Number of individuals in the most abundant

species.

RESULT AND DISCUSION

A total of 100 species of birds that belongs to

16 orders and 36 families were recorded during the

study, of which order Passeriformes was observed to

have 19 families with 48 species (Table 1). Family

Sylviinae of order Passeriformes have a maximum

number of 8 species of total 100 species observed.

Passeriformies are group of birds that inhabit in a

vegetative rich area, that provide nesting and feeding

areas (Balachandran et al., 2005). Study area was

observed to provide a good resource for the bird

community. Of the 100 species observed, 75 were

observed to be residents and 16 were observed to

migrants, and 9 were both resident and migrant. Migrants

were observed to be from the western ghats region.

Study on species richness revealed that

Passeriformes shows a higher species richness.

Passer domesticus (Dmg: 1.598) Pirnia socialis

(Dmg: 1.497), Acrocephalus agricola (Dmg: 1.401),

Orthotomus subtorius (Dmg: 1.401), Corvus splendens

(Dmg: 1.400), Dendrocitta vagabunda (Dmg: 1.399),

Corvus macrorhynchos (Dmg: 1.387), Ardeola grayii

(Dmg: 1.350), Egretta grazetta (Dmg: 1.351),

Cosmerodius albus (Dmg: 1.320) were observed to have

a higher species richness. Species richness depends on

the habitat, climatic condition, food resource and

evolutionary history of the area (Jayson, 1994). On

estimating the dominance of species Corvus splendons

(d=0.393), Acridotherse tristis (d=0.390) had a greater

dominance. Dominance and richness of the species

depends mostly on the resource availability (Recher and

Davis, 2002).

Considering the feeding habit of bats 37 were

insectivorous, 22 were omnivores, 13 were granivore,

4 were piscivores, 4 were frugivores, 7 were carnivores,

3 were predators, 1 was nectarivore, 3 were insectivore

and piscivore, 2 were insectivore and frugivore, 1 was

carnivore and frugivore, 1 was predator and insectivore,

and 2 were insectivore and nectarivore. Insectivore and


Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 797-808 799



S.NO COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME VERNACULAR

NAME

FEEDING

HABIT STATUS

Order:Ciconiiformes

Family:Ardeidae

1 Indian pond-heron Ardeola grayii Curuttu kokku IN, P R

2 Little egret Egretta garzetta Chinna kokku IN, P R

3 Large egret Casmerodius albus Paria kokku IN, P RM

Order:Gruiformes

Family:Rallidae

4 White-breasted waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus Kampul koli IN R

Order:Falconiformes

Family:Accipitridae

5 Black kite Milvus migrans Kalla parunthu C R

6 Brahminy kite Haliastur indus Semparunthu C R

7 Pallied harrier Circus macrourus Punai parunthu C M

8 Black eagle Ictinaetus malayensis Karumparunthu C R

9 Shikra Accipiter badius Valluru PR R

Order:Galliformes

Family:Phasianidae

10 Grey francolin Francolinus

pondicerianus Cowthari GR

R

11 Common quail Coturnix coturnix Katai GR R

12 Indian pea fowl Pavo cristatus Nila myil OM R

13 Chesnut-bellied sand

grouse Pterocles exustus Kalcowthari GR

R

14 Painted francolin Francolinus pictus Varna Kowthari GR R

15 Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis Panagkatai IN R

Order:Charadriiformes

Family:Charadriidae

16 Red-wattled lapuing Vanellus indicus Chivappumuku

alkatti CR

R

Order:Columbiformes

Family:Columbidae

17 Blue-rock pigeon Columba livia Madapura GR R

18 Spotted dove Streptopelia chinensis Pullipura GR R

19 Red collared dove Streptopelia

tranquebarica Thavittupura GR

R

20 YellowLegged Green-

Pigeon Treron phoenicoptera Pachaipura GR

R

21 Eurasian collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto Kallipura GR R

Order:Psittaciformes

Family:Psittacidae

22 Rose-ringed parakeet Psittacula krameri Senthar pynkili FR R

Order:Cuculiformes

Family:Cuculidae

23 Brainfever bird Hierococcyx varius Akka Kuyil IN R

24 Indian cuckoo Cuculus micropterus Kuyil IN R

25 Drongo cuckoo Surniculus lugubris Karisaan Kuyil IN,FR R

26 Asian koel Eudynamys scolopaceus Kokilum CR,FR R

27 Greater coucal Centropus sinensis Senbagam PR R

Table 1. Check list of birds in the study area



Order:Strigiformes

Family:Strigidae

28 Eurasian eagle owl Bubo bubo Compan anthai CR R

29 Motted wood owl Strix ocellata Poripulli owl PR R

30 Spotted owlet Athene brama Pulli anthai OM R

Family:Tytonidae

31 Barn owl Tyto alba Cukai anthai OM R

Order:Apodiformes

Family:Apodidae

32 Indian edible-nest swiftlet Collocalia unicolor China ulavaran IN R

33 House-swift Apus affinis Nattu ulavaran IN RM

34 Asian plam swift Cypsiurus balasiensis Panai ulavaran IN R

Family:Hemiprocnidae

35 Creasted tree swift Hemiprocne coronata Kontai ulavaran IN R

Order:Coraciiformes

Family:Alcedinidae

36 Small blue kingfisher Alcedo atthis Ciral menkoththi P RM

37 Oriental dwarf kingfisher Ceyx erithaca Ciru menkoththi P R

38 White-breasted kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis Wenmarbu menkoththi P R

39 Wood lane Jeannine miesle Menkoththi P M

Family:Meropidae

40 Small bee-eater Merops orientalis Chinna panchurutan IN R

41 Blue tailed bee-eater Merops philippinus Nilaval panchurutan IN M

42 Chesnut-heated bee-eater Merops leschenaulti Chanthalai pancurutan IN R

Family:Upupidae

43 Hoopoe Upupa epops Saval kuruvi IN,PR RM

Order:Piciformes

Family:Capitonidae

44 White-checked barbet Megalaima viridis China kukkuruvan FR R

45 Brown-headed barbet Megalaimia zeylanica Kattu pachai Kukkuruvan FR R

Family:Picidae

46 Small yellow-napal

woodpecker Picus chlorolophus Marangkothi IN,FR

R

47 Golden backed

woodpecker Dinopium javanense Marangkothi CR

R

48 Greater golden-backed

woodpecker Chrysocolaptes lucidus Marangkothi IN

R

49 Heart-spotted woodpecker Hemicircus canente Marangkothi IN R

50 Brown-capped pygmy

woodpecker Dendrocopos nanus Marangkothi IN

M

Order:Passeriformes

Family:Pittidae

51 Indian pitta Pitta brachyura Arumani kuruvi IN M

Family:Hirundinidae

52 Common swallow Hirundo rustica Thagaivilan IN RM

53 Wire-tailed swallow Hirundo smithii Kampi-valThagaivilan IN RM



Family:Motacillidae

54 Large-pied wagtail Motacilla maderaspatensis Karuppuvalati IN R

55 Grey wagtail Motacilla cinerea Karum sampal valati IN M

Family:Campephagidae

56 Large cuckoo-Shrike Coracina macei Kuyil kisaan IN R

57 Common-woodshrike Tephrodornis pondiorianus Kassappakaram IN R

Family:Pycnonotidae

58 Red-whiskered bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus Chivappu mesai cinnan OM R

59 Red-vented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer Kondai kuruvi OM R

60 Black-crested bulbul Pycnonotus melanicterus Karungontai cinnan OM R

61 Black bulbul Hypsipetes leucocephalus Karun cinnan OM R

Family:Irenidae

62 Gold-fronted chloropsis Chloropsis aurifrons Pachai cittu OM R

63 Asianfairy-bluebird Irena puella Vannachittu OM M

Family:Turdinae

64 Malabar whisting-thrush Myiophonus horsfieldii Pung kuruvi OM M

65 White-rumbed shama Copsychus malabaricus Shama OM R

66 Indian robin Saxicoloides fulicata Carkuruvi IN R

67 Pied bushchat Saxicola caprata kathirkuruvi IN R

Family:Timaliidae

68 Large gray babbler Turdoides malcolmi Chilampan OM R

69 Jungle babbler Turdoides striatus Chilampan OM R

70 White-heated babbler Turdoides affinis Chilampan OM R

Family:Sylviinae

71 Jungle prinia Prinia sylvatica Kattukathir kuruvi IN R

72 Ashy prinia Prinia socialis Sampal kathirkuruvi IN R

73 Plain prinia Prinia inornata kathirkuruvi OM M

74 Paddyfied warbler Acrocephalus agricola vayelKathirkuruvi IN RM

75 Indian greatreed warbler Acrocephalus stentoreus Nanal kathir kuruvi IN M

76 Common tailer bird Orthotomus sutorius Thyal cittu IN R

77 Red-throated flycatcher Ficedula parva Epedippan IN M

78 Nilgiri flycatcher Eumyias albicaudatus Epedippan IN M

Family:Monarchinae

79 Asian paradise-flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi Arasaval kuruvi IN RM

Family:Muscicapidae

80 Kashmir flycatcher Ficedula subrubra Epedippan IN M

granivore was observed to be greater in number in this

area due to the availability of food resources.

Study on nesting pattern of birds showed that

they were found to have a various pattern of nest. Birds

build cup nest (25 species), hole nest (24 species),

platform nest (15 species), pendent nest (5 species), bell

shaped nest (3 species), ground nests (2 species) and

oyster shaped nest (1 species). Birds were observed to

use variety of materials for nest construction (Table 2).

Study on breeding period of avifauna in the study

area revealed that 28 bird species had their breeding

period during June to November, 24 birds had their

breeding periods during December to March, and 17

birds had their breeding periods during April to June, and

6 birds had breeding period without any specificity

depending only on food and climatic conditions. 30% of

birds had their breeding periods during the rainy season

and 50% of birds had their breeding periods during



Family:Dicaeidae

81 Tickell’s flower pecker Dicaeum erythrorhynchos Pakku chittu FR R

Family:Nectariniidae

82 Purple-rumbed sunbird Nectarinia zeylonica Manjal thenchittu NR R

83 Small sunbird Nectarinia minima China thencittu IN,NR M

84 Purple sunbird Nectarinia asiatica Uthathenchittu IN R

Family:Estrildidae

85 White-throated munia Lonchura malabarica Thiinai kuruvi GR R

86 Black-headed munia Lonchura malacca Thinaii kuruvi GR R

Family:Passerinae

87 House sparrow Passer domesticus Chittu kuruvi GR R

Family: ploceinae

88 Baya weaver Ploceus philippinus thuknanagkuruvi GR R

Family:Sturnidae

89 Grey-headed starling Sturnus malabaricus Sampal thalai myna OM R

90 Commom myna Acridotheres tristis Narathan kuruvi OM R

Family:Oriolidae

91 Black-headed oriole Oriolus xanthornus Mangkuyil OM R

Family:Dicruridae

92 Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus Karuvatuvalli IN R

93 Ashy Drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus Karisaan IN M

94 White-bellied Drongo Dicrurus caerulescens Vellai-vaittu Karisaan IN R

95 Spangled Drongo Dicrurus hottentottus Kontai karisaan IN,NR R

96 Bronzed Drongo Dicrurus aeneus Karumpachai karichan IN M

Family:Corvidae

97 Indian treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda Valkakkai OM R

98 White-bellied treepie Dendrocitta leucogastra White valaivaettukakai OM M

99 House crow Corvus splendens Manikagam OM R

100 Jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchos Andakagam OM R

IN-Insetivore, P-Piscivore, CR-Carnivore, GR-Granivore, OM-Omnivore, FR-Frugivore, PR-Predators, NR-Nectarivore. ;

R – Resident; M – Migrant.



COMMON NAME AND

SCIENTIFIC NAME NEST SITE NEST TYPE NEST MATERIALS

BREEDING

TIME

Egretta garzetta Little Egret

Trees around lake

area Platform nest Twigs Nov-Feb

Casmerodius albus

Large egret

Trees around lake

area Platform nest Twigs Nov-Feb

Ardeola grayii

Indian Pond-Heron

Trees around lake

area Platform nest Twigs, small stems Nov-Apr

Milvus migrans

Black kite Tree canopy Platform nest Twigs, cloth, paper Sep-Apr

Haliastur indus

Brahminy kite Trees in water area Platform nest Twigs, cloth, jute, coir Dec-Apr

Ictinaetus malayensis

Black eagle Trees in hilly area Platform nest Twigs, stems, Rootlets Nov-Mar

Francolinus pictus

Painted francolin Ground Cup nest Dry Grass, leaves Jun-Sep

Coturnix coturnix

Common Quail Ground Cup nest Dry Grass, twigs Mar-Jul

Pavo cristatus

Indian Peafowl Bushes Platform nest Grass, twigs Jan-May

Amaurornis phoenicurus

White-breasted water hen Bushes Cup nest

Twigs, leaves, small

stems Apr-Oct

Vanellus indicus

Red-wattled Lapwing Ground Ground nest Mud, twigs, grass Mar-Sep

Pterocles exustus

Chestnut-bellied sand

grouse

Ground Ground nest Mud, twigs, grass Jan-Apr

Columba livia

Blue Rock pigeon

Temple towers/

stone buidings Platform nest Small sticks, fibres Annual

Streptopelia tranquebarica

Red collared-Dove Bushes,Small trees Platform nest Twigs, small sticks Annual

Treron phoenicoptera

Yellow-legged Green-pigeon Bushes,small trees Platform nest Twigs, Small stems Mar-Jun

Psittacula krameri

Rose-ringed parakeet Tree holes Hole nest - Jan-Apr

Tyto alba

Barn Owl

Temple towers/

Tree holes Hole nest - Annual

Bubo bubo

Eurasian Eagle Owl Sandy riverbanks Hole nest - Nov-May

Strix ocellata

Mottled Wood-Owl

Tree holes/

Cavities Hole nest Twigs, feathers Jan-Mar

Athene brama

Spotted Owlet

Tree holes/

Cavities Hole nest Fibrers Nov-Mar

Table 2. Nesting details of birds in the study area



Collocalia unicolor Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet

Building towers (Sirpi) shape Saliva, grass, fibres,

alga Mar-Jun

Cypsiurus balasiensis Asian Palm Swift

Trees (Palm trees) Cup nest Soft flower, feathers Annual

Not in winter

Apus affinis House Swift

Temple towers/

Bridges Cup nest

Feathers, paddy leaves

Annual

Not in winter

Alcedo atthis Small Blue kingfisher

Sandy river banks Hole nest - Feb-Sep

Ceyx erithaca Oriental Dwarf kingfisher

Sandy river banks Hole nest - July-Sep

Halcyon smyrnensis White-breasted kingfisher

Sandy river banks Hole nest - Jan-Jul

Nyctyornis athertoni Blue-beared Bee-eater

River banks Hole nest - Feb-Aug

Merops orientalis Small Bee-eater

Sandy road side Hole nest - Feb-Jun

Merops leschenaulti Chestnut-headed Bee-eater

Sandy river banks Hole nest - Feb-Jun

Coracias benghalensis Indian Roller

Tree holes Hole nest Grasses, straw, cloth Jan-Apr

Upupa epops

Hoo poe

Tree holes,

cavities, building

towers

Hole nest - Jan-Apr

Megalaima zeylanica Brown-headed barbet

Tree holes Hole nest - Feb-May

Megalaima viridis White-checked Barbet

Tree holes Hole nest - Dec-Jun

Dendrocopos nanus Brown-capped pygmy

Woodpecker

Tree holes Hole nest - Feb-Jul

Picus chlorolophus Small yellow-naped

Woodpecker

Tree holes Hole nest - Jan-May

Dinopium javanense Golenden backed

Wood Pecker

Tree holes

Hole nest - Feb-Jul

Chrysocolaptes lucidus Greater Golden-backed

Wood pecker

Tree holes Hole nest - Dec-Mar

Hemicircus canente Heart-Spotted Wood pecker

Tree holes Hole nest - Nov-Apr

Motacilla maderaspatensis Large Pied Wagtail

Water source

Near Cup nest

Root, grasses,

threads, jute Dec-Jun

Tephrodornis pondicerianus Common Wood Shrike

Trees Cup nest Barks, fibres Feb-Jul



Pycnonotus melanicterus Black-crested Bulbul

Small trees Cup nest Grasses, Twigs, spider

threads, leaves Jan-Aug

Pycnonotus jocosus Red-whiskkered Bulbul

Bushes, house roof Cup nest Twigs,leaves,spider

threads, root lets Dec-Jun

Pycnonotus cafer Red-vented Bulbul

Trees Cup nest Fibres, twigs Feb-Nov

Hypsipetes leucocephalus

Balck Bulbul Trees Cup nest

Grasses, dry leaves,

wood Alga, wood

mushrooms

Mar-Jun

Chloropsis aurifrons Gold-fronted cholropsis

Tree canopy Cup nest Fibres Jan-Feb

Irena puella Asian Fairy-Blue bird

Forest-trees Platform nest Twigs, stems Jan-Jun

Myiophonus horsfieldii Malabar whistling-thrush

Opportunistic Cup nest None Apr-Sep

Copsychus malabaricus White-rumped Shama

Tree holes

Hole nest None Apr-Jun

Saxicoloides fulicata Indian Robin

Cavities, wall tree

Holes Hole nest Grasses, feathers, straw Feb-Jul

Saxicola caprata Pied bushchat

Bushes, wall,

tree holes Hole nest Grasses feathers ,straw Feb-May

Turdoides malcolmi Large Gray Babbbler

Bushes, small trees Cup nest Grasses, fibres, rootlets,

twigs Mar-Sep

Turdoides striatus Jungle Babbbler

Bushes, small trees Cup nest Grasses, roots, twigs Mar-Oct

Turdoides affinis White-headed Babbler

Bushes, small trees Cup nest Grasses, roots, twigs Mar-Oct

Prinia sylvatica Jungle prinia

Bushes Ball shapped

Nest Grasses Mar-Oct

Prinia Socialis Ashy prinia

Bushes Cup nest Fibres, small sticks Apr-Aug

Orthotomus sutorius Common Tailor bird

Trees Cup nest Fibres, leaves, cotton

wool Apr-Dec

Eumyias albicaudata Nilgiri Flycatcher

Tree holes Cup nest Green tree’s Alga,

Rootlets Feb-Jun

Terpsiphone paradisi

Asian Paradise-Flycatch Trees Cup nest

Fibres, twigs, rootlets,

leaves May-Jul

Dicaeum erythrorhynchos Tickell’s Flower pecker

Trees Pendant nest Fibres, grasses, rootlets,

Spider thread Jan-Jun

Nectarinia zcylonica Purple-rumped sunbird

Bushes, small trees Pendant nest Grasses, fibres, spider

Threads Feb-Apr

Nectarinia minima Small sunbird

Small trees Pendant nest Grasses, papers, spider

Threads, fibres Dec-Apr

harvesting periods. Two harvesting season prevails in the

study area, first during the month of February to March

and second during the month of November. 24 birds had

their breeding during first harvesting season and another

24 during the second harvesting season. An interesting

fact was observed that the bird species which had their

breeding periods during rainy season were observed to

be insectivores and omnivores, and bird species that had

their breeding period during harvesting periods were

insectivores, granivores and omnivores. They had their

chance of survival to a maximum by adapting a

successful feeding strategy. During the rainy season

insect population will be more, hence insectivore breeds

during this time and they can feed their young one with

sumptuous amount of food, similarly birds that breed

during harvesting season were granivores, where they

got food at a greater amount to feed their young ones.

Food is believed to be one of the most critical resources

for the survival and reproduction of animals. A

wellknown theory in ecology known as the ‘food

availability-breeding time’, most birds breed at the time

when plenty of food is available for their chicks. Habitat

selection in birds is an account for their reproductive

success (Danchin et al., 1998).

CONCLUSION

Due to habitat loss, fragmentation and

urbanization a vast land area that provide roost resource



Nectarinia asiatica Purple Sunbird

Small trees Pendant nest Grasses, leaves, fibres,

Spiderthread Jan-Jun

Lonchura malabarica White-throated Munia

Bushes, small trees Ball shaped

nest Feathers, cotton wool Dec-May

Lonchura Malacca Black-headed Munia

Small trees Ball shaped Grasses, fibres, straw Oct-May

Passer domesticus House sparrow

Building roof,

Holes, avities Cup nest

Grasses, straw, cotton,

many waste material Annual

Ploceus philippinus Baya Weaver

Trees Pendant nest Paddy leaves, grasses Depending

Rainy season

Sturnus malabaricus Grey-headed starling

Tree holes Hole nest - Apr-Jul

Acridotheres trists Common Myna

Treeholes,

Building cavities Cup nest

Twigs, roots, leaves,

Polythene, feathers Mar-Sep

Dicrurus macrocercus Black Drongo

Trees Cup nest Fibres, twigs Mar-Jul

Dicrurus caerulescens White-bellied Drongo

Trees Cup nest Twigs, fibres Mar-Jun

Dicrurus hottentottus Spangled Drongo

Trees Paltform nest Twigs, grasses, rootlets Mar-Apr

Dendrocitta vaga bunda Indian Treepie

Trees Platform nest Twigs, fibres, coir, fine

cloth Mar-May

Dendrocitta leucogastra

White-bellied Treepie Trees Cup nest Leaves, twigs, rootlets Feb-Apr

Corvus splendens House Crow

Trees, lamp post,

House towers Platform nest

Twigs, fine cloth, coir,

fibres Mar-Aug

Corvus macrorhynchos

Jungle Crow Trees Platform nest

Leaves, twigs, fine

cloth, coir, fibres Feb-May

for birds starts depleting at a greater rate. Hence study on

the diversity and habitat is a need of the hour in order to

make conservation priorities. This study generated a base

line data on the avifauna of this region, which may

enlighten for further studies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We acknowledge Dr. A. J. A. Ranjit singh, Dr.

K. R. Narayanan, and Mr. P.Parvathiraj., Department of

Zoology, Sri Paramakalyani College, for their help in

identification of bird species.

REFERENCE

Balachandran S, Rahmani AR, Ezhilarasi N, Babu S,

Chakravarthy JPP and Ramesh T. 2005. Revaluation

of bird community structure of Palni Hills with special

reference to threatened and endemic species. Final

Report. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. 105.

Danchin E, Boulinier T and Massot M. 1998.

Conspecific reproductive success and breeding habitat

selection: Implications for the study of coloniality.

Ecology 79:2415-2428.

Grimmet R, Carol I, Tim I. 1999. A pictorial guide to

the birds of the indian subcontinent. Oxford university

press, Mumbai.

Jayson EA. 1994. Synecology and behavioural studies

on the forest birds of Kerala. PhD Thesis, University of

Calicut, Calicut. 314.

Johnsingh AJT. 2001. The Kalakad-Mundanthurai

Tiger Reserve: A global heritage of biological

diversity. Current Science.; 80 (3): 378-388.

Johnson JM. 1971. The heronry at Koonthakulam,

Tirunelveli district, Tamilnadu. Newsletter for

Birdwatchers 11(8):1-4.

Joshua J and Johnsingh AJT. 1988. Observations on

birds on Mundanthurai Plateau, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist.Soc. 85:565-577.

Kattan GH and Franco P. 2004. Bird diversity along

elevational gradients in the Andes of Colombia: Area

and mass effects. Global Ecology and Biogeography

13:451-458.

Rathinam K. 2002. Birds of Tamilnadu. (Tamilnattu

Paravaigal in Tamil) Meiappan pathipagam.

Recher HF and Davis WE. 2002. Foraging profile of a

Salmon Gum woodland avifana in western Australia.

Jour. Of Royal society of western Australia.

85(2):103-111.

Salim Ali. 2002. The book of Indian birds, Thirteenth

Revised Edition, Bombay Natural History Society

Oxford University Press, Mumbai.

Subramaninan KS. 2003. Koonthakulam.Swagat 21

(3):50-51.

Webb-Pelope CG. 1945. Notes on a few birds from

south of the Tinnevelly district. J.Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

45:425-426.

Wilkinson ME. 1961. Pelicanry at Kundakulam,

Tirunelveli district. J.Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 58(2):514-

515.



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Biology

Heavy metal accumulation by Amaranthus hybridus L. grown on

waste dumpsites in South-Eastern Nigeria.

Keywords: Heavy metal, Amaranthus hybridus, accumulation, pollution, Safety risk.

ABSTRACT: The accumulation of some heavy metals by Amaranthus hybridus grown on two waste dump sites within Abakaliki metropolis, South-Eastern Nigeria was studied using atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The results indicate that Cd, Cu and Pb in the two dump sites were above the stipulated standard, while Zn was within the stipulated standard in the soil. The two dumpsites had high level of Pb in the plant leaves; in Site 2, Cu and Zn showed the highest value while Zn in site 2 has the lowest value. Although all the values obtained in the leaves of Amaranthus hybridus were within recommended limits, but it may be dangerous to consume Amaranthus hybridus grown on dump sites since it can accumulate most of these toxic metals. The BCF value was >2 for Pb and Cd in site 1 while in site 2 the BCF value was >2 for Pb, Cu, Zn and Cd, showing that Amaranthus hybridus can tolerate and sequester these metals from soil and translocate them to the shoots. The TLF in Amaranthus hybridus indicate the following: in Iyiudele stream (Site 1) the rate of Cd and Zn in Amaranthus hybridus up take is >1 and in site 2 the rate of Pb, Cd, Cu, and Zn up take in Amaranthus hybridus were >1. The results obtained from this study showed that heavy metals in soils at the waste dump sites ended up in the studied plant, Amaranthus hybridus, cultivated on such land. Therefore farmers should be discouraged from cultivating their crops on these waste dump sites.

809-817 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 2

This article is governed by the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/

licenses/by/2.0), which gives permission for unrestricted use, non-commercial, distribution and reproduction in all medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

www.jresearchbiology.com Journal of Research in Biology

An International


Authors:

Uka UN1, Chukwuka KS2, 3

and Okorie N1.

Institution:

1.Department of Applied

Biology, Ebonyi State

University, Abakaliki-

Nigeria.

2. Department of Botany,

University of Ibadan,

Ibadan-Nigeria.

3. Department of Plant

Science and Biotechnology, Abia State University,

Uturu-Nigeria.


Chukwuka KS.

Email: [email protected]

Web Address: http://jresearchbiology.com/

documents/RA0298.pdf. Dates: Received: 31 Oct 2012 Accepted: 14 Nov 2012 Published: 22 Feb 2013

Article Citation: Uka UN, Chukwuka KS and Okorie N. Heavy metal accumulation by Amaranthus hybridus L . grown on Waste dumpsites in South-Eastern Nigeria. Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 809-817


Original Research

mailto:[email protected]

INTRODUCTION

Vegetables constitute important functional food

components by contributing protein, vitamins, iron and

calcium which have marked health effects in all

organisms (Arai, 2002). Vegetables, especially leafy

vegetables, grown in heavy metal contaminated soils,

accumulate higher amounts of metals than those grown

in uncontaminated soils (Al Jassir et al., 2005). Heavy

metals are important contaminants and are found in the

surface and tissues of vegetables in environments with

such contaminants. The quest for urbanisation and

industrialization has resulted to the contamination of soil

and metal accumulation in soils and crops, resulting to

metal contamination exceeding the maximum

permissible level. Plant species have a variety of

capacities in removing and accumulating heavy metals,

so there are reports indicating that some species may

accumulate specific heavy metals, causing serious health

risk to human health when plant based food stuff are

consumed (Wenzel and Jackwer, 1999).

Odai et al., (2008) studied the concentration

levels of heavy metals in vegetables grown on urban

waste dump sites. This study was carried out on three

waste dump sites in Kumasi where vegetables cultivation

(cabbage, lettuce and spring onions) are practiced. Crops

and soil samples were collected and analyzed for the

presence of four heavy metals: Cadmium, lead, copper

and zinc. The levels of the two most toxic heavy metals

were far higher in the vegetables than the WHO/FAO

recommended values and the transfer factors of these

two metals were also the highest suggesting that

consumption of vegetables grown on such sites could

be dangerous to human health. Chove et al.,

(2006) carried out a study to determine the levels of

two heavy metals, Lead (Pb) and Copper (Cu), in two

popular leafy vegetables grown around Morogoro

Municipality in Tanzania. Vegetable samples of

Pumpkin leaves (Cucurbita moschata) and Chinese

cabbage (Brassica chinensis) were collected from three

sites and analyzed for the concentrations of the

two metals using an Atomic Absorption

Spectrophotometer. The results showed that levels

of Lead and Copper in the two vegetables were found to

be below the maximum permissible levels recommended

by FAO/WHO for the two metals in the vegetables.

In Abakaliki, South-eastern Nigeria, there is an

indiscriminate and inappropriate waste disposal. This

implies that the concentration of heavy metals in both

plant and soil is expected to be high. In this study,

Amaranthus hybridus was chosen for phytoremediation

study as well as heavy metal contamination because

it is a vegetable crop, rich in proteins, vitamins and

minerals. Its yield, ability to grow in hot weather

conditions, high nutritive value and their pleasant taste

and the fact that they grow all year round, makes it a

popular vegetable. (Grubben, 1976). This study was

undertaken to determine:

the status of heavy metal (Pb, Cu, Zn and Cd)

contamination in the selected waste dump soil in

Abakaliki Urban.

heavy metal concentrations in Amaranthus hybridus

from these waste dump sites and compare the levels

with WHO/FAO permissible levels.

the extent of heavy metal uptake from these sites

using transfer factor


The study was carried out during the month of

October, 2011 which is part of the rainy season

in the area under investigation. Samples of

Amaranthus hybridus and soils were collected from 2

dump sites located at Iyiudele street and Abakaliki-

Enugu Expressway located within Abakaliki Urban,

Ebonyi State. Ebonyi State lies within the Cross River

plain, approximately between 7°30’ N and 8°30’ N

latitude and 5°40’E and 6°45’E longitude

(Nnamani et al, 2009). A total of 12 plants and soil

samples were collected from the two dump sites (six per

Uka et al., 2013


dump site). The plants were washed with tap water to

remove sand from the leaves, stem and roots. The plants

were put into separate polythene bags, labelled and taken

to the laboratory. In the laboratory the plants were

further washed with distilled water.

Identification of plants

The selected plant was collected in triplicate.

The identification and taxonomic characterization was

performed at the herbarium facility of the Ebonyi State

University, Abakaliki through botanical keys where the

vouchers were deposited.

Sample preparation and analysis

The plants were separated into leaves, stem and

root and air dried for 21 days to remove moisture. Soil

samples were air dried for 21 days, then sieved through

2 mm mesh. 0.5 g dried, grinded and sieved plant and

soil samples were analysed according to methods of

Umoren and Onianwa (2005). Concentrations of Pb, Cu,

Zn and Cd were determined using atomic absorption

spectrophotometer model sp-9 (Pye Unicam). The mean

values of three determinations per composite sample

were recorded.

The Bioconcentration Factor (BCF) of metals

was used to determine the quantity of heavy metals that

were absorbed by the plant from the soil (Ghosh and

Singh, 2005a) and is calculated using the formula:

BCF = Metal Concentration in whole plant

Concentration of metal in soil

To evaluate the potential of plants for

phytoextraction the translocation factor (TF) was used,

according to Marchiol et al., (2000) and is calculated as

follows:

TF = Metal Concentration (Stem + leaves)

Metal concentration (roots)

RESULTS

The mean concentration of the four heavy metals

(Pb, Cu, Zn and Cd) in soil samples from the waste dump

sites in Abakaliki Urban are presented in Table 1. The

mean concentration of Pb ranged from 0.07±0.01 in site

2 to 0.12±0.01 Mg/g in site 1 (Table 1and Fig 1). Mean

concentration of Cu ranged from 0.06± 0.01 Mg/g in site

2 to 0.24±0.01 Mg/g in site 1. These differences were

significant (P<0.05). The mean concentration of Zn

(0.01±0.00) in both sites were similar, while the highest

mean concentration of Cd (0.08±0.01) was found in

Uka et al., 2013

Sample Location Pb Cu Zn Cd

Site 1 0.12±0.01 0.24±0.01 0.01±0.00 0.05±0.01

Site 2 0.07±0.01 0.06±0.01 0.01±0.00 0.08±0.01

Table 1 Heavy metal variations (Mg/g) in soil sample from

some waste dumpsites in Abakaliki Urban.


Site 1 Site 2

Figure 1 Concentration of metals in soil samples from the waste dump soil samples

Co

ncen

trati

on

Mg

/Kg

Co

ncen

trati

on

Mg

/Kg

site 2 compared to ‘site 1’ (0.05± 0.01). However, the

differences were not significant (P >0.05).

The comparison of the maximum levels of the

various heavy metals in the dump site soil from site 1

and site 2 to acceptable standards is as shown in Table 2.

Cd, Cu and Pb were above the stipulated standard. Zn

was within the acceptable standard.

The accumulation of metals in the

Amaranthus hybridus parts from Iyiudele stream were

varied with Pb ranging from 0.01 mg/g- root, 0.33 mg/g-

stem and 0.5 mg/g leaf, Cu ranged from 0.12 mg/g-

root,0.07 mg/g stem and leaf (not detected); Zn ranging

from 0.01 mg/g for leaf, while it was detected in root and

stem. Cd ranged from 0.02 mg/g for root, 0.43 mg/g

for stem, while in leaf it was not detected (Figure 1,

Table 2). The concentration of Pb in leaf and stem in site

1 were above the WHO/FAO limit for vegetables, while

Cu and Zn were within the acceptable standard. Cd

concentration in stem was also above WHO/FAO Limit.

Amaranthus hybridus from old Kpirikpiri ranged

as follows: Pb-0.2 mg/g for root,0.04 for stem and

0.6 mg/g for leaf. Cu ranged from 0.08 mg/g-root,

0.05 mg/g-stem, 0.08 mg/g for leaf. Zn ranging from

0.03 mg/g-root, 0.04 mg/g-stem and 0.09mg/g leaf and

Cd ranging from 0.05 mg/g- root, 0.38 mg/g- stem and

0.15 mg/g - leaf (Figure 1, Table 2). Pb concentration in

leaf at site 2 was above the recommended dietary

allowance. The concentration of Cd in stem was above

the WHO/FAO allowance.


Uka et al., 2013

Site 1 Site 2

Metal/Plant Part Root Stem Leaf Root Stem Leaf *WHO/FAO

Pb 0.01±0.00 0.33±0.08 0.5±0.11 0.2±0.06 0.04±0.01 0.6± 0.12 0.30 Cu 0.12±0.01 0.07±0.01 ND 0.08±0.01 0.05±0.01 0.08±0.02 73.30

Zn ND ND 0.01±0.00 0.03±0.01 0.04±0.01 0.09±0.01 99.40

Cd 0.02±0.01 0.43±0.01 ND 0.05±0.01 0.38±0.01 0.15±0.01 0.20

WHO/FAO = Guideline for heavy metal concentration in leafy vegetables

Table 2 Heavy metal contamination of Amaranthus hybridus (Plant parts) (Mg/kg)

at waste dumpsites in Abakaliki Urban.

Figure 2 Comparison of metal content in soil from the study sites

Pb

Co

ncen

trati

on

Mg

/Kg

Cu

Co

ncen

trati

on

Mg

/Kg

Zn

Co

ncen

trati

on

Mg

/Kg

Cd

Co

ncen

trati

on

Mg

/Kg

Determination of the movement of metals from soil to

plant

The Bioconcentration factor (BCF) represented

in Table 4 showed the ability of Amarathus hybridus to

extract heavy metals from the soil. BCF Value at the site

1 was highest for Cd followed by Pb, Zn and Cu. At site

2, the BCF index was highest for Zn followed by Pb, Cd

and Cu.

Translocation Factor

Metals that are accumulated by plants and mostly

stored in the roots of plants are indicated by TF values

<1. Values >1 indicate translocation to the aerial parts of

plant. These are represented in Table 5. Values <1 were

found for Cu and Zn in site 1, while values >1 were

found for Pb and Cd in site 1. TF values were >1 in

site 2.

DISCUSSIONS

A study of Pb, Cu, Zn and Cd in soils and

naturally growing Amaranthus hybridus from selected

waste dump sites in Abakaliki urban was carried out. The

results show that Cd, Cu and Pb concentration in the soil

from the studied sites were above the stipulated standard,

while zinc was within the acceptable standard (Table 2).

The high levels of heavy metals in the dump site could

be attributed to huge amount of waste products disposed

of at the dump site (Ebong et al., 2007). The high levels

of these metals present the sites as potentially hazardous

and highly inimical to the food chain and biological life

and a clean environment. Al Jassir et al., (2005) reported

that leafy vegetables grown in heavy metals

contaminated soils, accumulate higher amount of metals

than those grown in uncontaminated soils because of the

fact that they absorb these metals through their leaves.

Pb is a chemical pollutant in the environment and

an element that is toxic to plants. (Sasmaz et al., 2008).

Kabata-Pendias and Pendias (2001) reported that

Pb contents of plants grown in uncontaminated areas

varied between 0.05 and 3.0 mg/kg. Carranza- Alvarez et

al., (2008) also reported that Pb concentration ranged

from 10 to 25 Mg/kg. In this study, Pb accumulation was

higher in the leaves of Amaranthus hybridus in the two

sites. According to Zurera-Cosano et al., (1989),

vegetables take up metals by absorbing them from

contaminated as well as from deposits on different parts

of vegetables exposed to the air from polluted

environment.

The ranges of Cu obtained in all the plant parts

in both dump sites are lower than 11.50±2.16, 2.50,

0.923 mg kg-1 as reported in different types of vegetables

by Farooq et al., (2008). In site 1 there was no trace of

Uka et al., 2013


This Study Maximum Standards

Pb 0.13 0.0066

Cu 0.26 0.0066

Zn 0.02 0.05 Cd 0.08 0.07

Table 2 Mean concentration (Mg/g) found in the

dumpsite soil and maximum permissible

metal content in soil

Source: Kabata-Pendias and Pendias 1992;

Figure 3 Heavy metal content (Pb,Cu, Zn and Cd ) of Amaranthus hybridus at the study sites

Co

ncen

trati

on

Mg

/Kg

Co

ncen

trati

on

Mg

/Kg

Cu in the leaf of Amaranthus hybridus, it could be that

the metal is within the root and stem, thus it has not been

translocated to the leaf. Despites the presence of Cu in

the other parts of Amaranthus hybridus, it was within the

recommended limit.

In site 1 there were no trace of Zn in the root and

stem but present in the leaf with low value, the absence

of Zn in the root and stem of Amaranthus hybridus in

site 1 may be that it has been volatilized or that it is not

essential for plant growth, the presence of Zn in the leaf

may be due to emissions from the environment. In site 2,

there were presence of Zn in the root, stem and leaf of

Amaranthus hybridus although the leaf had higher heavy

metal but they were all within recommended standard.

However, since the leaf of this vegetable is the edible

part, continuous intake of this vegetable from the dump

sites may be toxic and lethal to the health of the

consumers.

The ranges of Cd obtained from

Amaranthus hybridus in Site 1 are, root 0.02±0.01, stem,

0.43±0.01 and leaf was below detection limit. Cd in the

stem of Amaranthus hybridus in site 1 was higher when

compared to the ranges of Cd obtained from other

vegetables as reported by Maleki and Zarasvard (2008)

but lower than 0.667-0.933 as reported in other

vegetables (Abdullahi et al., 2009). However, the level

of Cd in the stem is within the recommended limit.

Comparing the two dump sites, stem had a higher

heavy metal, it could be that Amaranthus hybridus had

taken these metals up and stored mostly in the stem. The

BCF signifies the amount of heavy metals in the soil that

ended up in the vegetable crop. The BCF values were >2

for Pb and Cd at site 1 whereas in site 2 BCF values was

>2 for Pb, Cu, Zn and Cd. This implies that the degree of

transportability of these metals is site dependent and

could be due to different forms in which these metal ions

are available at these sites. These results enable us to

conclude that Amaranthus hybridus can tolerate and

sequester these metals from the soil and translocate it to

the shoots, thus making Amaranthus hybridus cultivated


Uka et al., 2013

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0

Figure 4 Mean concentration of Pb,Cu,Zn and Cd in roots, stem and leaf of

Amaranthus hybridus from the two respective sites

Pb

Co

ncen

trati

on

in

ro

ot,

ste

m a

nd

leaf

Mg

/Kg

Cu

Co

ncen

trati

on

in

ro

ot,

ste

m a

nd

leaf

Mg

/Kg

Zn

Co

ncen

trati

on

in

ro

ot,

ste

m a

nd

leaf

Mg

/Kg

Cd

Co

ncen

trati

on

in

ro

ot,

ste

m a

nd

leaf

Mg

/Kg

on these waste dump sites unfit for human consumption.

The translocation factor can be used to estimate

plants potential for phytoremediation purposes. Metals

that are accumulated by plants and mostly stored in the

roots of plants are indicated by TLF values greater than

1. The translocation ability of Amaranthus hybridus for

these heavy metals were in these order Pb (83) >Cd

(21.50), while in site 2, Cd (10.60) >Zn (4.33) >Pb (3.20)

>Cu (1.63). This is an indication of efficient way of

transportation of these metals from root and its

accumulation in shoot. Baker (1981) and Zu et al.,

(2005) reported that TLFs higher than 1.0 were

determined in metal accumulator species, whereas TLFs

was typically lower than 1.0 in metal excluder species.

The TLFs higher than 1.0 indicated an efficient ability to

transport metal from root to leaf, most likely due to

efficient metal transporter system of plants (Zhao et al.,

2002), and probably sequestration of metals in leaf

vacuoles and apoplast (Lasat et al., 2002). The vacuole is

generally considered to be the main storage site for

metals in yeast and plant cells, and there is evidence that

phytochelatin-metal complexes are pumped into the

vacuole (Gratăo et al., 2005). It was reported that plants

also have the ability to hyperaccumulate various heavy

metals by the action of phytochelatins and

metallothioneins, forming complexes with heavy metals

and translocate them into vacuoles (Suresh and

Ravishankar, 2004).

The results obtained from this study have shown

that heavy metals in soils at the waste dump sites ended

up in the studied plant, Amaranthus hybridus, cultivated

on such land. The Four heavy metals Lead, Cadmium,

Copper and Zinc were present in the studied sites. The

concentration of lead and Cadmium that ended up in this

vegetable far exceeded the WHO/FAO dietary

allowance. Therefore farmers should be discouraged

from cultivating their crops on these waste dump sites.

REFERENCES

Abdullahi MSA, Uzairu and Okunota OJ. 2009.

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concentrations in onion leaves. Int. J. Environ. Res.,

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Al-Jassir MSA Shaker and Khaliq MA. 2005.

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Uka et al., 2013


Translocation Factor

Site 1 Site 2

Pb 83* 3.20*

Cu 0.53 1.63*

Zn 0.01 4.33*

Cd 21.50 10.60*

Values > 1 are regarded as high values

Table 5 Translocation factor of the studied heavy

metals at the dumpsite soil in Abakaliki Urban

Bioconcentration Factor

Site 1 Site 2

Pb 7 12

Cu 0.8 3.5

Zn 1 16

Cd 9 7.3

Table 4 Bioconcentration factor (BCF) of each

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Elements in plants and Soils. CRC Press Inc Boca Raton

Florida, 337.

Kabata-Pendias A, Pendias H. 2001. Trace Elements in

Soils and Plants. CRC Press, Washington, D.C.

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Environmental Quality 31:109-120.

Maleki A and Zarasvand MA. 2008. Heavy metals in

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2008. Heavy metals uptake by vegetables cultivated on

urban waste dumpsites. Case study of Kumasi, Ghana.

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accumulation of heavymetals in Typha latifolia L. grown

in a stream carrying secondary effluent. Ecological

engineering 33: 278-284.

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a p p r o a c h f o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l c l e a n

up. Crit Rev Biotechnol., 24:97124.

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distribution of some heavy in urban soils of Ibadan,

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heavy metals in plants grown on mineralized solids of

the Austrian Alps. Environ. Poll., 104:145-155.

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in

Biology

Treatment of digestive tract ailments in cattle with

herbal folk-medicines: A preliminary study in Ganjam District.

Keywords: Ethno-veterinary, folk medicine, Ganjam, traditional healers, traditional knowledge.

ABSTRACT:

Use of medicinal plants for the prevention and treatment of digestive tract ailments in cattle has originated long back in the history. An attempt was made to list out different successful preparations used by rural traditional healers and farmers to cure the common digestive tract ailments of the domestic cattle, mainly cows and buffaloes. Personal interviews with pre-structured questionnaire, observation of preparation of herbal medicines and their administration, results attained etc. were made to make a preliminary study of the traditional method of treatment. Collection of sample plant species and their identification, refinements of the methods adopted for preparation of these herbal medicines were done with the help of the local people especially the village heads and older persons. A total of 66 plant species of 40 families distributed in 61 genera was recorded. Efficacy of these preparations was examined in the subsequent visits. Problems identified by the farmers include: lack of support for validation of these herbal medicines and less availability of some medicinal plants due to their seasonal nature. Such traditional/folk medicines used against digestive tract ailments of domestic cattle, continuing with the rural folk of the study area, still remained unnoticed and undocumented.

818-827 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 2





An International Scientific

Research Journal

Authors:

Dibakar Mishra

Institution:

Department of Zoology,

Polasara Science College,

Polasara, District: Ganjam,

Odisha, 761 105 India.


Dibakar Mishra.

Email:

[email protected]

Tel:

(+91)9778098432


documents/RA0322.pdf.

Dates: Received: 11 Jan 2013 Accepted: 10 Feb 2013 Published: 07 Mar 2013

Article Citation: Dibakar Mishra. Treatment of digestive tract ailments in cattle with herbal folk-medicines: A preliminary study in Ganjam District. Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 818-827


Original Research

Abbreviations :

g = Gram ; ml = milliliter ; Km = Kilometer ; sq = Square .

INTRODUCTION

India has a vast knowledge of herbal preparations

for treatment of different ailments both of human and of

animals. Major part of this art of healing has either been

vanished or been ignored. Still it is found with some

people living in the remote corners, who are either

farmers or animal owners. Their system of treatment

varies greatly either due to geographical gap or due to

climatic differences. It has also been observed that these

preparations show wonderful results, without any

side-effects in comparison to their modern counterparts,

the allopathic medicines. (Vijai et al., 2009).

This traditional science of healing is purely based

on trial and error by the aboriginal people and was

transmitted through words of mouth from generation to

generations. Further as plants are inseparable from

human life, their uses cannot be ignored. While plants

fulfill the basic requirements of human civilization like

food, shelter and clothing, it also is used for their better

health. India and Indian culture have exploited about

more than 2500 plants for medicinal purpose and this art

of treatment has become a part of folklore medicines.

Such medicines are at present practiced by a small

segment of our society who has a separate identity as

“Pasu vaidya” or the animal doctors or more commonly

the traditional healers. (Chendel et al., 1996; Sankar

Ganesh et al., 2007). Since no written records of such

drugs are available, it is possible that this invaluable

knowledge of our farmers would get lost in history.

The traditional folk-medicines that are

inseparable from the rural life of India are better known

as “Ethnoveterinary Medicines” (EVM) which can better

be defined as the result of a long term practice of herbal

treatment of animals which has been deeply integrated

with the custom and tradition of Indian life. (Mathius-

Mundy and McCorkle, 1989).

By this time steps are being taken to establish

this traditional heritage of folk medicinal science and

the present work is the first step in this regard in

the study area. Apart from different cattle ailments,

digestive disorders were observed frequently which

make the animals sick, thus affecting the economy of the

owners and thus it was selected for the present study.


The study area, Ganjam district extends between

19.4oN to 20.17oN latitude and 84.7oE to 85.12oE

longitude and occupies an area of 8070.6 Km2 with a

population density of 385/Km2. It has 22 blocks and 18

urban local bodies. There are 3212 villages constituting

475 gram panchayats. Forest area recorded is about

58136sq Kms. Agriculture and animal husbandry being

the most important economic sectors of the district and

the inhabitants chiefly live in rural and semi-urban areas.

(Dist. Stat. Handbook Ganjam, 2007). Diseases of the

domestic animals mostly affect the socio-economic

status of the inhabitants and usually depend upon their

own traditional method of herbal treatment.

During 2008 to 2011 the work was scheduled

with the aim to record all the available EVM in the

district. Extensive survey was conducted throughout the

district to identify the traditional healers or locally called

the pashu vaidya and persons with this knowledge.

Data collection was done by interviews, pre-

structured questions, group discussions with the local

people within the age group of thirty to seventy including

both the sexes. Livestock owners, traditional Healers

(THs), veterinarians, farmers, and housewives were

contacted for collection of data.

During subsequent visits data verification,

identification of plants used, methods of drug preparation

and modes of drug administration were recorded. Most

of the THs were illiterate and some were only able to

read and write while few attended primary schooling.

Sample specimens of each medicinal plant

species were collected during the field visits and allotted

collection numbers. The collected specimens were then

Mishra,2013


dried, identified through Flora of Orissa. (Saxena and

Brahmam, 1994-1996).

During the following seasons, preparations were

examined on-field to get concurrent result. Case history

of common digestive ailments of cattle, response of

the cattle owners to the disease, prescriptions of the THs

and farmers, dose and administration of the herbal

preparations, effectiveness of EVM were recorded.

Standardization of the quantity of herbal materials taken

by the THs was also done to get accurate results. The

specific and reliable information was cross checked with

at least 50% of the informants were incorporated. Out of

different cattle diseases only seven common intestinal

ailments were selected for the present study.

Details of medicinal plants used in this study are

presented with botanical name followed by family in

italics within parentheses.

RESULTS

During the course of the present work significant

information regarding treatment of some common

digestive tract ailments were observed and recorded. The

preparations those are frequently used with remarkable

results are described under.

Anorexia

1. 10 to 12 Leaves of Cymbopogon citratus D.C. Stapf.

(Poaceae), black salt-10 g ground together with rice

water to make a volume of 500 ml. The liquid is

drenched to the infected animal.

2. Apium graveolens L. (Apiaceae) 15 g,

Carum carvi L. (Apiaceae) 15 g, Myristica fragrans

Houtt. (Myristicaceae) 5 g, dry ginger 30 g,

Piper nigrum L. (Piperaceae) 25 to 30 pieces, and

fried Ferula assafoetida L. (Apiaceae) 10 g are dry

ground and mixed together. Half teaspoonful of this

powder mixed with 200 ml pre-boiled and cooled

Mishra, 2013


Figure 1. study Area-Ganjam district.

water to prepare the tonic. It is drenched to the

animal once a day for 7 days. (Mishra, 2010)

3. A. graveolens, C. carvi and dry ginger in a ratio of

1:1:2 are dry ground to make a powder. 1

teaspoonful of this powder is mixed with 1

teaspoonful of jaggery to prepare a paste which is

fed to the animal as such or rubbed with its tongue

once a day for seven days. (Mishra, 2010)

4. Dry ginger 25 g and common salt 1/2 teaspoonful

with a little water is ground to make a paste. It is fed

to the animal once daily.

5. 2-3 fruits of Citrus aurantifolia L. (Rutaceae) are

ground to paste and mixed with a bit of P. nigrum

powder and black salt. This is administered orally as

appetizer especially during fever.

6. Five to seven unseeded fruits of Terminalia chebula

Retz. (Combretaceae) powdered and mixed with a

little black salt and jaggery for oral administration as

a paste to increase digestive power.

7. Whole plant extract of Mormodica charantia L.

(Cucurbitaceae) is prepared in cold water and bottle-

fed to the animal to increase its appetite.

8. T. chebula, Terminalia bellerica Roxb.

(Combretaceae) and Embelica officinalis Gaertn.

(Euphorbiaceae) in equal amount are pulverized. 15

to 20 g. of this powder with cold water is drenched

to the cattle as an appetizer. Commonly this powder

is called as „Trifala‟.

9. Seedless T. belerica 25 g is ground with a little of

black salt and water, and fed to the ailing animals

twice daily for seven days.

10. 8-10 plants of Mentha spicata L. (Lamiaceae) are

crushed to extract juice. Juice is fed with salt in the

mornings and evenings.

Ascariasis

1. Black salt, C. carvi, Solanum nigrum L.

(Solanaceae) or Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. &

Schult.) DC. (Myesinaceae) in equal proportions are

ground together in water and administered orally

twice daily.

2. C. carvi 15 g. is ground with water and administered

orally for five to seven times daily yields a very

good result.

3. Fresh young leaf juice of Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.

(Arecaceae), Ananas sativus Schult. f.

(Bromeliaceae) and C. carvi seed with black salt are

ground together with water and drenched to the

animal.

4. C a t t l e l ea f s up p l em en t s con t a in in g

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Meliaceae) leaf

powder is the best worm killer.

5. Juglans cinerea L. (Juglandaceae) extracts in water

administered orally once daily for seven days

eliminates worms in intestine.

6. The root of Mucuna prurita Hook. (Fabaceae) is

administered orally with straw to kill and remove

intestinal worms of cattle.

7. 20 g of adventitious roots of Ficus benghalensis L.

(Moraceae) is crushed and mixed in 100 ml of water.

Mixture is fed to the animal twice in a day treat

worms. Animal is completely relieved in 2 days.

Coccidiosis

1. Freshly prepared rice with A. indica A. Juss. (neem)

leaves mixed with a little of P. nigrum L. (black

pepper) powder is fed to the animal.

2. Flowers of Musa paradisiaca L. are ground with

water mixed with leaf extracts of Feronia limonia L.

Sw. administered orally.

3. Young leaf extract of Sesbania sesban L. is given as

drink to the young calf.

4. Young leaf extract of M. charantia, C. citratus,

mixed with fresh Curcuma longa L. in equal

proportions are administered orally as a liquid food

gives best result.

5. Brassica campestris L. (mustard) seeds (100-150 g)

are ground with a little water to make a paste and are

Mishra,2013


given daily once for one week to control intestinal

parasites in cattle.

6. Leaves of Chenopodium ambrosioides L. are good

to expel worms in calves.

Coli-Bacilosis / Septisemic Coli-Bacilosis

1. Dry ginger (Sonth) 50 g, Cuminum cyminum L.

(cumin) seeds 25 g, salt as per requirement are

ground together and mixed with luke warm water

(about 100-150 ml.). It is given to the animal to

drink or given with the help of a pipe or bottle twice

or thrice as per the condition of the calf with an

interval of 4 - 6 hours.

2. C. ciratus leaves 10-12 g ground with rice-water and

salt are given to the infected calf thrice daily for 2 -

3 days.

3. 50 g C. longa (turmeric) powder 200 g jaggery,

100 g fresh soft C. dactylon are mixed together and

given to the animal as feed. If the calf is unable to

eat then the same may be ground in water and

administered orally twice daily.

4. Rice water, salt, and C. cyminum L. (cumin) seeds

25 g are ground finely and given to the calf as syrup

twice daily for 3-5 days.

5. Farmers use a powder crushed separately with few

leaves of Punica granatum L. (pomegranate) 50 g,

Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke (pearl millet)

50 g, fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) seeds

50 g, Brassica campestris L. (mustard) 25 g, ajmoda

(Trachyspermum ammi) and 50g of black pepper

(Piper nigrum). It is mixed together and soaked in

one litre water for 12 hours. The water is boiled,

filtered and stored in a clean glass bottle. This

solution (100 ml) is given to the affected calf before

it is allowed to suck. Within two days the calves

excrete dead worms.

Constipation

1. 25 leaves of C. citratus, 100 g of ginger,

Zingiber officinale Rosc. and 25 g of common salt

are ground together with water to make a paste. This

is added to water to make a volume of 250 ml. The

mixture is drenched to the cattle twice daily for 3-4

days.

2. 20 leaves of C. citratus and one teaspoonful of black

salt is ground together with 200 ml. water and given

to the cattle twice daily.

3. Sonth 50 g, T. chebula 3-4 pieces and common salt

are ground together with water and administered

orally to the animal.

4. T. chebula 2-3 pieces, C. carvi 50 g, 10-15 dry

leaves of Cassia angustifolia Vahl., 20g of black

salt are ground together to powder. 10-15g of this

powder mixed with 50 g old jaggery mixed together

to make a bolus which is fed to the animal once

daily for 4-5 days.

5. Root juice of Ruta graveolens L. is given to the

animal once daily for 4 -5days.

6. Two teaspoonful of Triphala powder is given to the

animal with warm water (300 - 500ml) once daily

for 5 days.

7. Solanum viarum Dunal whole plant extract with a bit

of black salt is given to the animal for relief.

8. 75 g rhizome of Z. officinale, a little amount of

Aloe vera L., 400g of table salt, 200 g of molasses

made from Saccharum officinarum L. is mixed with

100 ml warm water, thoroughly mixed and fed to

cattle while still warm.

9. 400 ml coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) water is slightly

warmed and given to cattle.

10. 250 g whole plant of Boerhavia repens L. is crushed

thoroughly to extract juice and the juice fed with

table salt at eight hour intervals.

Diarrhoea

1. One flower of Musa paradisiaca L. ground to paste

with 10-15 black pepper (P. nigrum L.) is given to

the animal once daily for 4-5 days.

2. One flower each of M. paradisiaca and

Feronia limonia L. Sw. are ground together with

Mishra,2013


water and drenched to the animal once daily for 5

days.

3. One handful young leaves of Sesbania sesban L. is

fed to the animal twice daily for 3 days.

4. Leaf extract of M. charantia, fresh C. domestica,

C. citratus in equal proportions mixed with sonth

(Z. officinale) powder is drenched to the animal

twice daily for 5 days. In case of calves up to 2 years

the dose is reduced to half.

5. Root bark of Calotropis procera R.Br. 20 g ground

with 10 gms of C. carvi to make a paste. With

freshly prepared rice this paste is fed to the animal

twice daily for 5days.

6. Bark of Strychnos asper Lour. is boiled with water

to prepare a tincture. One tablespoon of Sonth

(Z. officinale) powder is mixed with one glass of the

tincture and drenched to the animal twice daily.

7. Leaf extract of Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr., F.

limonia, extract of Z. officinale Rosc., common salt

and sonth powder mixed together and drenched

twice or thrice daily for 3 days.

8. Pulp of 10 g of ripened Tamarindus indica L. is fed

to the animal for 2-3 days.

9. 50 ml sap of Psidium guajava L. leaves is fed twice

daily. (In case of goats this is much effective).

10. Roots of Mimosa pudica L., Achyranthes aspera L.,

Cassia occidentalis L., bark of Yucca gloriosa L. are

to be mixed and grounded. 100 pieces of P. nigrum

and 2 teaspoons of ghee are added to it. In case of

calf 40 pieces of black pepper are to be added. The

preparation is given 100g daily.

11. Leaf Juice of Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. is mixed

with water and drenched 100ml. once daily for 2-3

days.

12. Neem (A. indica A. Juss.) leaves and bark of

Coriandrum sativum L. are mixed and juice is

extracted from the mixture and then 100ml of it is

drenched everyday for 3-4days.

13. Six pieces of Bombax insigne L. seeds are

pulverized and mixed with 250 ml of buttermilk,

then filtrate of this is taken and mixed with goat

faeces and to be fed 3-4 times.

14. Leaves of Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. are mixed

with soda and fed to the cattle 50 ml daily for 2-3

days. This is very effective in blood diarrhoea.

15. Sap of 250 ml M. paradisiaca leaves and 100 ml.

sap of Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd. are

mixed with 250 g of sugar and fed to the cattle for 2-

3 days.

16. Bark and fruit of T. bellerica are pulverised and

mixed with water and boiled. 50 ml of this

preparation is drenched everyday for 4 - 5 days.

17. 50 ml. sap of leaves of T. indica and Cassia fistula

L. are mixed with the powder of 30 pieces black

pepper (P. nigrum) and administered orally once a

day for 3-4 days.

18. 100 ml. extract of Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall.

ex A. DC. leaves are to be fed to the cattle for 2-3

days.

19. 50 ml. juice obtained from the bark of

Shorea robusta Gaertn.f. is drenched to the animal.

20. 50-60 ml of tincture of stem bark of A. catechu is

given to the animal twice daily for 2-3 days.

21. Barks and leaves of A. catechu (L. f.) Willd. are

crushed, boiled in water and the water fed to cows,

buffaloes or goats every morning and evening.

22. T. indica L. leaves 25 g are mixed with 15 g of

mustard (Brassica campestris L.) seeds and fed in

the morning for 3 days. Alternately, leaves are

boiled in water and fed to cattle.

Dysentery

1. 100-150 g of stems & leaves of Hemidesmus indicus

are ground and juice is extracted and mixed with

honey and is fed to the animal.

2. 3 pieces of black pepper (P. nigrum), 2 teaspoonful

ghee and 50 g smashed Glycyrrhiza glabra are

Mishra, 2013


mixed with 250 ml cold water and drenched to the

cattle.

3. 100 ml sap extracted from Centella asiatica,

Coleus aromaticus Benth. and Cyanodon dactylon

are drenched to the cattle for 2 - 3 days.

4. 50 ml extract of Tagetes erecta shoot mixed with 50

ml extract of Cyanodon dactylon are drenched to the

animal for 3 - 4 days.

5. 3 pieces of black pepper (P. nigrum) , 5 g C. carvi

and 5 g of Swertia angustifolia are grounded and fed

to the animal for 3 - 4 days.

6. 100 g bark of Bombax insigne is boiled in 500 ml of

water and then drenched to the animal.

7. Latex of Alstonia scholaris is mixed with black

pepper (P. nigrum) in the ratio of 3:2 and given to

the animal.

8. Bark of Butea monosperma is boiled with 250 ml of

water and filtered after cooling. The extract is

drenched to the cattle.

9. 200 g leaves of Andrographis paniculata and 100 g

leaves Centella asiatica are ground to paste and fed

to the animal.

10. 100 ml extract of Holarhena antidysenterica leaves

is drenched to the animal for 2-3 days.

11. Decoction of Acacia arabica root is mixed with

mustard Brassica campestris L. oil in the ratio of 1:3

and to be drenched to the animal.

12. 8-10 plants of Mentha spicata L. (Lamiaceae) are

crushed to extract juice. 25 ml of juice is fed with

salt in the mornings and evenings.

DISCUSSION

Traditional knowledge of rural communities of

Ganjam has high ethnoveterinary importance. They

utilize numerous plants and their various parts viz., roots,

leaves, stems, barks, flowers, fruits and rhizome etc for

various ethnoveterinary practices. In the present study

seven common digestive tract ailments of domestic cattle

are discussed in detail with the common herbal folk-

medicines. Plants used were described with their

botanical names followed by the common methods of

their preparations using different parts and ingredients,

dose and methods of their administration.

A total of 66 ethno-medicinal plant species

belonging to 40 families distributed in 61 genera have

been recorded. The most dominant families in this study

are Apiaceae (6), Poaceae (5), Caesalpiniaceae and

Rutaceae (4 each), Fabaceae and Mimosaceae (3 each),

Apocynaceae, Arecaceae, Combretaceae, Lamiaceae,

Meliaceae, Solanaceae and Zingiberaceae (2 each) and

the remaining families like Acanthaceae, Agavaceae,

Amaranthaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Asteraceae,

Bombacaceae, Brassicaceae, Bromeliaceae,

Chenopodiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Dipterocarpaceae,

Euphorbiaceae, Gentianaceae, Juglandaceae,

Leguminosae, Liliaceae, Moraceae, Musaceae,

Myrsinaceae, Myristicaceae, Myrtaceae, Nyctaginaceae,

Nymphaeaceae, Periploaceae, Piperaceae, Punicaceae,

Strychnaceae were represented with one species each.

36 remedies use single plants and the rest 37 use

more than one plant. Local population of the district use

22 preparations for diarrhoea followed by 12 for

dysentery, 11 for constipation, 10 for Anorexia, 7 for

Ascariasis, 6 for Coccidiosis and 5 for Coli-baciliosis

Mishra,2013


Figure 2. No. of plants and preparations used.

which are plotted in figure-2. All these remedies are

prepared with ingredients like water, common salt, black

salt, rice water, butter milk, jaggery, and ghee.

Similarly the methods of preparation of the

above remedies fall into 9 categories such as solutions

(23), paste (20), decoctions (7), solid (5), juice (3), bolus

(1), powder (1) and tincture (1) as presented in figure-3 .

With regards to the prescriptions C. carvi is used

in 7 preparations for 6 diseases while P. nigrum in 9

preparations for 5 diseases. In the top of the list of plants

that are used in preparations and for different diseases

are Zingiber Officinale Rosc. 8 and 4, C citratus 6 and 5,

Brassica campestris L. var 4 and 4, respectively.

The THs and animal owners use different parts

of plants. Among these, leaves are most frequently used

(34) followed by seeds (28), whole plant (13), fruit and

rhizome (10 each), bark and root (8 each), flower (4),

latex and stem (2 each).(Figure-4)

During the course of study, the common

experience gained regarding the ethno-veterinary

practices in the district are that, the modern veterinary

medicines (MVM) are beyond the reach of the natives

due to their poor economic conditions. They frequently

adopt EVM as the most appropriate method of treatment

of many, if not all animal diseases. While for immediate

relief MVM is the best choice, but both EVM and MVM

can be used in an integrated way to get better results. The

traditional knowledge of medicine (folk-medicines)

needs to be properly documented and validated. To

achieve this necessary awareness regarding their

applications, effectiveness, farming, conservation are

absolutely required at the first hand.

CONCLUSION

Traditional herbal medicines are in use by most

of the communities worldwide mainly among people of

the developing countries because they are cheaper, more

sustainable, readily available, and reliable as they are in

use traditionally, and frequent alternatives to modern

veterinary medicines. The advantages of such medicines

are many and they are found to be time tested, socio-

economically related. Hence there is a growing need to

sum them up for any type of scientific validation.

(Varshneya, 2006)

Throughout the globe where traditional herbal

treatment is in use it is found that the traditional healers

have their own way of identification and classification of

animal diseases as well as medicinal herbs, drug

preparation, dose and administration. It has almost

become the first choice of the THs and animal owners

mostly due to their economic status and also easy

accessibility of the herbs.

Mishra,2013


Figure 3. Categories of Preparations Figure 4. Plant part used

Local knowledge is at the local level and

investments should be concentrated in improving a range

of practices that are appropriate and sustainable.

(Caleb A. Cudi, 2003) EVM is the first choice of the

common people in the developing countries as MVM is

beyond the reach of the rural folk. It plays an important

role in the day to day life of a common man which has

strong background of belief, religion, and ancestral time-

tested medicinal system. Plant preparations by the THs

and animal owners cost them much less than MVM and

they can prepare their own crude herbal medicines which

are safe and tested with the long trial and error based

examinations. In this context Charaka can rightly be

quoted here:

“Yogadapi visham tikshnamuttamam bheshajam bhavet,

Bheshajam chapi duryuktam tikshnam sampadhyte

visham.

Tasmannabhishaja yuktam yuktibahyen bheshajam,

Dhimta kinchidadeyam jivitarogyakankshina.”

(Charak Samhita, 1(1):127 & 128)

which says: “even venomous poison when

administered properly can be used as medicines but

when medicine is used improperly it becomes poison.

Thus it is important for those who love life and good

health not to take medicines from such vaidyas who are

not up to the mark in their medical profession.”

Taking the above points into consideration, there

is no doubt that among the large numbers of herbal

preparations used by the indigenous practitioners during

the past several centuries, there are many that deserve the

reputation they have proved to be effective. Such

preparations need to be investigated with modern

technologies for their successful implementation in the

practice of good health.

Although the information gathered from the local

traditional healers, in clinical terms, have tested the

medicinal value of these plant species for ages, yet their

confidence regarding the medicinal value of these plant

species was not sufficient to validate their claims.

Reports regarding the present ethnoveterinary

preparations require sufficient biochemical and

pharmacognosical validation to provide wide-spread

application providing much cheaper alternative

treatments to the economically poor farmers and animal

keepers. (Mishra, 2011)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is thankful to the informants and

traditional healers who shared their traditional

knowledge on medicinal uses in the field and Prof.

Bhaskar Padhy (Retd.), Berhampur University for his

guidance.

REFERENCES

Caleb A. Cudi. 2003. Ethno-Veterinary, complementary

and low cost treatment and management of working

animals, TAWS Workshop, Sisoe Research Institute,

UK. 1-10. http://www.taws.org.

Chandel, KPS, Shukla G and Neelam S. 1996.

Biodiversity in medicinal and aromatic plants in India.

Conservation and utilization. NBPGR, New Delhi. 1-

239.

District Statistical Handbook Ganjam. 2007.

Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Orissa,

Bhubaneswar.

Ganesh KS, Sundaramoorthy P, Chidambaram AA,

Baskaran L. 2007. Folklore Value of weeds grown in

the wastelands of Vedharanyam and Kodiakarai,

Nagapattinam District of Tamilnadu. Ad. Plant Sci., 20

(2):551-553.

Mathius-Mundy E and McCorkle CM. 1989.

Ethnoveterinary medicine: An annotated bibliography.

Bibliographies in Technology and Social Change, No. 6.

Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State

University, Ames, Iowa, USA. 199.

Mishra,2013


McCorkle CM and Green EC. 1998. Intersectoral

health care delivery. Agric. Hum., 15(2):105-114.

Mishra D. 2010. Ethno Veterinary practices among the

rural people of Ganjam District (Orissa) India: A Case

Study On some Common Veterinary Ailments,

Webindia123 ).

http://www.webindia123.com/health/article.asp?

a_no=242&article=Ethno+Veterinary+practices+

among+the+rural+people+of+Ganjam+District+(Orissa)

+India3A+A+Case+Study+On+some+Common+Veterin

ary+Ailments

Mishra D. 2011. Identification of some ethnoveterinary

practices for treatment of foot and mouth disease in

Polasara block, Ganjam District, Odisha, India. Journal

of research in Biology, 1(7): 543-549

Saxena HO and Brahmam M. 1994-1996. The Flora of

Orissa. Orissa Forest Development Corporation Ltd.,

Bhubaneswar. 1-4.

Varshneya C. 2006. Ethno veterinary practices of India

with particular reference to use of plant bio resources in

animal health care. http://hillagric.ernet.in/edu/covas/

v p h a r m a / wi n t e r % 2 0 s ch o o l / l e c t u r e s / 3 3 % 2 0

Ethnoveterinary%20practices%20of%20India.pdf.

Vijai DK. Sankar Ganesh P, Sundaramoorthy. 2009.

Ethnobotanical Survey Of Plants Used For Respiratory

Diseases, Recent Research in Science and Technology 1

(1):023-025.

Mishra,2013



Advantages


[email protected]


Jou

rn

al of R

esearch

in

Biology

An assessment of Floristic Diversity of Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary,

Hospet, Bellary District, Karnataka, India

Keywords: Melursus ursinus, Flora, Cassia fistula, Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Deccan plateau.

ABSTRACT:

The plant resources of Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary of Bellary district was studied and analyzed to decipher the information on the diversity, which revealed a total of 98 species of plants belonging to 85 genera and 37 families. The data collected was analyzed to determine important value index (IVI), Shannon Weiner’s Index, Indices of species richness (R) and evenness (e). The objective of this work is to help foresters and ecologists by giving an account of floral status of the study area. The biodiversity of this area is threatened by cattle (livestock) grazing, water scarcity, mining and related problems. Hence, it is suggested to adopt strict control measures to protect and maintain the biodiversity in the Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, which will help to sustain the wild herbivore at sanctuary.

828-839 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 2

This article is governed by the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which gives permission for unrestricted use, non-commercial, distribution and reproduction in all medium, provided the original work is properly cited.




Research Journal

Authors:

Harisha MN and

Hosetti BB* .

Institution:

1. Department of Post

Graduate studies and

research in Wildlife

Management, Kuvempu

University, Jnana Sahyadri,

Shankaraghatta- 577451,

Shimoga, Karnataka.

*Department of Post


research in Applied Zoology,

Kuvempu University, Jnana

Sahyadri, Shankaraghatta-

577451, Shimoga,

Karnataka.


Hosetti BB.

Email:

[email protected]


documents/RA0330.pdf.

Dates: Received: 02 Feb 2013 Accepted: 09 Feb 2013 Published: 02 Apr 2013

Article Citation: Harisha MN and Hosetti BB. An assessment of Floristic Diversity of Daroji Sloth bear Sanctuary, Hospet, Bellary District, Karnataka, India. Journal of Research in Biology (2013)3(2): 828-839


Original Research

INTRODUCTION

The forest types in India ranged from thorny

scrubby jungle to moist evergreen forest along with

moist grasslands and characteristic shola vegetation. In

each of different types of forest, very diverse plants and

faunal species are found growing naturally. Identification

of species and their diversity is a mammoth task and is

virtually impossible to have a complete inventory of

Indian biodiversity (Harisha et al., 2008). Due to

geographical variation, deccan plateau region of India

possess great diversity in agricultural as well as wild

floral and faunal diversity (Khan, 2011). The Deccan

plateau region of Bellary in particular is highly over

exploited by several anthropogenic activities, including

different types of mining. The study site is naturally

spread with hillocks, boulders, undulated terrain with

sloppy lands covered with natural jungle scrub with

native herbs, shrubs, climbers and tree species. The main

aim of sanctuary is to conserve and maintain the

rich flora and fauna with reference to sloth bear,

Melursus ursinus and its food web present in Deccan

plateau region of Bellary.

Since the Deccan plateau region is rich in

biodiversity, highly exploited for the natural resources

resulting in threat to diversity and gene pool, nearly

600 tree species found in this region are facing threat of

extinction (Khan, 2011). Studies of plant and avifaunal

diversity can be used to interpret the well being of forest

ecosystem and also as an indicator of disturbance if any

in the system. Long term management plan of forest

ecosystem should incorporate the diversification of

vegetation by using diversity indices. In order to

understand the importance of a site it is necessary to

examine the significance in terms of the presence and

abundance of species (Bruford, 2002). The present study

attempts to understand the impact of changes in the

forest cover of Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary due to

human activities.

STUDY AREA

The unique Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Hospet,

in Bellary district is the only sanctuary located in North

Karnataka, situated between 15o 14' to 15o 17' N latitude

and 76o 31' to 76o 40' E longitude. It belongs to Deccan

Plateau scrub jungle with granite boulder outcrops.

Renowned world heritage centre - Hampi is situated only

15 kilometers away from this sanctuary. The

Government of Karnataka, in October 1994, declared

5,587.30 hectares of Bilikallu reserve forest as Daroji

Bear Sanctuary. Since it has a suitable habitat for the

Indian Sloth Bears due to the rock-strewn hillocks, and

characterized by vast stretches of undulating plains with

intermittent parallel chains of hills. The sanctuary lies at

an elevation of 647 m above mean sea level. The area

experienced high temperature with a maximum 43°C

during January to May.


Field data were collected in different seasons

during January 2009- December 2011 in the study area

stretching up to 4 km radius. The area is a long narrow

strip of hills with sandy and clay loams with rocky

mountain. The vegetation was analyzed by means of

10×10 m quadrates by random sampling to give most

representative composition of forestlands. Plant species

collected in each quadrates were identified by consulting

the Flora of Madras Presidency (Gamble, 1935).

DATA ANALYSIS

The data was analyzed for measuring the

Important Value Index (IVI), Shannon-Weiner Index

(H), Species richness Index (R), Species Evenness Index

(E) and the Index of Dominance (ID). The values of

relative density, relative frequency and relative

abundance were calculated following the methods of

Shukla and Chandel (1980). The Shannon-Wiener Index

was calculated according to Michael (1990) as follows.

Shannon Weiner’s Index

(H') = ∑Pi ln Pi

Harisha and Hosetti,2013




Sl.

No

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am

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4

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221.0

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e 37

6

12

3.0

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7

Pup

ali

a l

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a (

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. A

mar

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e -

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- -

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8

Ari

stolo

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Ari

sto

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2

2

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Cari

ssa c

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Apo

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ae

9

3

12

0.7

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294.7

1.0

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6

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Cry

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Per

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Asp

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29

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ssus

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ill.

& P

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mbre

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ae

- -

- -

- -

- -

-

30

Com

mel

ina b

enghale

nsi

s L

. C

om

meli

nac

eae

10

3

12

0.8

3

0.2

5

294.7

1.1

3

4.1

7

5.3

0

31

Cya

noti

s tu

ber

osa

(R

oxb.)

Sch

ult

. &

Sch

ult

z.f.

C

om

meli

nac

eae

27

5

12

2.2

5

0.4

2

176.8

3.0

5

6.9

4

10.0

0

32

Ipom

oea

obsc

ura

(L

.) K

er G

awl.

C

onvo

lvu

lace

ae

2

2

12

0.1

7

0.1

7

442.0

0.2

3

2.7

8

3.0

0

33

Cusc

uta

ref

lexa

Ro

xb.

*

Co

nvo

lvu

lace

ae

1

1

12

0.0

8

0.0

8

884.0

0.1

1

1.3

9

1.5

0

34

Evo

lvulu

s als

inoid

es (

L.)

L.

*

Co

nvo

lvu

lace

ae

50

11

12

4.1

7

0.9

2

80.4

5.6

6

15.2

8

20.9

3

35

Mer

rem

ia t

riden

tata

(L

.) H

alli

er f

.)

Co

nvo

lvu

lace

ae

- -

- -

- -

- -

-

36

Tri

chosa

nth

es s

p.

Cucu

rbit

acea

e 1

1

12

0.0

8

0.0

8

884.0

0.1

1

1.3

9

1.5

0

37

Dio

spyr

os

panic

ula

ta D

alz

. E

benac

eae

-

- -

- -

- -

- -

38

Kir

ga

nel

ia r

etic

ula

ta (

Po

ir.)

Bai

ll.)

*

Phyll

anth

acea

e 2

2

12

0.1

7

0.1

7

442.0

0.2

3

2.7

8

3.0

0

39

Euphorb

ia t

iruca

lli

L.

*

Eupho

rbia

cea

e 11

3

12

0.9

2

0.2

5

294.7

1.2

4

4.1

7

5.4

1

40

Abru

s pre

cato

riu

s L

. *

Fabac

eae

- -

- -

- -

- -

-

41

Aca

cia c

ate

chu

(L

. f.

) W

illd

. *

Fabac

eae

49

10

12

4.0

8

0.8

3

88.4

5.5

4

13.8

9

19.4

3

42

Aca

cia l

euco

phlo

ea (

Ro

xb.)

Wil

ld.

Fabac

eae

9

2

12

0.7

5

0.1

7

442.0

1.0

2

2.7

8

3.8

0

43

Aca

cia n

iloti

ca (

L.)

Deli

le)

Fabac

eae

27

6

12

2.2

5

0.5

0

147.3

3.0

5

8.3

3

11.3

9

44

Aca

cia s

inuata

auct

.)

Fabac

eae

5

2

12

0.4

2

0.1

7

442.0

0.5

7

2.7

8

3.3

4

45

Alb

izia

am

ara

(R

oxb.)

Bo

ivin

, *

Fabac

eae

4

2

12

0.3

3

0.1

7

442.0

0.4

5

2.7

8

3.2

3

46

Alb

izia

odora

tiss

ima

(L

. f.

) B

enth

. F

abac

eae

6

2

12

0.5

0

0.1

7

442.0

0.6

8

2.7

8

3.4

6

47

Bauhin

ia r

ace

mosa

Lam

. F

abac

eae

4

2

12

0.3

3

0.1

7

442.0

0.4

5

2.7

8

3.2

3

48

Cass

ia a

uri

cula

ta L

. *

Fabac

eae

1

1

12

0.0

8

0.0

8

884.0

0.1

1

1.3

9

1.5

0

49

Cass

ia f

istu

la L

. *

Fabac

eae

1

1

12

0.0

8

0.0

8

884.0

0.1

1

1.3

9

1.5

0

50

Cro

tala

ria p

all

ida

Ait

on

Fabac

eae

1

1

12

0.0

8

0.0

8

884.0

0.1

1

1.3

9

1.5

0

51

Dalb

ergia

lance

ola

ria

L.

f.

Fabac

eae

12

3

12

1.0

0

0.2

5

294.7

1.3

6

4.1

7

5.5

2

52

Des

modiu

m t

rifl

oru

m (

L.)

DC

. F

abac

eae

17

6

12

1.4

2

0.5

0

147.3

1.9

2

8.3

3

10.2

6

53

Indig

ofe

ra t

inct

ori

a L

. F

abac

eae

19

5

12

1.5

8

0.4

2

176.8

2.1

5

6.9

4

9.0

9

54

Tep

hro

sia p

urp

ure

a (

L.)

Per

s. *

F

abac

eae

19

9

12

1.5

8

0.7

5

98.2

2.1

5

12.5

0

14.6

5

55

Mim

osa

pudic

a L

. *

Fabac

eae

2

2

12

0.1

7

0.1

7

442.0

0.2

3

2.7

8

3.0

0

56

Park

inso

nia

dig

itata

F

abac

eae

- -

- -

- -

- -

-

57

Pit

hec

ello

biu

m d

ulc

e (R

oxb.)

Ben

th.

Fabac

eae

- -

- -

- -

- -

-

58

Leu

cas

asp

era

(W

illd

.) L

ink

*

Lam

iace

ae

15

4

12

1.2

5

0.3

3

221.0

1.7

0

5.5

6

7.2

5

59

Leu

cas

stri

cta

Benth

. L

am

iace

ae

12

6

12

1.0

0

0.5

0

147.3

1.3

6

8.3

3

9.6

9

60

Hyp

tis

suave

ole

ns

(L.)

Po

it.

Lam

iace

ae

17

3

12

1.4

2

0.2

5

294.7

1.9

2

4.1

7

6.0

9

61

Oci

mum

am

eric

anum

L.

*

Lam

iace

ae

52

2

12

4.3

3

0.1

7

442.0

5.8

8

2.7

8

8.6

6

62

Abuti

lon i

ndic

um

(L

.) S

wee

t M

alv

acea

e 3

2

12

0.2

5

0.1

7

442.0

0.3

4

2.7

8

3.1

2

63

Gre

wia

hir

suta

Vahl,

T

ilia

ceae

64

10

12

5.3

3

0.8

3

88.4

7.2

4

13.8

9

21.1

3

64

Gre

wia

dam

ine

Gae

rtn.

Til

iace

ae

60

9

12

5.0

0

0.7

5

98.2

6.7

9

12.5

0

19.2

9

65

Gre

wia

til

iifo

lia V

ahl.

Til

iace

ae

10

2

12

0.8

3

0.1

7

442.0

1.1

3

2.7

8

3.9

1



66

Hib

iscu

s lo

batu

s (M

urr

ay)

Ku

ntz

e M

alv

acea

e 1

1

12

0.0

8

0.0

8

884.0

0.1

1

1.3

9

1.5

0

67

Sid

a c

ord

ata

(B

urm

. f.

) B

ors

s. W

aalk

. M

alv

acea

e 2

1

12

0.1

7

0.0

8

884.0

0.2

3

1.3

9

1.6

2

68

Sid

a c

ord

ifoli

a L

. *

Malv

acea

e 4

2

12

0.3

3

0.1

7

442.0

0.4

5

2.7

8

3.2

3

69

Guazu

ma u

lmif

oli

a L

am

. M

alv

acea

e 15

6

12

1.2

5

0.5

0

147.3

1.7

0

8.3

3

10.0

3

70

Cen

tell

a a

siati

ca (

L.)

Urb

. *

Ap

iacea

e 1

1

12

0.0

8

0.0

8

884.0

0.1

1

1.3

9

1.5

0

71

Cocc

ulu

s hir

sutu

s (L

.) D

iels

*

Menis

per

mac

eae

14

6

12

1.1

7

0.5

0

147.3

1.5

8

8.3

3

9.9

2

72

Ste

phania

japonic

a (

Thunb.)

Mie

rs *

M

enis

per

mac

eae

7

4

12

0.5

8

0.3

3

221.0

0.7

9

5.5

6

6.3

5

73

Mel

ia d

ubia

*

Meli

ace

ae

2

1

12

0.1

7

0.0

8

884.0

0.2

3

1.3

9

1.6

2

74

Fic

us

arn

ott

iana

(M

iq.)

Miq

. M

ora

ceae

-

- -

- -

- -

- -

75

Fic

us

ben

ghale

nsi

s L

. *

Mo

race

ae

- -

- -

- -

- -

-

76

Fic

us

race

mosa

L.

*

Mo

race

ae

- -

- -

- -

- -

-

77

Fic

us

tom

ento

sa R

oxb.

Mo

race

ae

- -

- -

- -

- -

-

78

Syz

ygiu

m c

um

ini

(L.)

Skee

ls *

M

yrt

acea

e 1

1

12

0.0

8

0.0

8

884.0

0.1

1

1.3

9

1.5

0

79

Boer

havi

a d

iffu

sa L

. *

Nyct

agin

ace

ae

5

3

12

0.4

2

0.2

5

294.7

0.5

7

4.1

7

4.7

3

80

Xim

enia

sp.

Ola

cac

eae

- -

- -

- -

- -

-

81

Phyl

lanth

us

am

aru

s S

chu

mac

h.

*

Phyll

anth

acea

e 20

1

12

1.6

7

0.0

8

884.0

2.2

6

1.3

9

3.6

5

82

Ziz

iphus

juju

ba

Mil

l. *

R

ham

nac

eae

- -

- -

- -

- -

-

83

Borr

eria

his

pid

a (

Lin

n.)

K.

Sch

um

. R

ubia

ceae

28

4

12

2.3

3

0.3

3

221.0

3.1

7

5.5

6

8.7

2

84

Borr

eria

str

icta

(L

. f.

) G

. M

ey.

*

Rubia

ceae

42

8

12

3.5

0

0.6

7

110.5

4.7

5

11.1

1

15.8

6

85

Canth

ium

parv

iflo

rum

Lam

. *

Rubia

ceae

11

3

12

0.9

2

0.2

5

294.7

1.2

4

4.1

7

5.4

1

86

Old

enla

ndia

cory

mbosa

L.

Rubia

ceae

20

2

12

1.6

7

0.1

7

442.0

2.2

6

2.7

8

5.0

4

87

Mori

nda t

inct

ori

a R

oxb.

maddi,

ET

*

Rubia

ceae

22

5

12

1.8

3

0.4

2

176.8

2.4

9

6.9

4

9.4

3

88

Mori

nda t

om

ento

sa B

.Heyne

ex R

oth

R

ubia

ceae

-

- -

- -

- -

- -

89

Pave

tta i

ndic

a L

. R

ubia

ceae

-

- -

- -

- -

- -

90

Randia

uli

gin

osa

(R

etz.

) P

oir

. R

ubia

ceae

-

- -

- -

- -

- -

91

Ixora

bra

chia

ta R

oxb.

ex D

C

Rubia

ceae

92

Ziz

iphus

mauri

tiana

Lam

. *

Rham

nac

eae

13

4

12

1.0

8

0.3

3

221.0

1.4

7

5.5

6

7.0

3

93

Ziz

iphus

oen

opli

a (

L.)

Mil

l.

Rham

nac

eae

5

3

12

0.4

2

0.2

5

294.7

0.5

7

4.1

7

4.7

3

94

Card

iosp

erm

um

hali

caca

bum

L.

*

Sap

indac

eae

-

- -

- -

- -

- -

95

Sapin

dus

trif

oli

atu

s L

. *

Sap

indac

eae

1

1

12

0.0

8

0.0

8

884.0

0.1

1

1.3

9

1.5

0

96

Wit

hania

som

nif

era

(L

.) D

unal

*

So

lanac

eae

1

1

12

0.0

8

0.0

8

884.0

0.1

1

1.3

9

1.5

0

97

Holo

pte

lea i

nte

gri

foli

a (

Ro

xb.)

Pla

nch.

*

Ulm

aceae

-

- -

- -

- -

- -

98

Tri

bulu

s te

rrest

ris

L.

*

Zygo

phyll

ace

ae

3

2

12

0.2

5

0.1

7

442.0

0.3

4

2.7

8

3.1

2

884

*=

Med

icin

al p

lants

, N

-no

of

ind

ivid

uals

, T

O-t

ranse

ct o

ccurr

ed, T

T=

Tota

l tr

anse

ct, D

=D

ensi

ty,

F=

Fre

quen

cy,

A=

Abu

ndance,

RD

=R

ela

tive

densi

ty

RF

=R

ela

tive

freq

uency,

IVI=

Impo

rtan

t valu

e in

dex;

-tv =

outs

ide

the

quad

rate

s .

Where, Pi = No. of individuals of one species/total no of

individuals in the sample.

The indices of Species Richness (R) and Species

Evenness (E) were estimated using the following

formulae.

R = (S-1)/log N

E = (H')/ log S

Where,

S = Total no. of species,

N =Total no. of individuals of all the species,

(H')= Shannon Weiner’s index.

RESULTS

Floristic Structure: Species richness and Density

The census of individuals in the study area

resulted in 98 identified plant species which include 85

genera and 37 families. Based on their density in the

quadrate, species were grouped into following five

categories:

Predominant species (species with ≥ 50 individuals)

Four species, Grewia hirsute (64 individuals) and

Grewia sp. (60 individuals), Ocimum americanum (52)

and Evolvulus alsinoides (50 individuals) belonged to

this category representing 4% of the plot’s species and

26% of the plot’s density (242 individuals) (Table 1).

Dominant species (species with 25 to 49 individuals)

Seven species, Acacia catechu (49 individuals),

Borreria stricta (42 individuals), Aerva lanata

(37 individuals), Vernonia cinerea (32 individuals),

Borreria hispida (28 individuals), Acacia nilotica and

Cyanotis tuberose (27 individuals each) together

accounting for 7% of the plot’s species and 25% of the

stand density (226 individuals) represented this group.

Fairly Common species (species with 5 to 24

individuals)

Thirty species, Morinda tinctoria (22),

Oldenlandia corymbosa, Phyllanthus amarus (20 each),

Indigofera tinctoria, Tephrosia purpurea (19 each),

Desmodium trifoliate, Hyptis suaveolens (17 each),

Parthenium hysterophorus (16), Leucas aspera,

Guazuma obscura (15 each), Cocculus hirsutus (14),

Ziziphus maurtiana (13), Dalbergia lanceolaria,

Leucas stricta (12 each), Achyranthes aspera,

Euphorbia tirucalli, Canthium parviflorum (11 each),

Commelina sinensis, Grewia tiliifolia (10 each),

Carissa carandas, Acacia leucophloea (9 each),

Wrightia tinctoria (8), Stephania japonica (7),

Albizia odoratissima, Hemidesmus indicus,

Capparis zeylanica (6 each), Cassia tora,

Acacia sinuate, Ziziphus oenoplia, and Boerhavia diffusa

(5 each), accounting for 30% of total species richness

and 39% of stand density represented this group and

collectively they had 355 stems.

Common species (species with 1 to 4 individuals)

Thirty-one species, Ageratum conyzoides,

Tridax procumbens, Albizzia amara, Bauhinia racemosa,

Harisha and Hosetti, 2013


An overview of Sanctuary Sanctuary during summer



Table.2. Family composition and Family Importance Value in Daroji Sloth bear Sanctuary.

Sl. No Family No. of species No. of trees Relative Density Relative Diversity FIV

1 Acanthaceae 2 3 0.3 2.0 2.4

2 Alangiaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1

3 Amaranthaceae 4 49 5.4 4.0 9.4

4 Aristolochiaceae 1 2 0.2 1.0 1.2

5 Apocynaceae 5 25 2.8 5.1 7.8

6 Asclepiadaceae 4 7 0.8 4.0 4.8

7 Asparagaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1

8 Asteraceae 4 56 6.2 4.0 10.2

9 Capparaceae 3 8 0.9 3.0 3.9

10 Cactaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1

11 Celastraceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1

12 Cesalpinaceae 2 6 0.7 2.0 2.7

13 Combretaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1

14 Convolvulaceae 4 53 5.8 4.0 9.9

15 Commelinaceae 2 37 4.1 2.0 6.1

16 Cucurbitaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1

17 Ebenaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1

18 Euphorbiaceae 2 13 1.4 2.0 3.5

19 Fabaceae 17 178 19.6 17.2 36.8

20 Lamiaceae 4 96 10.6 4.0 14.6

21 Malvaceae 9 160 17.6 9.1 26.7

22 Mackinlayaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1

23 Menispermaceae 2 21 2.3 2.0 4.3

24 Meliaceae 1 2 0.2 1.0 1.2

25 Moraceae 4 4 0.4 4.0 4.5

26 Myrtaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1

27 Leguminosae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1

28 Nyctaginaceae 1 5 0.6 1.0 1.6

29 Olacaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1

30 Phyllanthaceae 1 20 2.2 1.0 3.2

31 Rhamnaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1

32 Rubiaceae 8 126 13.9 8.1 21.9

33 Rhamnaceae 2 18 2.0 2.0 4.0

34 Sapindaceae 2 2 0.2 2.0 2.2

35 Solanaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1

36 Ulmaceae 1 2 0.2 1.0 1.2

37 Zygophyllaceae 1 3 0.3 1.0 1.3

99 909 100.0 100.0 200.0

Sida cordifolia (4 each), Abutilon indicum,

Leptadenia reticulata, Tribulus terrestris (3each),

Barleria sp., Aristolochia indica, Calotropis gigantea,

Daemia extensa, Kirganelia reticulata, Mimosa pudica,

Melia dubia, Ipomoea obscura, Sida cordata (2 each),

Cassia auriculata, Cassia fistula, Crotalaria pallida,

Hibiscus lobatus, Centella asiatica, Syzygium cumini,

Sapindus trifoliatus, Withania somnif era,

Amaranthes viridis, Tylophora indica, Opuntia stricta,

Gymnosporia montana, Cuscuta reflexa and

Trichosanthes sp. (1 each), accounting for 32% of total

species richness and 7% of stand density represented this

group and collectively they had 61 stems.

Rare species (species with ≤1)

Twenty-seven species making up 27% of the

total plot’s species and 3% of stand density formed this

group. Anogeissus latifolia, Merremia tridentate,

Diospyros paniculata, Abrus precatorius,

Parkinsonia digitata, Grewia damine, Ficus arnottiana,

Ficus benghalensis, Ficus racemosa, Ficus tomentosa

individuals.

Based on Species Importance Value,

Grewia hirsute figured on the top of top ten SIV

hierarchy (21.13), followed by the Evolvulus alsinoides

(20. 93), Acacia catechu (19.43), Grewia sp. (19.29),

Vernonia cinerea (17.51), Borreria stricta (15.86),

Tephrosia purpurea (14.65), Aerva lantana (12.52),

Acacia nilotica (11.39) and Desmodium trifoliate

(10.26).

Family Composition

Of the 37 families recorded (three unidentified),

Fabaceae is the dominant based on the species richness

with 17 species, followed by the Malvaceae, Rubiaceae

with nine species each, Apocynaceae with five,

Amaranthaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Asteraceae,

Convolvulaceae, Lamiaceae and Moraceae with four

species each, following by Capparidaceae with three

species, Acanthaceae, Cesalpinaceae, Commelinaceae,

Euphorbiaceae, Menispermaceae, Rhamnaceae and

Sapindaceae with two species each, Alangiaceae,

Ar isto lochiaceae, Asparagaceae, Cactaceae,

Celastraceae, Combretaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Ebenaceae,

Mackinlayaceae, Myrtaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Olacaceae,

Phyllanthaceae, Rhamnaceae, Solanaceae, Ulmaceae,

Zygophyllaceae and Meliaceae with one species each

were recorded.

Based on density, the top order of families were

Fabaceae (178 individuals), Malvaceae (160 individuals),

Rubiaceae (126 individuals), Lamiaceae (96 individuals),

Asteraceae (56 individuals), Convolvulaceae (53

individuals), Amaranthaceae (49 individuals),

Commelinaceae (37 individuals), UK (26 individuals),

Apocynaceae (25 individuals), Menispermaceae (21

individuals), Phyllanthaceae (20 individuals),

Rhamnaceae (18 individuals), Euphorbiaceae (13

individuals), Capparidaceae (8 individuals),

Asclepiadaceae (7 individuals), Nyctaginaceae (5

individuals) and Moraceae (4 individuals), Two families

were represented by three species such as Acanthaceae

and Zygophyllaceae, four families were represented by

two species such as Meliaceae, Aristolochiaceae,

Sapindaceae and Ulmaceae, thirteen families were

represented by only one species, such as Asparagaceae,

Cactaceae, Celastraceae, Combretaceae, Alangiaceae,

Cucur b it ace ae , E be nace ae , Legu mino sae ,

Mackinlayaceae, Myrtaceae, Olacaceae, Solanaceae and

Rhamnaceae were recorded.

Harisha and Hosetti ,2013


Sloth bear at Sanctuary

Based on FIV, Fabaceae (36.8) ranked highest

among families followed by Malvaceae (26.7),

Rubiaceae (21.9) and Lamiaceae (14.6) (Table 2).

Diversity Indices

The Shannon-Weiner’s diversity index was found be

3.909 for the entire study area, and the Species Richness

index and Species Evenness index were found to be

26.26, 2.03, respectively.

DISCUSSION

The study on the floristic diversity is one of the

important factor to be analyzed to assess the diversity of

a particular area as well as the diversity of the nation.

The assessment of diversity is also important during this

period where the lot of plants and animals are in threats

due to the fragmentation of habitats and decline in

habitat quality (Kumar et al., 2000). The decline of

quality of habitat and fragmentation are mainly due to

the anthropogenic activities including the conversion of

forest into agriculture land, developmental activities,

mining etc. which affects on the landscapes and species

composition (Jerath et al., 2007).

Assessment of biodiversity will help in

understanding the inter-linkages between biological

resources and human being and which help in taking the

best decisions in conservation of natural resource and

development through sustainable utilization (Jerath et al.,

2007). This could be achieved only when the

quantification of existing resource is known and the

requirements estimated. This is also true in case of wild

animals where the availability of food source is

dependent on the population of those animals in the

forest. The existence of the diversity in particular area

also depicts the wild animals to be found in that

particular forest area. In view of the above, the present

study was investigated to know the floral diversity of the

Daroji Sloth bear sanctuary.

Previous studies conducted in this sanctuary by

Neginhal et al. (2003) and Madhav Gadgil et al. (2011)

64 plant species were enumerated, but in present study

98 plant species have been recorded. The study revealed

that the species composition and diversity of this

sanctuary can be compared with that of many other dry

forests such as Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary

(Krishnamurthy et al., 2010), Savanadurga State Forest,

Karnataka (Murali et al., 2003). Species richness of the

present study (99 species for individuals ≥ 1 cm) is

closer to the species richness of the dry forests in Puerto

Rico (50 species, Murphy and Lugo, 1986), but far less

to the 133 species of Savanadurga State Forests of

Karnataka (Murali et al., 2003).

The Importance Value Index revealed that this

forest is dominated by relatively few species. The seven

species listed in top ten SIV hierarchy (Table 1)

comprise about 33 % of the importance values, which

was 62 % in Bhadra Wildlife sanctuary followed by the

dry forests in Puerto Rico (Murphy and Lugo, 1986) and

St. Lucia (Gonzalez and Zak, 1996) also recorded the

same observation with the seven most common species

dominating the forests by comprising about 55% and

67% of the total importance values, respectively.

The Shannon-Weiner’s diversity index for the

area as a whole was found to be 3.909, the Species

Richness index and Species Evenness index was found to

be 26.26, 2.03, respectively. Rahlan et al. (1982) stated

that higher the value of diversity, greater will be the plant

community. So it can be stated that the vegetation in

Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary is stable accordingly to the

figures obtained after the data analysis (Table 1).

The species rarity of the present study is 27%,

which is very close to tree diversity of Little Andaman

Island with 34% (Rasingam and Parathasarathy, 2009),

also close to the forests of Kuzhanthaikuppam of

Coromandel Coast (31%, Parthasarathy and Karthikeyan,

1997), Malaysia (38%, Poore, 1968) and Barro Colorado

island of Panama (40%, Thorington et al., 1982); but less

than those of tropical dry deciduous forests of Bhadra

Wildlife Sanctuary (54.3%, Krishnamurthy et al., 2010).



In tropical forests, the abundance and species richness

depend mostly on the soil type, moisture and distribution

of rainfall (Durigon and Waechter, 2011). The present

study also revealed that the soil type and rainfall pattern

of the study area promotes the rich floral diversity

indices (Shanon, 3.90). The plants enumerated during the

study also revealed that the diversity present in this area

greatly supports the food habitat of sloth bears and the

vegetation pattern and geographical location also helps

the sloth bears to live comfortably in this forest region.

The plant species like Grewia hirsute, Grewia hirsuta,

Grewia damine, Ziziphus mauritiana, Grewia tiliifolia,

Syzygium cumini, Cassia fistula, Carissa carandas,

Ziziphus oenoplia showed the density of 5.33., 5.00.,

1.08., 0.83., 0.08., 0.08., 0.75 and 0.42 respectively.

Some Ficus sp. also serves as the food for sloth bears.

The Shannon diversity indices of Western Ghats

(at different altitudes) according to Pascal is measured to

be in the range of 3.6-4.3 and the index is measured

about 2.01-3.7 in the wet evergreen forest of Coorg

district (Swamy et al., 2010). In the present study, the

Shannon diversity index is calculated to be 3.90, which

indicated that even though the forest type falls under the

dry deciduous forest, the diversity index can be largely

compared to that of the evergreen forest. The present

study signifies the long term monitoring of the

vegetation as well as the population of sloth bears in

accordance with the availability of food source and good

habitat. This type of studies greatly impact on the

ecological balance between the vegetation pattern and

the animal populations.

The floral diversity of the present study area also

comprises as many as 65 species of medicinal plants

(Table.1). There is an urgent need to protect these

medicinal plants from grazing animals (sheep, goat),

which are being forcibly invaded into the sanctuary by

the surrounding villagers. The vegetation and the wealth

of this sanctuary need to be protected also from the

mining (quarrying) which are being run nearby hillock

regions, or otherwise this may leads to the habitat

fragmentation and destruction.

Based on the present study there is a need to

undertake some special ecological developmental

projects in the area which include water harvesting

through assured tanks so that water would be available to

wildlife during hot summer. Construction of boundary

wall or fence around the protected area will reduce

poaching of wildlife, entry of domestic cattle for grazing

and deforestation in the area.

CONCLUSION

The study on the floral diversity of Daroji Sloth

Bear Sanctuary of Bellary district concludes that the

richness and diversity in the area is mainly due to the

climatological conditions prevailing there. The hard dry

condition and scarce rainfall have favored mainly thorny

and shrubby plants to adopt and grow in such harsh

terrain conditions and trees resulting in stunted growth.

The fruits, seeds and leaves are consumed by a variety of

birds and animals and thus are easily dispersed. The

present study will provide the basic information on the

present status and composition of tree species in a

limited area.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Authors are thankful to Kiran, M.N, ACF,

Ravindranath, I.R, RFO and forest watchers of Daroji

Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Karnataka and all those who have

shared their information on the study area during the

study period. M.N, Harisha is thankful to UGC, New

Delhi for sanctioning fellowship (RGNF), to all

researchers from Panchavati Research Academy for

Nature (PRANA) Trust, Linganamakki, Sagara (TQ),

Shivamogga and also to Kuvempu University for support

and facilities.

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Principles and their Application. Cambridge University

press U.K. 1-19.

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composition and biogeographic relations of a subtropical

assemblage of climbing plants. Biodiversity

Conservation. 20(5):1027-1044.

Gamble JS. 1935. Flora of the Presidency of Madras.

(Vol1-4) Adlard and Son Limited 21, Hart Street. W.O.

Gonzalez OJ and Zak DR. 1996. Tropical dry forest of

St. Lucia, West Indies. Biotropica. 28: 618-626.

Harisha MN, Ajay GA, Kumar MD. 2008. Floristic

and avifaunal diversity of Jogimatti state forest,

Chitradurga, Karnataka. My forest. 44 (3): 225-235.

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Biodiversity Board, Punjab state council for science and

technology, Chandigarh and UNESCO, New Delhi.

Khan MA. 2011. Promotion and conservation of native

flora and fauna in newly established agro-biodiversity

park in Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University,

Hyderabad. International Journal of Farm Sciences. 1

(2): 150-157.

Krishnamurthy YL, Prakasha HM, Nanda A,

Krishnappa M, Dattaraja, HS and Suresh HS. 2010.

Vegetation structure and floristic composition of a

tropical dry deciduous forest in Bhadra Wildlife

Sanctuary, Karnataka, India. Tropical Ecology. 51(2):

235-246.

Kumar A, Walker S and Molar S. 2000. Prioritisation

of Endangered species. Setting Biodiversity conservation

Priorities for India. Singh S, Sastry ARK, Mehta R and

Uppal V. New Delhi, WWF-India. 2:341-425.

Madhav Gadgil, Geetha Gadagkar, Harish R Bhat,

Prema Iyer, Ramachandra TV, Yogesh Gokhale.

2011. Checklist of Flowering Plants of Daroji Bear

Sanctuary, Karnataka. Status of Karnataka Biodiversity.

SAHYADRI E-NEWS: Issue XI. Sahyadri: Western

Ghats Biodiversity Information System ENVIS @CES,

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. http://

www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/

newsletter/issue11/hotspot/index.htm.

Michael P. 1990. Ecological methods for field and

laboratory investigations. Tata McGraw Hill Publishing

Company Limited, New Delhi.

Murali KS, Kavitha A and Harish RP. 2003. Spatial

Patterns of trees and shrub species diversity in

Savanadurga State Forest, Karnataka. Current Science.84

(6): 808-813.

Murphy PG and Lugo AE. 1986. Structure and

biomass of subtropical dry forest in Puerto Rico.

Biotropica. 18(2): 89-96.

Neginhal SG, Harish R Bhat, Pramod S and Karthik

G. 2003. Biodiversity Hotspot Report for Daroji Bear

Sanctuary. http://www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/

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Daroji.htm.

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Island, India. Tropical Ecology. 50(1): 89-102.

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Washington, DC.




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Jou

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Biology

Butterfly fauna of Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Hospet, Bellary District,

Karnataka, India

Keywords: Deccan Plateau, Hypolimnas misippus, Pachliopta hector, Lampides boeticus, Indian Wildlife Protection Act 1972, Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary.

ABSTRACT:

Butterflies were enumerated during February 2010 to January 2012 using pollard walk method to assess the species diversity in the tropical thorn dry deciduous (Deccan Plateau) scrub jungle with granite boulder outcrop habitats of Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Bellary District, Karnataka. This area, a total of 5,587.30 hectares is being proposed for the conservation of threatened species of Indian subcontinent the Sloth bear, Melursus ursinus and announded as a Sanctuary. A total of 41 butterfly species belonging to Hesperiidae, Papilionidae, Pieridae, Lycaenidae and Nymphalidae families were recorded. Two species of butterflies recorded from this region have a protected status under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Habitat destruction in terms of mining activity can be a potential threat to this area and is suggested to be the reason for the reduction of species richness and abundance of butterflies in impacted areas of the study site. This study provides support for long-term conservation of these fragmented scrub forest to ensure biodiversity protection.

840-846 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 2






Research Journal

Authors:

Harisha MN and

Hosetti BB*.

Institution:

1. Department of Post

Graduate studies and research in Wildlife

Management, Kuvempu

University, Jnana Sahyadri,

Shankaraghatta- 577451,

Shimoga, Karnataka.

* Department of Post


research in Applied Zoology,

Kuvempu University, Jnana

Sahyadri, Shankaraghatta- 577451, Shimoga,

Karnataka.


Hosetti BB.

Email:

[email protected]



Article Citation: Harisha MN and Hosetti BB. Butterfly fauna of Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Hospet, Bellary District, Karnataka, India. Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 840-846


Original Research

INTRODUCTION

More than half of earth’s diversity comprises the

insects. Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) plays an

important role in both ecological and economical

benefits to human beings. They increase aesthetic value

and actively involved in pollination thus help in seed

setting of plants. Butterflies enhance earth’s beauty due

to their diverse colors on their wings (May, 1992). Due

to their beauty and ecological significance butterflies are

the well studied group throughout the world (Ghazoul,

2002). The habitat of butterflies is very specific and their

occurrence is seasonal (Kunte, 1997). They are also

considered as the good indicators of habitat quality

including anthropogenic disturbances (Kocher and

Williams, 2000). Butterflies always attracted the

attention of researchers, ecologists and conservationist

by their community assemblage and the influencing

factors.

Butterflies are broadly considered as potent

ecological indicators (Erhardt, 1985; Brown, 1991;

Kremen, 1992) and are sensitive to the temperature,

humidity, and light levels and also to the habitat

disturbance (Balmer and Erhardt, 2000). The relationship

between plants and butterflies is highly complex and

co-evolved (Ehrlich and Raven, 1964), since the

butterflies depend on plants for the food and completion

of their life cycle, contrary to this many of the

economically important plant species are pollinated by

butterflies (Borges et al., 2003). In view of the above,

there is a need to conserve butterflies. Even though the

tropic is abund with diverse fauna including insects, the

data on the diversity of insects both in natural and man

made habitats still lacking. This situation prompted us to

document the butterfly diversity in Daroji Sloth Bear

Sanctuary India.

STUDY AREA

Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary (5,587.30 hectares)

is unique sanctuary in Karnataka, and is the only

sanctuary for sloth bear situated in North Karnataka.

The sanctuary located between 15°14' to 15°17' N

latitude and 76°31' to 76°40' E longitude at an elevation

of 647 m above mean sea level with the temperature

ranged between 20°-43°C. The sanctuary is close to the

Hampi a renowned world heritage site in Bellary district.

Sanctuary area belongs to Deccan Plateau scrub jungle

characterized by vast stretches of undulating plains with

intermittent parallel chains of hills, mostly bare and

stony, granite boulder outcrops. This habitat makes the

sloth bears to live comfortably in unique geographical

location.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A study of butterfly diversity was conducted

from February 2010 to January 2012 to compare with

earlier reports and to record their status and abundance.

The survey was conducted to once in a month for a

period of two years from February 2010 to January 2012.

Butterflies were recorded by direct visual observation

and identified by using various field guides (Gay et al.,

1992; Antram, 2002; Wynter-Blynth, 1957, Kunte, 2000;

Sharma et al., 2005).

The line transect method developed by the

Institution of Terrestrial Ecology (Pollard, 1979) was

followed to monitor the diversity. The butterflies were

encountered along a fixed transect route of 2 km and

recorded regularly at an interval of every 15 day per

month in the study period. Based on the visual

observation i.e., presence-absence scoring method

made during the entire study period. On the basis of

percentage of occurrence the status of butterflies was

determined and categorized into three groups such 1-6%

as rare (R), 7-18% as Common (C) and >18% as very

common (VC).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The study revealed the presence of 41 species of

butterflies, belonging to five families. The family

Papilionidae is represented by 6 species; Lycaenidae 7

Harisha and Hosetti., 2013


species; Nymphalidae 15 species; Pieridae 12 species;

and Hesperidae by single species. The checklists of all

the species observed with their status are given in

Table 1. Out of 41 species recorded during the present

investigation, 28 species have already been reported by

Neginhal et al., (2003); Madhav Gadgil et al., (2011) and

found during present study period. It is likely that many

more species could be added to the list on further

exploration of this area. Analysis on the status of

butterflies shows that 15 were rare, 12 were common and

14 were very common, similar pattern was reported in

the Tiger-Lion Safari, Thyavarekoppa of Shimoga,

Karnatka (Pramod et al., 2007).

Butterflies are sensitive to changes in the habitat

and climate, which influence their distribution and

abundance (Wynter-Blyth, 1957). Two specie viz,-

Pachliopta hector L and Hypolimnas misippus L

recorded in this region have a protected status under the

schedule I part IV of Indian Wildlife Protection Act,

1972 (Arora, 2003) and Lampides boeticus under

Schedule IV (Gupta et al., 2005). Similar pattern

has been reported from Melghat region of Maharashtra

and Ankua Reserve Forest of Jharkhand

(Mamata Chandraker et al., 2007) and Jogimatti state

forest of Chitradurga (Harish et al., 2009).

The conservation activities such as the

monitoring and mapping of biodiversity played a key

role in determining the status of the diversity

(Margules and Pressey, 2000). The habitat

fragmentation, grazing pressure and change in land use

pattern are mainly responsible for diversity loss of both

butterflies and plants. Along with the above, mining

activity can also be treated as potential threat to

biodiversity loss in this area. Lycaenidae family

members are largely affected both in terms of abundance

and diversity since they feed on grasses, which is lost

due to grazing.

Apart from butterflies, other threatened

wildlife recorded in the study area during the present

survey were, Sloth Bear, Melursus ursinus

(Vulnerable; Garshelis et al., 2008), Indian Python,

Python molurus molurus and Jackal, Canis aureus and

Yellow-throated Bulbul, Pycnonotus xantholaemus a

globally threatened species and restricted to the southern

Deccan plateau (BirdLife International, 2001), Leopard

Panthera pardus listed as a "Near Threatened" species

on the IUCN Red List (Henschel et al., 2008). Indian



Common Silverline Butterfly Lemon Pansy Butterfly

Peacock Pansy, Butterfly



Sl.No Common name Scientific name

Status

Family: Papilionidae

1 Common Blue Bottle Graphium sarpedon (Linnaeus) R

2 Crimson Rose* Pachliopta hector (Linnaeus) VC

3 Common Rose Pachliopta aristolochiae (Fabricius) R

4 Tailed Jay Graphium Agamemnon (Linnaeus) C

5 Blue Mormon** Papilio polymnestor (Cramer) R

6 Common Mormon Papilio polytes (Linnaeus) C

Family: Lycaenidae

7 Common Silverline Spindasis vulcanus (Fabricius) R

8 Common Pierrot Castalius rosimon (Fabricius) VC

9 Common Cerulean Jamides celeno (Cramer) VC

10 Dark Cerulean Jamides bochus (Stoll) C

11 Dark Grass Blue Zizeeria karsandra (Moore) VC

12 Pea Blue Lampides boeticus (Linnaeus) C

13 Grass Jewel Freyeria trochylus (Kollar) C

Family: Nymphalidae

14 Common Castor Ariadne merione (Cramer) R

15 Tawny Coaster Acraea violae (Fabricius) VC

16 Blue Tiger Tirumala linniace (Cramer) VC

17 Plain Tiger Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus) R

18 Striped Tiger Danaus genutia (Cramer) C

19 Indian Common Crow Euploea core (Cramer) VC

20 Danaid Eggfly** Hypolimnas misippus (Linnaeus) C

21 Lemon Pansy Junonia lemonias (Linnaeus) VC

22 Peacock Pansy Junonia almana (Linnaeus) C

23 Yellow Pansy Junonia hierta (Fabricius) C

24 Chocolate Pansy Junonia iphita (Cramer) C

25 Grey Pansy Junonia atlites (Linnaeus) R

26 Common Evening Brown Melanitis leda (Linnaeus) VC

27 Common Sailor Neptis hylas (Moore) VC

28 Common Leopard Phalanta phalantha (Drury) VC

29 Common Four Ring Ypthima baldus (Fabricius) VC

Family: Pieridae

30 Indian Cabbage White Pieris canidia (Linnaeus) C

31 Crimson Tip Colotis danae (Linnaeus) R

32 Pioneer Anaphaeis aurota (Fabricius) VC

33 Common Emigrant Catopsilia Pomona (Fabricius) C

34 Common Jezebel** Delias eucharis (Drury) R

35 Common Grass Yellow Eurema hecabe (Linnaeus) VC

36 Great Orange Tip Hebomoia glaucippe (Linnaeus) R

37 White Orange Tip Ixias Marianne (Cramer) R

38 Yellow Orange Tip Ixias pyrene (Linnaeus) R

39 Large Salmon Arab Colotis fausta (Olivier) R

40 Small Salmon Arab Colotis amata (Fabricius) R

41 Common Wanderer Pareronia valeria (Joicey & Talbot) C

Family: Hesperiidae

42 Indian Skipper Spialia galba (Fabricius) R

Table 1. List of butterflies along with their status in the Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Bellary.

VC-Very common; C-Common; R-Rare, *-Endemic to Western Ghats; **-Endemic to Peninsular India and Sri Lanka

Chameleon, Chamaeleo zeylanicus is listed in Schedule

II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972.

CONCLUSION

The presence of all these species indicates that

this forest is rich and unique habitat that hold animal

diversity that is typical of ‘undisturbed tropical dry

deciduous scrub forests’. Disturbances in the form of

anthropogenic activities such as open cast mining,

construction of roads, movement of heavy vehicles,

firewood collection, etc. can result in habitat

fragmentation, population loss and cause local

extinctions that would seriously affect the distribution of

forest butterflies. Based on the results of this study, it is

recommended that long-term conservation of these

fragmenting tropical Deccan scrub forest habitats in

Bellary Forest Division is to protect the biodiversity

which can be achieved through ‘good mining practices’

and strict vigilance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to ACF and RFO of Daroji Sloth

Bear Sanctuary, Bellary Forest Division who have

encouraged and directed this work from the beginning.

I also thank the two forest watchers Putteshi and

Anjinappa for their support and assistance in the field.

MNH is thankful to UGC, New Delhi for sanctioning

(RGNF) Fellowship, to research team of Panchavati

Research Academy for Nature (PRANA) Trust,

Linganamakki, Sagar (Tq), Shivamogga for support and

also to Kuvempu University for facilities.

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72.



Jou

rn

al of R

esearch

in

Biology

Toxicity of copper to tropical freshwater snail (Pila ovata)

Keywords: Copper toxicity, freshwater snail, median lethal concentration, median lethal time.

ABSTRACT:

The potential toxicity of copper to freshwater snail (Pila ovata) was investigated in a static renewal bioassay for 96 hours. Chemically pure salts of copper sulphate (CuSO4. 5H2O) dissolved in distilled water was used as toxicant. Five copper ion concentrations with a control group were prepared. The LC50 at 24 h, 48 h, 72 h and 96 h was 4.67, 2.12, 1.64 and 0.59 mg/l respectively. The LT50 of copper concentrations of 0.05 mg/l, 0.1 mg/l, 0.5 mg/l, 1.0 mg/l and 2.0 mg/l were 123.86 h, 97.20 h, 83.33 h, 75.32 h and 60.04 h respectively. No death was recorded in the controls. Survival time decreased with increasing concentrations of copper ion. The results showed that copper is toxic to Pila ovata and could pose serious threat to their survival in natural environment.

847-851 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 2





An International


Authors:

Ariole CN1 and

Anokwuru B2.

Institution:

1. Department of

Microbiology, University of

Port Harcourt, P.M.B 5323,

Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

2. School of Science

Laboratory Technology,

University of Port Harcourt,

P.M.B 5323, Port Harcourt,

Nigeria.


Ariole CN.

Email:

[email protected]



Article Citation: Ariole CN and Anokwuru B. Toxicity of copper to tropical freshwater snail (Pila ovata) Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 847-851


Original Research

INTRODUCTION

Freshwater molluscs play an important role in

aquatic ecosystems, providing food for many fish species

and vertebrates (Maltchik, et al., 2010). Pila ovata, a

tropical freshwater snail, is among the molluscan

seafoods that are widely distributed in streams, lakes

and rivers across the southern rain forests in Nigeria

(Ariole and Ezevununwo, 2013). It serves as a major

source of protein as well as generating income to the

people.

The contamination of freshwater with a wide

range of pollutants has become a matter of concern over

the last few decades (Vutukuru, 2005). Chemicals

derived from agricultural operations (pesticides and

herbicides) and industrial effluents, such as metals,

ultimately find their way into a variety of different water

bodies and can produce a range of toxic effects in aquatic

organisms (Al-Kahtani, 2009).

Copper salts (copper hydroxide, copper

carbonate and copper sulphate) are widely used in

agriculture as fungicide, algaecide and nutritional

supplement in fertilizers. They are also used in veterinary

practices and industrial applications. Copper sulphate is

released to water as a result of natural weathering of soil

and discharge from industries, sewage treatment plants

and agricultural runoff. Copper sulphate is also

intensively introduced in water reservoirs to kill algae.

Thus, excessive amount of copper accumulates in water

bodies and cause toxicity of aquatic fauna and flora

(Kaoud, 2013). Copper is essential for the normal growth

and metabolism of nearly all organisms including

mollusc. However, when biological requirements are

exceeded, this metal can become harmful to aquatic biota

(Hall et al., 1997).

Acute toxicity bioassay are widely used to assess

the effects of pollutants on one or more organisms

usually based on the determination of acute lethal

toxicity and sub-lethal toxicity test using sensitive

species or organisms based on their economic and

ecological importance, availability and ease of handling

(Fuller et al., 2004). Although the tests are laboratory

based, simple, of single variable and do not necessarily

simulate the field situations, they nonetheless provide

useful information on the potential of the pollutant to

harm the biota (Akbari et al., 2004).

The toxicity of copper to aquatic organisms such

as tropical freshwater prawn (Kaoud, 2013) and fish

(Olaifa et al., 2004; Abou El-Naga et al., 2005;

Stasiūnaitė, 2005; Mickėniėnė et al., 2007) have been

reported. There is dearth of information on the toxicity of

copper to mollusc, Pila ovata.

Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate

the potential toxicity of copper to freshwater snail

(Pila ovata) so as to ascertain its level of tolerance and

its suitability as bio-indicator in freshwater environment.


Pila ovata was collected from Okpuhur Creek in

Ahoada, Rivers State, Nigeria. The snails were

handpicked and placed in a plastic bucket containing

habitat water. On reaching the laboratory, active snails

were selected for acclimatization for 10days at room

temperature (APHA, 1998) in a vessel containing habitat

water.

Chemically pure copper sulphate (CuSO4 . 5H2O)

dissolved in distilled water was used as a stock solution.

The required concentration was calculated according

to the amount of copper ions. Five concentrations

(0.0 mg/l), 0.05 mg/l, 0.1 mg/l, 0.5 mg/l, 1.0 mg/l and

2.0 mg/l) were prepared using water from the habitat of

the snail as diluent. The control was dilution water

without toxicant. A preliminary range finding test

(Rahman et al., 2002) was first performed to determine

the concentrations used in the definitive tests. The 96 h

acute toxicity bioassay was carried out using the

procedure of APHA (1998). Triplicate sets of glass tanks

(29 x 29 x 30 cm) for each copper concentration were

employed. Ten snails of fairly equal sizes were

Ariole and Anokwuru., 2013


handpicked and carefully transferred into each test tanks.

Mortality was recorded at 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours of

exposure time as described by Odiete (1999). Dead snails

were removed at each observation and the test solution in

each tank was renewed every 24 h. The test was

terminated after 96 h and repeated three times to confirm

the data.

Data analysis

Probit analysis (Sprague, 1973) was used to

transform each test concentration and the corresponding

percentage mortality. The method described by Finney

(1971) was used to determine the median lethal

concentration (LC50) and median lethal time (LT50). The

number of survivors in different concentrations of copper

was tested for significant differences using one way

analysis of variance (ANOVA).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The probit mortality rate increased with

increasing copper ion concentrations as shown in Figure

1. No mortality occurred in the control group. The

relationships between copper concentrations and probit

mortality were analysed. The results in basic correlation

analysis illustrated a positive linear relationship

(Figure 1). The 24, 48, 72 and 96 h LC50 of copper to

Pila ovata were 4.67, 2.12, 1.64 and 0.59 respectively

(Table 1). The result showed that the LC50 value of

copper ion to Pila ovata decreased as the exposure time

increased. The LT50 for freshwater snail in different

copper ion concentrations are shown in Table 2 and

Figure 2. There is negative correlation between the LT50

values and copper ion concentrations; when the copper

ion concentrations levels decrease, LT50 values increased

(Table 2 and Figure 2). The survival percentages were

found to be significantly different from each other as

shown in Table 3.

The LC50 of copper vary considerably when

previous reports on fish species are compared and also

with LC50 values obtained in this study. The 96 hr LC50

values of copper ions for rainbow trout (Gϋndoğdu,

2008), Mugil seheli (Abou El-Naga, 2005) and

Macrobrachium rosenbergii (Kaoud, 2013) were

0.094 mg/l, 1.64 mg/l and 0.35 mg/l respectively. The

variation in the LC50 values for the same metal may be

due to species type, chemical structure of metal

compound, the conditions of the experiment (water

temperature, salinity, oxygen content and pH) and

geographical regions. That is why the data obtained in

different countries can hardly be extrapolated to local

conditions. Therefore, experimental work is needed to

obtain the data corresponding to the conditions of the

given region.

The results of this study indicated that mortality

and time were influenced by the concentration levels of

copper and that copper is toxic to Pila ovata. It has been

reported that Pila ovata is capable of bioaccumulating



Figure 1: Median Lethal Concentration (LC50) of

Copper to Pila ovata

Figure 2: Median Lethal Time (LT50) of

Copper to Pila ovata

trace metals (Ezemonye et al., 2006). This poses health

issue when consumed by human. Therefore, caution

should be exercised against water source contamination

and exposure to fertilizer and industrial pollution which

could pose serious threat to their survival in natural

environment.

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Time (hr) LC50 (mg/l)

24

48

72

96

4.67

2.12

1.64

0.59

Table 1: Median lethal concentration (LC50) of

copper to Pila ovata

Concentration (mg/l) Time (hr)

0.05

0.1

0.5

1.0

2.0

123.86

97.20

83.33

75.32

60.04

Table 2: Median lethal time (LT50) of

copper to Pila ovata

Figure 3: Minimum lethal concentration and

minimum lethal time of copper to Pila ovata

Concentration (mg/l) Survival (%) (Mean ±S.D)

Control (0)

0.05

0.1

0.5

1.0 2.0

100a ± 0.00

60b ± 0.67

46.67c ± 0.67

36.67d± 0.67

30e ± 0.67 23.33f ± 0.67

Table 3: Survivors of Pila ovata exposed to different

concentrations of copper

Mean values which do not have the same superscript

letter are significantly different (p<0.05)

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