joint assessment mission northern sudan education sector

NORTHERN SUDAN EDUCATION ASSESSMENT

Draft, 6/11/04 1

Joint Assessment Mission Northern Sudan

Education Sector

November 22

32152

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized


Draft, 6/11/04 2

Acronyms & Abbreviations

CNS Country National Strategy DGEP Directorate General for Educational Planning DGTE Directorate General of Technical Education EFA Education for All EMIS Education Management Information System FMOE Federal Ministry of Education FMOHESR Federal Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research GDP Gross Domestic Product GER Gross Enrolment Rate GoS Government of Sudan GSLAE General Secretariat of Literacy and Adult education IDP Internally Displaced Person ISETI In-Service Education and Training Institutes JAM Joint Assessment Mission MDG Millennium Development Goals MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys MTEF Medium Term Expenditure Framework NSSF National State Support Fund NCCER National Center for Curricula and Educational research PTA Parent Teacher Association SDD Sudanese Dinar (currency) SMOE State Ministries of Education SOLO Sudan Open Learning Organization SPLM Sudan’s People Liberation Movement SSA Sub Saharan Africa TTC Teacher Training Colleges TVE Technical and Vocational Education UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund WB World Bank


Draft, 6/11/04 3

Foreword The objective of this report is to identify the main accomplishments and key barriers to educating all children in North Sudan by 2015 as per the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). This document assesses the current status of the formal education system in North Sudan and outlines priority actions, rehabilitation and transitional recovery needs as well as financing requirements for the period 2005 to 2010, which corresponds to the interim period of the Peace Agreement. Unless otherwise specified, this report covers, and the word “Sudan” designates, all States in Sudan at the exclusion of Upper Nile, Equatoria and Bar el Ghazal states. These states are covered in a separate report, in accordance with the agreed methodology for the Sudan Joint Assessment Mission (JAM). It is based on information and documents collected during several country visits in 2004. It draws upon estimations of education indicators and performance trends in the education system reported in official statistics and studies conducted by various donor agencies. Economic data rely heavily on World Bank and IMF sources. Finally, this report focuses on basic education and training, which was considered to be the priority during the interim period. However, it also covers technical and vocational education, although in less detail than basic education.


Draft, 6/11/04 4

Section 1: Key Demographic and Economic Challenges The Demographic Context 1.1 Sudan’s population grew from 16.7 million in 1975 to 36.3 million in 2003. Approximately 28.4 million people reside in the North, 7.5 million in non-government controlled areas and 0.4 million in the 3 areas of Southern Blue Nile, Nuba and Abyei. The projected annual population growth rate for 2003-2010 is 2.9%. As a result, the population in the North is expected to increased to 34.7 million by 2010. The population of Sudan is very young, with 40% under the age of 15 and 21percent between 6 to13 years old (in the basic education age group). Approximately, 37% of the population lives in urban areas. Sudan also has approximately 5.6 million persons who have been displaced during the war, but most of them are expected to resettle in the South and in the 3 areas of Blue Nile, South Kordofan, West Kordofan and Abye.

1.2 Sudan is ranked 52nd on the UNDP human poverty index (out of 94 developing countries) and the population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption is 21% (FAO, 2002). Table 1.1 compares basic demographic data for Sudan with Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), Uganda, Mali, Ethiopia, and Cote D’Ivoire. While Sudan compares favorably to other countries in SSA on many indicators, such as total fertility, HIV and under-five mortality, the data masks vast disparities among and within states, as well as differences related to gender and geography. In particular, the human development situation in war-affected areas is dramatically worse than the average; the same stands for areas affected by drought. Income disparities are also significant. Although statistics on poverty are limited, overall existing evidence suggests a high level of inequality.

Table1.1 Demographic context: cross-country comparison*

Population millions

Total fertility

rate (2000-05)

Adult literacy rate (15-49 age)

Gross Enrolment

ratio

HIV/AIDS rate

% adults

Under-five mortality (per 1,000 births)

Maternal mortality

(per 100,000 live births)

Sudan** 32.2 4.4 58.8 56 2.6 107 550 SSA 626.4 5.4 62.4 59 9.0 172 -- Uganda 24.2 7.1 68.0 109 5.0 124 510 Mali 12.3 7.0 26.4 43 1.6 231 580 Ethiopia 67.3 6.1 40.3 47 6.4 172 870 Cote D’Ivoire

16.1 4.7 49.7 64 9.6 175 600

* Source is Human Development Report 2003 (UNDP, 2003). Unless otherwise indicated data comes from 2001.

1.3 Although the rates for HIV/AIDS (2.6%) reveal that Sudan is faring better than its neighbors, the trend is already alarming in certain population groups, such as soldiers. With a virus prevalence is much higher in neighbouring countries than in Sudan,


Draft, 6/11/04 5

combined with porous borders and borders and limited awareness of the disease among the population, makes Sudan vulnerable to the pandemic. The expected movement of populations after the signing of the Peace agreement (demobilization of armed forces, opening of commercial roads, return of internally displaced persons (IDPs) and Returnees) will certainly increase this vulnerability.

Macroeconomic conditions

1.4 Sudan became a federal state in 1992, when a three-tier system of government comprising federal, state, and local communities, was established. There are currently 26 states, 16 of which are in the northern parts and 10 in the south. Each state is headed by a governor, and organized as decentralized governments with state assemblies and ministers. Within each state, there is an intermediate layer of provinces, headed by a provincial commissioner who coordinates economic and social policy at the state level. There are also some 500 local communities. 1.5 Since the mid 1990s Sudan has managed to curb macro-economic imbalances and inflation, roll back nationalization policies, support privatization, relax price and market controls and strengthen the financial system. The process of restoring fiscal balance has come in the form of structural adjustment as government expenditures were reduced from 20 percent of GDP in the early 1990s to less than 10 percent by 1998. 1.6 As a result of the above reforms, Sudan’s GDP per capita growth rate has surpassed the SSA average during the 1990s but is still not significantly higher than the population growth rate (Table 1.2). However, Sudan is well-endowed with natural resources. Until recently, conflicts have kept the potential of both these sectors from being fully exploited. The recent start of crude oil export has the potential to bring about a growth rate double that of the last decade. During the interim period (2005-2010) oil revenues are expected to be between US$ 2.6 billion and US$ 3.7 billion and are expected to represent between 60% and 75% of total Government revenues. Despite these major changes, Sudan is expected to continue to depend heavily on agriculture, which employs 80% of the work force.

Table 1.2 GDP per capita, GDP annual growth rate and external debt (% GDP)*

GDP per capita** (US$)

GDP annual growth rate***

Sudan 395 3.2 SSA 475 -0.1 Uganda 249 3.6 Mali 239 1.6 Ethiopia 95 2.4 Cote D’Ivoire 634 .1 * Source: Human Development Report, 2003. UNDP. ** 2001. *** 1990-2001


Draft, 6/11/04 6

Overall Patterns of Government Finance 1.7 The public finance system introduced in 1995 in Sudan is a federal system, in which public resources are managed by the federal or central government, 26 states and local councils (Mahalyas). While the fiscal consolidation of the 1990’s was remarkable, the reduction in government’s expenditure during the adjustment period, especially given the near absence of external assistance, greatly reduced funds available for the provision of social services.1 Table 1.3 below suggests that, in 1999, public expenditures on health and education together accounted for 1.04% of GDP. Although this share has been increasing since then, thanks to the oil revenues, it remains less than 2% of GDP, and is considered extremely low by international standards. When compared to total Government expenditures, health and education together account for less than 8% of the consolidated federal and regional government budget. The pattern of expenditures in developing countries is such that education alone rarely accounts for less than 19% of Government expenditures, or 3 to 4% of GDP.

Table 1.3 Breakdown of Health and Education Spending by selected sectors (% of GDP)

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Education 0.76 0.74 0.90 0.86 1.05

Central government 0.60 0.56 0.70 0.61 0.77 States 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.25 0.28

Health 0.28 0.32 0.44 0.39 0.47 Central government 0.22 0.26 0.35 0.20 0.24

States 0.07 0.07 0.09 0.19 0.23 Source: Ministry of Finance and National Economy.

1.8 It is worth mentioning that there are serious difficulties in accessing data with regards to Sudan’s fiscal system. Data on economic and functional expenditures by the central government and States’ accounts are available on a piecemeal basis in various units of the central government. As a result, it is difficult to accurately assess total consolidated expenditures on education. Finally, the existing institutions, particularly at the state level are not capable at present of handling the enormous tasks of a decentralized system and at providing sufficiently detailed accounts of their operations in every sector. Therefore, the development of adequate cost and financing monitoring systems should be at the center of the capacity-building actions of the next few years.

1 Due to political concerns many donors suspended assistance to Sudan in the early 1990s.


Draft, 6/11/04 7

Section 2: Education System structure, coverage, delivery mechanisms, performance, and funding

2.1 Structure of the education system. The adoption of a federal system of governance in 1993 led to a three-tiered decentralized education system. In general terms, basic education is the responsibility of the localities (Mahalyas); secondary education is the responsibility of the states; and tertiary education is the responsibility of the Federal Ministry of Education (FMOE). Moreover, Education Councils play a role similar to that of parent teacher associations (PTAs) in other countries, and are the focal points for popular participation.

2.2 In 1992, the education ladder was changed from 6-3-3 to 8-3 (see Figure 2.1 below). Both private and public schools provide eight years of compulsory basic education, leading to the Basic Education Certificate. Both general and technical secondary education lasts three years and lead to the Sudan Secondary School Certificate. For general secondary, students follow the same curriculum in the first two years of secondary school and choose between arts and science streams in the final year. Technical secondary education offers industrial, commercial and agricultural schools for boys and some home economics school for girls. Vocational Training Centers offer two-year vocational courses. Admission to vocational education programs is based on completion of basic education. Admission to higher education is based on the results of the Sudan School Certificate Examination.

2.3 It is important to note that while most countries provide primary education in six years, Sudan’s eight year basic education system offers unprecedented opportunities to provide continuous schooling up to eighth grade, and therefore comparatively a higher level of literacy and numeracy skills. On the other hand, it puts additional pressure on the system from an economic and organizational point of view. It requires better trained teachers, which has been difficult to provide so far because the current college education requirement makes it challenging to train and recruit sufficient numbers of qualified teachers. Moreover, the new structure favors larger schools, with sufficient student populations, which would operate more efficiently. In rural settings, it is seldom possible to provide a complete eight year cycle of schooling. Finally, some educators have questioned the advisability of mixing students with such a wide age-range in the same facilities.

2.4 Recommendations from international conferences (Education For All (EFA), MDG) have been included in Sudan’s Country National Strategy (CNS) (1992-2002) and in education policies since the early 1990s. The basic components of the national policies include free access to quality basic education for all children ages 6-13 by 2015, elimination of gender disparities, improvement of the quality of education for disadvantaged groups, increasing the relevance of the curriculum and the promotion of life skills education. To achieve these goals, the Government is both relying on public and encouraging private education.


Draft, 6/11/04 8

AGE

18

4

Figure 2.1: Education Ladder 2.5 Governance and Organization. State Ministries of Education (SMOEs) are responsible for the provision of secondary education services and for purchasing and distributing textbooks to all pupils. Additionally, states are responsible for building new schools, certifying private schools, and determining curriculum supplements that are locally appropriate. 2.6 Primary and preschool education are decentralized to the localities. Each locality or Mahalya is responsible for the provision of basic education under the leadership of a Director General of Education. Responsibilities include the provision of equipment and furniture, the recruitment of teachers and the payment of salaries. Education councils are considered focal points for implementing the Government’s policy of popular participation, which stipulates a greater role for communities in the financing and management of education services at the school level. It is unclear which administration level is responsible for hiring teachers, determining teacher salaries and providing teacher training. 2.7 Community participation is organized around education councils, which evolved from what were previously PTAs. Responsibilities assumed by the education councils have expanded from general supervision and maintenance of schools to providing greater support in the following areas: (i) provision of building material for construction,

Bachelors (University) Diploma (higher ed.) Sudan School Certificate

Basic Education Certificate

--- Pre-school education (2 years)

Basic education(8 years)

compulsory

Technical secondary(3 years)

Vocational training (2 years)

General secondary (3 years)

University education (4 years)

Higher education, post-secondary technical, professional education

(2 years)


Draft, 6/11/04 9

rehabilitation and/or maintaining classrooms; (ii) provision of housing for teachers; and (iii) fundraising for teachers’ salaries and school supplies. Education councils appear to be playing a greater role in rural communities, especially in providing incentives to retain teachers, given the harsh living conditions in most rural areas. 2.8 The FMOE serves as the technical body in charge of planning, policy, training, educational research, curricula development, and monitoring the quality of instruction. It also coordinates a variety of educational matters with the states, including the Sudan National Certificate Examinations. The work of the FMOE is accomplished through five Directorates: (i) The National Council for Educational Planning; (ii) The Council of National Center for Curricula and Educational Research; (iii) The National Council for Literacy and Adult Education; (iv) The National Council for Linguistic Planning; and (v) The Council of Education Foundation for Printing and Publishing. Tertiary education is under the responsibility of a separate ministry. 2.9 Basic Educational Coverage. Sudan’s Gross Enrolment Rate (GER) in 2002 was lower than the SSA average, including some poorer neighbors, such as Chad. Aggregate enrollment figures also show that the national GER has been progressing too slowly in comparison with the rest of Africa since 1992. Moreover, this progress has not been successful in reducing Sudan’s significant geographic disparities. In 2003, while the national GER was 62%2, three states had a GER equal to or higher than 84% while the GER of three others was less than one-half of this amount. The highest enrolment was in the Northern, River Nile and Khartoum States and the lowest enrolment was in S. Darfour, W. Darfour and South Kordufan states. 2.10 While the overall enrolment rate is low, the basic education system has demonstrated many strengths. While the paucity of data on quality of education does not allow definitive conclusions, it seems that when compared to other SSA countries, Sudan’s basic education system is has relatively reduced gender disparities, a high survival rate to 6th grade, relatively low unit costs, and the students performance reveals good learning acquisition.

Table 2.1 GER and Completion Rates, Comparison Countries (most recent year)

Country GER Completion rate to 6th grade Male Female Total Total

Sudan 59 51 55 83 SSA 86 76.3 81.2 63 Uganda 146 136 141 79 Chad 97 64 81 41 Ethiopia 85 57 71 -- Cote d’Ivoire 88 66 77 66 Source : MINEDAF VII

2 North Sudan only, excluding Bahr El Ghazal, Equatoria and Upper Nile states.


Draft, 6/11/04 10

2.11 Efficiency. Survival rates estimate the percentage of students who complete a given cycle of education regardless of their beginning or completion age. It is one of the most important gauges of an education system’s efficiency. In 2003 the survival rate up to the 6th grade was 80%, which indicates that the large majority of students who enter grade one survive up to the 6th grade and thus do attain permanent literacy and numeracy skills. As Table 2.1 above shows, this completion rate is significantly higher than the SSA average. This is attributable to the fact that less than 5% of the students repeat classes, which reveals a highly efficient teaching and learning processes. Moreover, low repetition rates have a positive impact on the system’s financing, since multiple empirical studies have established that repetition increases cost without having significant pedagogic benefits. It is worth noting that girls have a higher survival rate than boys, which suggest that the gender gap would be eliminated if the rate in which girls and boys started was equal.

2.12 The latest data on school examination (2000/01) confirms the high level of efficiency of Sudan’s basic education system. It shows that approximately 77.5% of students (237,583 pupils out of a total of 306,448 pupils) in North Sudan took the 8th grade exam. More research needs to be conducted to understand why the remaining 22.5% of students in the 8th grade did not take the exam. Still, the pass rate of 73.0% indicates that skill acquisition is relatively high. However, there are indications that student performance in English and mathematics was generally below other subjects and this is a cause of concern for public officials.

2.13 Infrastructure and facilities. In 2003 there were 12,004 schools for 3,589,981 students. Each school has 7.05 classrooms on average, which means that there are approximately 43 students per classroom. While this compares favorably to the rest of SSA, the need for new schools is very important. To reach the set enrollment targets while maintaining the same classroom occupancy rate there is a need to build 2,200 classrooms per year. With an average cost of SDD3.28 million (US$13,000) per classroom this amounts to a total investment of US$28 million per year. This cost includes the provision of adequate furniture and separate latrines for girls and boys in every school, but does not include the provision of water, which can be very costly in some regions. 2.14 Moreover, the above figure does not include the cost of providing furniture and rehabilitating dilapidated classrooms, whose number cannot be estimated accurately in the absence of a comprehensive survey. However, these needs seem to be significant as recent, but limited, surveys shows that 21% of children sit on the floor and 19% have a seat without a table.3 Variations within states and localities are prominent, with the lest equipped schools catering to displaced populations. In North Kordofan, 60% of schools are made out of grass and saplings and need to be rebuilt each year, and 20% of students sit on the ground. Even in Khartoum State, which has the highest enrollment rate, some primary school children have to sit on the ground unless they bring their own chairs.

3 Ad hoc survey, UNESCO sub sector study.


Draft, 6/11/04 11

2.15 Finally, the physical facilities in the majority of schools do little to attract children to attend and are inadequate for focused learning. In many parts of Sudan, functioning schools are located far away from villages, and daily access to school is exceedingly difficult since there are no transport systems available. A sizeable number of primary schools are deficient in terms of water supply and sanitation facilities. 2.16 Overall, school construction, rehabilitation and maintenance processes need to be redefined. The Ministry of Education has yet to develop standards for classroom size and construction norms, which can include variations for each one of the main geographic areas. A unit in the Ministry of Education is in charge of developing these norms but external assistance seems to be required to improve its operational capacity. Moreover, the capacity of the states to contract out and supervise the construction of a large number of schools is currently unknown, and needs to be analyzed. Lacking this information, plans to build schools, and refurbish and maintain dilapidated structures will be impossible to make, finance, and carry out. 2.17 Teaching staff. The number of teachers in Sudan is adequate but the teaching workforce is relatively unskilled. The pupil teacher ratio in the basic education system was 28 in 2003 according to the school census, which compares favorably to SSA standards and suggests that teacher availability is not an issue. The official policy is to increase this number to 35 in order to improve efficiency. 2.18 Out of the 128,234 primary school teachers in 2003, only 12% had the prescribed qualifications (College Degree). Approximately 62 % of those with a college degree are female and approximately 41.3% of the female teachers and 34.3% of the male teachers were untrained. The remaining have received some on-the-job training. In addition, almost 88% of headmasters were not qualified as required by the FMOE. The fact that the system achieves good results with such a large proportion of untrained teachers is surprising, and may be an indication that teacher behavior is exemplary (with regards to assiduity, discipline, organization, etc.). It may also be an indication that the high academic standards required to enter the profession, which are much higher than in most SSA countries, are not essential for good performance. 2.19 The existing lack of trained teachers is attributable, in large part, to the fact that many are leaving the profession due to the low and irregularly paid salaries. Salary arrears for teachers in some states and localities are serious problems, contributing to teacher absenteeism and periodic school closures.4 The payment of teacher salaries in the decentralized system seems to be the responsibility of the states. Many states, due to low revenues, are unable to meet their obligations to pay teachers. In many communities the parents and education councils have borne the responsibility of paying teachers in order to keep them in their schools. Recent salary increases will likely contribute to limiting the rate of turnover of teachers, but the Government of Sudan (GoS) should assume a larger share of the teachers salary cost and transfer it to the states.

4 World Bank CEM, pp. 71.


Draft, 6/11/04 12

2.20 The basic requirement for entry into a teacher training program is the achievement of the Secondary School Certificate Examination. A 1990 reform made four-year university degrees the minimum requirement for entry level teachers. While the goal of producing highly qualified teachers is laudable, this policy poses a number of key challenges related to the capacity of the system to train a sufficient number of teachers. During the interim period the states need to recruit 6,250 teachers per year, while the university faculties of education have an intake of only 3,300, of which only one-fourth can graduate every year. There is a proposal to start a 2-year diploma course in the 72 In-Service Education and Training Institutes (ISETI), which used to train teachers and were closed 12 years ago. 2.21 The upgrading of the skills of the large majority of teachers who do not meet the new requirements also poses a number of problems. First, the cost of getting a university-based education has proved to be impractical for teachers5. Second, none of the alternative training modes that have been developed has the potential to cover all of the existing needs. The most promising among these alternatives is, the Sudan Open Learning Organization (SOLO) which used distance learning techniques to provide teacher training. SOLO has managed to train 22,227 teachers since 19926 and has an established network of 228 centers across 14 states. Its program relies on experienced teachers who are paid an additional amount to work as tutors. However, although the program combines face-to-face interactions with tutors at a center cite, and participation in local study groups, it still relies heavily on print materials, many of which require additional funding to be produced. 2.22 The responsibility for teacher training, traditionally vested in the FMOE, was transferred to the Federal Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research (FMOHESR) with the reforms of the 1990s. When teacher education was under the FMOE, the teacher training institutes had a dedicated budget. However, these funds have ,in principle, been transferred to the universities to deliver the new teacher training degree. In addition, responsibility for recruitment of student teachers and funding their studies were devolved to SMOEs, who in turn sought to pass on the cost to local education councils. These changes have resulted in the potential loss of coherence and coordination in teacher training programs.

5 The potential students for this university level degree are currently teaching in basic schools. As untrained or certified teachers, the Government should (a) pay teachers’ salaries during their degree years (up to a maximum of five years), (b) pay substitute teachers to cover their extended absences, and (c) pay their tuition fees. Even if financing were available, potential students have family and community obligations, making a move to a university difficult. Part-time degrees are probably a possible solution in the greater Khartoum areas, where basic school teachers can travel to the faculty of education. But even this is unlikely as most will have to study for 4+ years while working full time. As a result, there is a low annual intake rate (50 in many cases) of student teachers in many colleges which have a much larger capacity. It is remarkable that this failure to provide an adequate number of teachers has not been focused on and radically addressed in the fourteen years since this reform has started. 6 SOLO also provides courses on primary health care, literacy, refresher courses for adults, vocational training for untrained paramedics working with refugees and courses in women’s development.


Draft, 6/11/04 13

2.23 There is an urgent need to develop new policies for teacher training. In particular, the policy change instituted in the early 1990’s requiring all teacher training institutes and colleges to be upgraded to university status and for primary school teachers to have a university degree, has created a new set of problems. The capacity to train teachers at the college degree level has not caught up with the demand for teachers. Not only does training now take longer (4-5 years) prior to certification, but also because the additional time considerations have made both the direct and opportunity costs of longer training increasingly hard for prospective teachers and their families to bear. The new campus-based teacher training program also poses pedagogical challenges. By relocating training institutes to universities which are far from schools, a connection between theory and practice has been lost. The distances between universities and schools have made it so that student teachers are not able to practice in a classroom setting. The proposal to start a 2-year diploma course in the 72 ISETI and the Sudan Open University distance education program for teachers are timely initiatives that deserve adequate funding. Nevertheless, there are still critical problem to resolve since the Government has to increase the supply of qualified teachers as enrolment expands, and therefore a new national strategy to train and employ teachers needs to be defined. 2.24 Availability of Textbooks. The average number of textbooks per pupil is 2.1 in GoS areas but in many schools in the rural areas it could be much lower, or none at all except for the teachers’ copies (See Table 2.2). While this number compares favorably to other SSA countries, it is still only one third of the number of textbooks required to deliver the curricula. In addition, teacher materials are also insufficient. 2.25 Table 2.2 shows that the cost of one textbook (not including delivery to school) remains reasonable at about US$1, but relatively large number of books is required for every grade, leading to an average cost of US$6.5 per student. Therefore, if a set of textbooks is to be distributed every year for all students the cost is estimated at US$22 million per year. There are no clear policies stating whether children need to share books or for how many years a single textbooks should be used. For instance, if a textbook can be used for 2 years instead of one that would translate into savings in the order of US$ 11 million per year. 2.26 It is also unclear who should pay for textbooks. In 2000, the President of the Republic issued a declaration stating that textbooks would be distributed free of charge to all basic education students (the Federal Budget was to pay for these costs). Since then, the policy has been implemented only partially, and while parents were not asked to pay for the books, the number of books distributed has been inadequate, resulting in several children needing to share books. Recently, a statement by the Vice-President stating that textbooks would be free for one year has only somewhat reversed the earlier policy.


Draft, 6/11/04 14

Table 2.2 Availability of textbooks by grade in 2000/01 (sample of schools)

Grade Number of Books

Required per Pupil

Number of Books

Available

Number of pupils

Actual Number of Books per Student

Cost of Set of Books per Student

(in SD) 1 3 5938 6396 0.9 1100 2 3 6618 6406 1.0 915 3 3 6427 6064 1.1 950 4 6 10697 6102 1.7 1600 5 87 13452 5869 2.3 1920 6 8 12970 5473 2.4 1680 7 9 17636 5184 3.4 2450 8 9 20642 4318 4.5 2520

Average 6.13 94380 45812 2.1 1642 Source: ad hoc survey, UNESCO.

2.27 Finally, even in the cases where sufficient resources have become available it is unclear where the textbooks should be printed and how will they be delivered to the schools. Tarbia Press, a government-owned but autonomous institution is in charge of printing textbooks for the education system, using its own printing equipment or subcontracting to private printing businesses. Tarbia Press has not been receiving adequate subsidies from the GoS, and has, therefore, been selling textbooks to those states that are willing to pay for them. Moreover, the distribution of textbooks printed in Khartoum to the remote states and schools poses a logistic challenge given the large number of textbooks required by the curricula for every grade and the fact that all textbooks need to be delivered on time for the start of the school year. 2.28 Curricula. Sudan has had some capacity in curricula development and research for several decades. The National Center for Curricula and Educational research (NCCER) is responsible for development of curricula, preparation of textbook and teacher guides, evaluation of textbooks and educational research. It has a technical staff of about 30 members, but only a few members of this team specialize in curriculum development. This capacity needs consolidation in order to meet the challenges of the next few years, which consist mainly in developing transitional curricula to specific populations, such as IDPs, expanding the core curricula to a new subjects, such as life skills and HIV/AIDS education, as well as modernizing and improving the curricula in mathematics and English, where students performance was the weakest. 2.29 The reinforcement of NCCER’s technical capacity should be considered a priority for the interim period. Decisions made on issues of curricula content and language of instruction have vast implications on the many aspects of the education system, and, therefore, need to be informed by both pedagogic knowledge and empirical information. Given the existing lack of technical skills and absence of fluid and regular channel for communications between decentralized levels and the central level, these decisions risk being made on the basis of political considerations.

7 Only seven books are officially required in grades 5 and 6. the ad hoc survey projected this number of books needed.


Draft, 6/11/04 15

2.30 With regards to modernizing the core curricula, it is worth noting that, although the curricula is relatively new, it does not state national objectives or subject aims. Learning objectives are stated in general terms, not in specific and behavioral terms or by outcomes. This results in a lack of clarity on teaching and learning objectives and outcomes. In addition, subjects are too numerous and dense, and cross-sectoral emphasis is lacking. 2.31 There exists no apparent link between curriculum developers and teacher trainers. This creates a rift between what is taught in school and how it is taught as it also poses considerable problems for teachers who may not necessarily understand the content of teaching and learning materials. When combined with inadequate in-service training opportunities (as described in teacher education section), the current curricula results in predominantly teacher-centered classroom lectures. In addition, teacher guides do not provide much practical advice for helping teachers make lessons more activity-oriented for students. 2.32 Finally, the assessment systems will need to be modified to facilitate the integration of the school-age children that will be returning to schools in Sudan from countries where programs and curricula are different. Recent developments, along these lines, have been encouraging: the Directorate of the Ministry of Education in charge of the national examinations has laid out a very detailed strategy that aims at integrating students whose main language of instruction is not Arabic and whose religious background is not Islam. This is positive step in the perspective of the signing of the Peace Agreement and the expectation that the education systems in the northern and southern states will be harmonized and will facilitate the mobility of students from diverse cultural and religious components of the Sudanese society. This is particularly important for students from the south who would like to enroll in post-basic education institutions in the North. 2.33 Education planning and data collection. Educational planning will be an important task for Sudan’s education system, especially when IDPs will begin to move to another location or return to their place of origin. However, Sudan’s capacity to plan for such contingencies is very low. At the federal level, the Directorate General for Educational Planning (DGEP) is in charge of planning for the school system, educational statistics, studies, and performance evaluation. At the state level, Ministries of Education are provided with an educational planning unit. In some states, this unit is also in charge of training. At the local mahalya level, there is only one individual who handles statistical and planning matters. 2.34 There is still a need to establish various systems and procedures to ensure that the roles and responsibilities of FMOE, States and Mahalyas are devised and implemented. This more dynamic relationship also requires elaborate systems of reporting and communication that are two-way, thus reflecting new relationships between the center and periphery.


Draft, 6/11/04 16

2.35 The data collection system is largely ineffective due to a lack of uniformity in compiling and analyzing data, as well as the need for increasing capacity to collate and monitor data collection efforts. There is no fixed reference date for statistics and data collection procedures vary from state to state and sometimes between localities within states. This causes problems for consolidating and analyzing data at the central level. The education statistical yearbook is not produced regularly8. Problems stem from lack of qualified staff, inadequate facilities and equipment, absence of standardized procedures and forms for data collection, lack of funding and support for educational statistics, low reliability and inconsistencies of data, and an overall problem in the structure of educational planning services. 2.36 The overall methodology and approach to planning and developing investment programs in North Sudan remains excessively centralized, with the federal government issuing guidelines for state budgets. However, the real power to allocate resources to education and to implement programs resides with the States, who effectively control the budgets of localities (mahalyas). Federalism has decentralized many public sector responsibilities to the states and local communities, but without sufficient revenue to meet their commitments. State and localities lack the revenue base, power, authority, and capacity needed to achieve fiscal autonomy. Local revenue resources are small – other than in the larger municipalities – and local communities are dependent on the state government to fund the wage bill and part of their local development budget. 2.37 Education Cost and Expenditures. The recurrent unit cost for primary education in Sudan is among the lowest in SSA. The cost per student in basic education was SD7,300, or 5% of the per capita GDP. This is less than half the SSA average and is due to inadequate spending on textbook and teaching material and, above all, very low teachers salaries. After a 60% increase in early 2004, unit teacher salary is equivalent to 2 times the per capita GDP, against an average of 4.4 in Africa and 3.7 worldwide (see Table 2.3 below). The last salary increase has improved teachers remuneration substantially, but further upward pressure should be expected. 2.38 When looking at the consolidated total expenditures of central and state government on education, trend data from 1999 to 2003 shows that the actual percentage of spending on education has oscillated since 1999, when it was 5.4%. In 2000, spending dropped to 4.8%, but then climbed to 6.1% in 2001, only to drop again to 5.5%. The 2003 budget reflects a small increase, to 5.9%. Overall, total spending on education is very low. The expected projected amount of countries wanting to reach the EFA goal is 20 to 25%. At this level of financing, it is unlikely that Sudan will reach the EFA goal and achieve universal primary education by 2015, even with the assumption that the currently low unit will be sustained.

8 Between 1995-96 and 1999-2000


Draft, 6/11/04 17

Table 2.3 Evolution of Average Salary of Primary Education teachers (multiple of GDP per capita) between 1975 and 2000

(countries with a per capita GDP lower than 2000 $US)

1975 1985 1992 2000

All Countries 6,6 4,6 4,3 3,7 Africa Anglophone Francophone Sahel

8,6 4,4

11,5 17,6

6,3 3,5 8,0

11,8

6,0 3,6 6,3 8,2

4,4 4,2 4,8 6,4

Asia 3,7 2,7 2,5 2,9

Latin America 2,7 2,9 2,3 2,3

Middle-East and North Africa 5,6 2,8 3,3 3,3 Source: Mingat and Suchaut, 2000 for 1975 to 1992, and WB staff estimates for 2000 (Bruns, Mingat and Rakotomalala, 2003).

2.39 It is estimated that the share of basic education in total expenditures for education is close to 60%. While this share reflects well national priorities and is consistent with international recommendations, the bulk of these resources cover salaries, leaving little funds for the provision of goods and services and for development projects. Table 2.4 below gives a breakdown of state expenditures, and suggest that other sources, most likely communities and parents are contributing to the coverage of a very large portion of the school operating expenses.

2.40 Goals for 2010. The analyses of the education system above clearly indicate that the priority during the interim period should go to basic education and to some form of youth and adult training, especially those programs targeting out-of-school children and IDPs. Currently, there are approximately 6.8 million children of basic education school age in the North. It is estimated that by 2010 the number of school-age children will grow to approximately 8.4 million. Both this growth trend and the need to improve coverage and quality of education will place great pressure on the provision of education services.

1999 2000 2001 2002 Budget 2003

Wages 2,223 2,988 3,567 4,450 5,340Goods and services 322 396 436 469 536Other 6 6 21 30 45

Total 2,551 3,390 4,024 4,949 5,921______________________________________________________________________________________________________Source : Sudanese authorities

Table 2.4: Sudan C urrent Expenditures on Basic Education by States Governments, 1999-2003

( In millions of Sudanese Dinars )


Draft, 6/11/04 18

2.41 Currently Sudan is not on-track for the MDG of reaching universal basic education by 2015 (see Figure 2.2). Simulations show that in order to ensure the country gets back on track for meeting the MDG , the GER should progress from its current rate of 62% to about 88% in 2010, and the access rate to grade 1 should progress from 75% currently to about 90%. Achievement of these objectives will require a stronger focus on promoting access in underprivileged states and for girls. The survival rate (retention in basic education), which has been progressing in recent years, should further improve from 83 to 90%. With such assumptions, the number of students in basic education would progress from 3.6 million in 2003 to 6.2 million in 2010. This growth is expected to put heavy pressure and demands on the education system’s capacity to finance basic education operating costs and its human resource and infrastructure development. 2.42 These goals are ambitious in relation to recent performance. Yet it seems realistic because, overall, the primary education system is efficient and has relatively low unit costs. The expansion of education coverage and adequate funding will be the key challenges for the GoS.

Figure 2.2 Primary School Enrollment (ages 6-14), Sudan, 1993-2003

Sources are 1993 census (Sudan, 1994) and the 2003 official baseline surveys 2.43 Other Programs. In addition to basic Education programs the FMOE operates Special Needs and Technical and Vocational Education (TVE). Special Need Programs target adult literacy programs and non formal education for out-of-school children, which are key among the programs that target special groups, such as nomads, IDPs and refugees. These programs, under the responsibility of the General Secretariat of Literacy and Adult education (GSLAE), include four sub-programs: (i) basic literacy skills, (ii) post-basic literacy, (ii) advanced post-basic literacy, and (iii) adolescent education. These are programs which include some degree of technical and vocational skills training. 2.44 There are 35 centers that offer 2-year TVE courses for basic education graduates. They aim at equipping students with skills in subjects such as electricity, carpentry,

20

40

60

80

100

1993 2003 2015

year

per

cen

t

primary enrollment(north sudan)

primary enrollment(south)

MDG Target


Draft, 6/11/04 19

plumbing, masonry, and mechanics for men, and home economics, textile and leather work for women. These centers also offer short courses of 6 week duration in the same fields for those who wish to upgrade their skills. At present there are 6,326 students in the 2-year diploma programs and about 80% of the students successfully complete their diploma. There is no data on job placement performance. The Directorate General of Technical Education (DGTE) is responsible for running these centers.


Draft, 6/11/04 20

Section 3. Inequalities in Education

3.1 Inequalities in access to education deserve special attention as inequalities in access to resources and opportunities has been a root cause of conflict in Sudan. A child’s chances of being enrolled in basic or secondary education depends on several variables including gender, family income and whether or not he/she is residing in a rural or an urban area (Table 3.1). Of these three factors, income is the most discriminatory with a differential of 56 points between children belonging to the 40% most poor groups and those in the 40% richest group. Geographic location (urban/rural) is the second most discriminatory factor with regards to enrollment, with a gap of 28 points. Finally, gender makes the least difference, with a 3-point difference between boys and girls in basic education. Although the above results seem to contradict the widespread belief that gender disparities are the most acute manifestation of inequalities in society, they are consistent with findings from other countries in SSA, and are confirmed by other sources of data.

Table 3.1: North Sudan Net Enrollment Rates for Primary and Secondary by Locality, Gender, and Wealth (MICS, 2000)

Determinant Primary Enrollment Rate

(2000)

General Secondary Enrollment Rate

(1999-2000)

Adult Literacy Rates (2001)

Locality Urban Rural

73.6% 45.1%

34.4% 16.8%

73% 48%

GenderMale Female

61.3% 58.0%

26.5% 26.1%

70.0% 47.7%

WealthLowest 40% asset index Middle 40% asset index Highest 40% asset index

38% 72% 94%

6.7%

26.1% 62.3%

36%

-- 88%

Source: Based on calculations of Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, 2000

3.2 In 2003, the overall ratio of girls to boys was 84% in basic education and 94% in secondary education (see Figure 3.1 below). In higher education the gender gap has totally disappeared and female students outnumber male students. It is worth mentioning that there have been sudden jumps in female enrollment in secondary education starting in 2000, and in higher education starting in 1998, which are not easy to explain. Yet, compared to other countries in SSA, Sudan’s performance in reducing gender inequalities has been remarkable, due in large part to the Government’s proactive EFA policies and the fact that about 60% of the teachers are currently female.


Draft, 6/11/04 21

3.3 In basic education, the ratio of boys to girls is equal to the SSA average. However, while girls enrollment has been improving is most SSA countries, not much progress in narrowing the gender gap has been achieved in Sudan since 1997 (Figure 3.1). Since girls’ completion rate in school is equal or higher to that of boys, the stagnation of the gender ratio can be traced to unequal intake in first grade, and lack of progress in a few states, notably in the states of Kordofan, Darfour and Blue Nile.

Source : FMOE, FMHESR 3.4 Marginalized groups. Given Sudan’s particular conflict situation, several other categories of people in addition to the gender, geography and income variances exasperate the overall disparities in education. These include people in isolated regions, ethnic minorities, nomads, youth, IDPs, child soldiers and the disabled. The exclusion of these growing populations skews overall enrolment figures. More significant attention should be paid to these different groups to ensure that they have access to quality education. The specificities of each of the groups are detailed below. 3.5 Out-of-school children account for the relatively low intake rates and high drop-out rates, especially in Darfour, Kordofan, and Eastern regions. The war, along with HIV/AIDS has also left many children as head of households and orphans. Many of these children are working and are de facto less likely to attend school and more likely to drop out. Overall, 14% of children in northern Sudan are considered as working children, both in unpaid and paid work. Given the economic challenges that most IDP families are facing, in the absence of specific programs targeting these populations the percentage of working children is likely to increase. Coverage of direct and indirect schooling costs, flexibility on age of admission and timetables will have the greatest impact on improving these children’s participation. In other cases, where educational needs are not amenable

Figure 3.1: Female to Male ratio in Basic, Secondary and Tertiary Education

30%

50%

70%

90%

110%

130%

150%

170%

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Basic Secondary Tertiary


Draft, 6/11/04 22

to classical formal basic education, continuous learning opportunities through non formal education will be necessary.

3.6 Nomadic people comprise 8.5% of the population. Their constant migration and dispersion make them disadvantaged in the pursuit of educational goals. In recent years, the condition of the nomads is believed to have deteriorated. Famine, security concerns, and conflict have resulted in the reduction of pasture land for many of the nomadic groups. However, the Government has already started to implement pilot education programs for nomadic people. In 2000/01, there were approximately 651 nomadic schools accommodating 29,721 pupils. These schools are mostly supported by UNICEF and operate as mobile schools with multi-grade teachers. While they seem to be well-accepted by the beneficiaries, their number remains very low in relation to a school-age population estimated at half a million children. 3.7 Disabled children (physically, mentally or sensory impaired) comprise almost 1.8% of the population with 71.7% of them residing in rural areas. Among these children 1 out of 5 is believed to have a mental disability. As with many other war stricken countries, children have also been seriously injured, permanently disabled, or/and suffer psychological trauma caused by the violent conflicts. In 2001, the highest enrollment rate for disabled children is in Khartoum, at 44% and the lowest in Darfour with 12%. Creative strategies and lessons learned from other post-conflict countries will be necessary in order to develop a comprehensive policy and strategy for inclusion of disabled children into mainstream schools, and supporting the establishment of institutional capacity at the ministry and local levels. 3.8 Refugees, internally displaced persons, and returnees place particular demands on the education system. Significant and rapid population moves make conventional planning ineffective and requires more flexible approaches to educational delivery and a greater reliance on local educational initiatives. During the interim period, many IDPs are likely to return to their places of origin. The delivery of education will most likely need to be organized in phases, to ensure that people at all stages of displacement are covered.

3.9 The fact that over half of the IDP population is under 20, and of school-going age will greatly impact the ability of schools to provide access to schools and texts to all children. Attention will also need to be paid to special psychosocial services required to reintegrate IDP children, and to reform policies and curricula to facilitate the social integration of at-risk youth. The FMOE has already started considering how to catch some of these children up to their age-specific grade level as many are over-aged.

3.10 Education programs for IDPs are unevenly provided in some refugee camps. An example is the most recent initiative by UNICEF and the Ministry of Education for a three-month “catch up” session for IDP children who were unable to complete the previous academic year. Already, the number of children (21,506) registered for the classes exceeds the number that can be accommodated into existing classes (21,000).


Draft, 6/11/04 23

3.11 Federal support to States. The National State Support Fund (NSSF), established in 1995 to collect resources from the central government and rich states (Khartoum, Red Sea, Gezira, etc.) and to provide financial support to disadvantaged states. The NSSF is a representative body that provides resources based on actual needs. However, it does not publish its accounts and does not seem to use a clear allocation formula. While a more in-depth review of the NSSF operational modalities is necessary for a better understanding of its operations, it does not seem that the current rationale and processes for resource allocation can significantly contribute to reducing the inequalities in education participation among states. 3.12 To illustrate this result, the graph below (Figure 3.2) plots the transfers per school-age child (ages 6-16) for every state, and compared it to the state’s GER for basic education, as a proxy for the educational need of the state. If the transfers were based on the GER, the points on the graph should have a linear profile, with the high enrollment states receiving little or no support, and high enrollment states receiving much higher support. This was not the case. The state with the lowest GER, S. Darfour received SDD78 per child, which is exactly the national average. Sinar and white Nile states received SDD 159 and SDD 81, respectively, while they have a similar GER.

Figure 3.2 NSSF Capital Transfers for Education (2003)

0.0%

20.0%

40.0%

60.0%

80.0%

100.0%

120.0%

0 50 100 150 200

Trasnsfers per School Age Child (SDD)

Gro

ssE

nro

llmen

tR

ate

inB

asic

Ed

uca

tio

n


Draft, 6/11/04 24

Section 4. Priorities and Immediate Needs in the Interim Period and Cost Estimate

4.1 In order to achieve the 2010 targets to have all students, boys and girls alike, start and achieve a good quality basic education, enrollment progress needs to accelerate and to become more inclusive. To that effect, important reforms and actions will be needed throughout the system, and which are grouped in two main objectives:

• Objective 1: Extending the coverage of basic education. Given the moderate unit cost and the reasonably good performance of the system, extending coverage will depend mainly on the mobilization of adequate and well distributed resources. It will also require a reform of education funding with two key expected outcomes: assuring adequate coverage of operational and capital expenditures and transferring a larger share of public resources to the authorities in charge of the delivery of education services. It is important to mention that the transfer of resources to the state and Mahalya levels should be preceded by the development of a transparent funding formula that reflects the aim to correct actual inequalities vis-à-vis income, regions and gender.

• Objective 2: Institutional development and capacity building. This is a set of activity that aims to build national capacity through technical, analytical and knowledge-sharing activities, and increase existing access to international and regional experience in order to modernize policies and consolidate service delivery strategies. These activities target the following priority areas: (i) teacher training and management, (ii) curricula development, (iii) textbook development, printing and distribution (iv) planning and (v) expanding special programs targeting the least privileged. They are one time expenditures to reinforce the quality of the education system and its capacity to cope with the challenges of the post-conflict era.

Expanding Coverage 4.2 Increase overall expenditures to education. Considerable effort and resources will be required to meet the 2015 education MDG. A simulation model suggests that operational expenditures for education needs to increase from 7% to 20% of consolidated national revenues (or from 1% to 3% of GDP). While this seems a very sharp increase over the 6 years interim period, it will only make Sudan comparable to other SSA with respect to public expenditures on education. Such an increase will signal to the international community that Sudan is making serious efforts to achieve quality primary education for all children, and will be essential to mobilize additional donor support. 4.3 Given the expected growth of the national revenues from oil and other sources, in 2010, expenditures on education are likely to reach SDD268 billion from SDD43 billion in 2003 (in 2003 SDD). Simulation models show that these additional resources are necessary to meet the requirements of (i) demographic growth, (ii) expansion of coverage and (iii) necessary increase in unit cost, as a result of recent raises in civil service pay,


Draft, 6/11/04 25

and (iv) continuous improvement of the overall quality of services. 4.4 Infrastructure for basic Education Schools. The simulation model provides information on the needs for new constructions. In order to reach the enrollment targets set there is a need for building 2,200 classrooms per year. With an average cost of SDD3.28 million (US$13,000) per classroom this amounts on average to an investment of US$28 million per year. This cost includes the provision of adequate furniture and separate latrines for girls and boys in every school. Moreover, rehabilitation needs were estimated at US$200,000. This last figure could be underestimate the extent of the damage incurred by existing schools because a baseline survey of the condition of school building, furniture, water and sanitation and other equipment does not exist yet. 4.5 Special Needs Programs. Adult literacy and non formal education programs require curricula development, instruction material, training of 31,740 teacher and rehabilitation or construction of facilities, for a total cost of US$15.21 million over the interim period. 4.6 Technical and Vocational Education (TVE). The Directorate general of technical education is responsible for running the TVE centers. It has assessed the requirements in respect of (i) rehabilitation of 29 existing centers, (ii) establishment of 17 new centers, (iii) upgrading the curricula, (iv) retraining 350 teachers and (v) providing textbooks and material, and estimated their cost at US$11,830,695. 4.7 Transfer adequate resources to the decentralized level. Although the responsibilities of providing education services has been decentralized, the bulk of the budget remained at the level of the federal government. In 2003, it is estimated that only 23% of total education expenditures on pre-school, basic and secondary were transferred to the decentralized levels. Yet, all service delivery responsibilities have been decentralized since 1994. Such reform requires the development and the implementation of a funding formula that takes into account both the current student head count but also the need to promote education in the states where enrollment performance in lagging. A greater share of the resources should go to the areas affected by war and population movements. This can only be achieved efficiently if the allocation is made on the basis of an examination of programs developed at the state, rather than on the basis of programs developed at the federal level, which that could miss some key regional facts and characteristics.

Institutional development and capacity building 4.8 Teacher training and management. The GoS needs to address a number of policy issues related to teacher training and management, while increasing the teacher training capacity. The main policy questions concerns the sustainability of the current requirements for teachers. The 2001 General Education Planning and Organization Act, which changed the structure of the education system, seems to have had a positive impact on quality and relevance. But, given its logistic and cost implications it remains unclear


Draft, 6/11/04 26

whether such a system can be organized efficiently in rural areas and afforded by all states. In particular, the main disadvantage is the lack of flexibility of the school organization system, which does not allow any differentiation between teachers profile, and makes efficient delivery contingent to the existence of a relatively large number of students and highly qualified teachers. All this puts rural and sparsely populated areas at a disadvantage in providing quality education. 4.9 Overall the number of teachers is currently sufficient but their qualifications are low and considerable efforts will have to be made to improve the distribution of teachers among schools. The current sharing of responsibilities puts teacher training at the Federal Level and basic education at the locality level, which generates very complex coordination and human resources management issues. So far, such coordination seems to have been lacking, which resulted in a situation of poor supply of teachers in some states/areas and over supply in others. 4.10 Immediate needs. While the above policy issues will need to be addressed in the medium term, the main challenge remains to meet the very brisk demand for new teachers during the interim period, estimated at 2,800 per year. To train the necessary number of teachers the following “immediate need” programs have been identified:

• Rehabilitation of 70 ISETI teacher training centers to offer a 2-year diploma program (US$1.82 million)

• Establishing 50 additional teacher training Centers (US$4.33 million) • Short term courses to upgrade the skills of teachers who have sub-standard

qualifications (US$1.70 million)

4.11 Curricula development. Strategies for rapid reconstruction to integrate IDPs into the school system will need to be in place, with programs that are flexible and adaptable to the unique educational needs and challenges of returning refugees, IDPs, and their host communities. 4.12 The current education system will be faced with the challenge of providing schooling to a diverse group of children, some of whom (out-of-school, child soldiers, nomads, disabled) will more likely be reached via special non formal education. Strategies will need to be developed for supplementing current education budgets for localities and states which house a significant number of such children. The total cost of these activities has been estimated at US$586,000. 4.13 Textbook development and distribution. Numerous questions have currently no answers: • How many textbooks are necessary and what is a reasonable shelf life of a textbook?

The working assumption is that texts printed on high grade paper have a 3-year shelf-life. Teachers, however seem to think that this is unrealistic under the current conditions of utilization.

• How difficult is it to organize a timely delivery of textbooks from Khartoum to all schools (particularly when it is the rainy season in some states)? Could the States


Draft, 6/11/04 27

rely on private transport companies or should they develop their own fleet of transport trucks?

• State payment for textbooks could introduce an accountability aspect in textbook production. How can adequate funding be provided for the states?

• Should Tarbia Press remain a federal government monopoly and if yes, what safeguards/benchmarks should be developed to guarantee that Tarbia Press operations remain cost-efficient.

4.14 With the assumption that each student will receive a free set of books every year, the cost of the textbook distribution for the interim period amounts to US$135 million, or US$22.5 million per year. 4.15 Planning. The absence of systemic information on resource generation, allocation, and need and the corresponding outcomes on educational access and participation constitutes a major deficiency. All levels of administration are handicapped in their efforts to plan, implement and evaluate efforts towards EFA. The following recommendations provide options for counteracting these challenges. 4.16 The development by the states of their own development plans for the Interim Period is the most realistic approach to a needs assessment for development assistance. This approach is consistent with the decentralized governance system in place, which devolved key responsibilities for the funding and the administration of basic and secondary education to the States and the localities. In addition, it is also the only one that provides a realistic framework to deal with the diversity of the Sudan education system, the wide disparities in achievements and the impossibility to plan from the capital. Moreover, every state has its specificity. Some states will be affected by IDP returns, others have a large population of nomadic people or other groups which have economic or cultural characteristics that negatively affect the demand for education, and others will need to focus on rebuilding an infrastructure that has suffered destruction or dilapidation by lack of maintenance. 4.17 There is an overall need to rebuild Sudan’s capacity for policy analysis and planning public expenditures. Development of a medium-term expenditure framework (MTEF) is relevant if the annual budgeting process is to be guided by a set of strategic priorities aimed at restoring economic and social development. The educational budget and hence revenue mobilization, will have to increase, and have a better accountability of state expenditures, and the corresponding achievements will have to be instituted. Strategic decisions on allocating budgets between the four levels of education will have to be made. For example, in order to meet the MDG goals, a substantial increase in funds will be required at the primary level. 4.18 Establish a standardized and user-accessible financial and data collection, monitoring, communication and evaluation system both at individual school, mahalya, state and federal levels, as well as between these different entities. Workshops could be organized with the participation of state, and the central government (ministries of finance and education and health) to discuss the standard presentation of fiscal data and,


Draft, 6/11/04 28

most importantly, agree on more adequate revenue-sharing arrangement between the central and states governments. Increasing the transparency of financial accounts at the central and states levels must be a priority. 4.19 To address these issues a number of capacity building activities ranging from training staff in the central and state level, organizing comprehensive survey of schools and setting up an Education Management Information System (EMIS) have been planned for a cost of US$462,800.

joint assessment mission northern sudan education sector

Documents