•... .-Not to be cited without prior' reference to the author.

International Council forth~ Explonition' of the' Sea

C.M. 1997/EE:15'Session EE

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A MODULAR. APPROACH' TO 'THE MONITORING ANDASSESSMENT OF LARGE MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

: Kenneth Shennan. ..\

U.S. Departrrient of CoriunerceNatiomil Oceanic and Atmospheric Administratiori

National Marine Fisheries Service .,Northeast Fisheries Science Center

Narragansett Laboratory .Nanrngansett, RI 02882-1199

ABSTRACT

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. A significant milestone was achieved in June 1992 with the adoption by amajoritf·of coastal countries of follow-on actions to the United' Nations Coriference on Environrilent· and Development (UNCED) declarations on the ocean recommending·. that ml.tions of the·globe: (1) preilent. reduce. and control' degradation of the marine environment so as to

. maintain and impro\'e its life-support and productive capadties; (2) develop and increase the. potential 01 nuirine ·U....ing resources to meet human nutritional needs. as li'eil aso sodal•. economic. and development goals; and (3) promote the integrated management and

sustainable .development 01 coastal areas and the marine enl/ironment. . Present linlaige,however, between science and improved global stewardship .of natUral. resources , needsstrengthening. .Scieritists and governmental institutions responsible for the sustainability .ofresources are' engaged in efforts to' extend the .application of more comprehensivemultisectoral methods of marine ecosystem 'resource assessmerits, to 'valuations of.sustainable sodoeconomic benefits of resource .management. Tbe National Marine FisheriesSerVice is devdoping modular approaches for strengtherung . science-mailagemerit· linkagesand reducing the lag-time. betweeri new advances .in applyirig science to support resourcesustainability management in thc .more developed· countries . to needs for improving

. . assessments and m~ge~~nt of marine sciences in developing countries. . . .

A d~scription is, given of an ecosystems approach being developed by NMFS forstrengthening science-based ~esource' management using five linked modules for improvingecosystem sustainability: (1) productivity; (2) fish and fisheries; (3) pollution andecosystem health; (4) socioeconomiC co~ditions;' and (5) pertinent govemance regimes.

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Ecosvstem Sustaimibility , ..

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Ari. ecological fr~ework thai can serve as a' basis, for achieving the UNCEDobjectives is the hirge marine ecosystem (LME) concepi. LMEs are relatively Iarge regionson the order' of 200 000m2 or Iarger. :.They are cliaracterized by distinci. bäthymetry;hydrography. productivity. and trophically. dependent populations. They are regions of oceanspace ericompassing cmistal areas from river basins arid'esniades to the outer bouridaiy ofcontinencill . shelves and the seaward· marginS of coastal current. systems. LMEs areincreasingly being subjected to stress from growirig exploitation cf fish arid other renewableresources. ,coastal zone darilage•. habitat losses. river basin runoff. dumping ofurb,an 'Yästes.and fallout from aeros<>1 contaminants., :The theory; measurement, and modelling relevantto monitoring the changing states of LMEs are imbedde~ in repoits on ecosystems withmultiple steady states, and on the pattern formation. 'rind spatial diffusion wiihiri ecosystems

, (Holling 1993. 1973. 1986;Pimril 1984; AAAS 1986. 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993; Beddington1986; Mangel 1991; Levin 1993; arid Sherman 1994).~., .

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From the ecological perspective; the concept thai critical processes controlling the'stiueture rind, fundiori of biological 'commumties can: best be äddressed on a regional basis(Ricklefs 1987) 'has been .applied to oceari space, in' the identificatiori of large marineecosystems 'as distinct global uriitS for marine research; 'monitoririg;' and managemeilt. Th6coricept of assessing ärid mariaging ,renewable resources from an' LME persPective haS beeilthe ,topie of asefies of national and international symposia arid workshops imtiated in 1984and contiriuing througIi· to 1997 (AAAS 1997). Byeomparing eonditions among LMEs it is

,possible to gairi global-scale irisights to the effeets. of inereasing degradation of LMES caUsedby eutrophicaiion, pollution, overexploitatiori, and cliriiate change.

, , Severai LMEs are semi-erieiosed, inciuding the Blaek Sea, the BalÜc' Sea, theMediterranean Sea, arid the Caribbean Sea. Within. the extent of LMEs; domams \ orsubsystems ean' be characterized.' For' exarnple the Adri:itie Sea is a subsystem of the

,Mediterraneari Sea LME. In other LMEs, geographie limits are defmed by the ,. scope ofcontinencil sheIves.·: AInong these are the US Northeast' Continental Shelf and itS foursubsystems--the Gulf of Maine~ Georges BaOk~ Southern New Englarid, arid the Mid-AtIaluicBight (Shemian et al. 1988)--ihe Icelaridie Shelf, the Yellow Sea~ the' North Sea~ and the'Northwestern Australian Shelf.. For LMEs \vith narrow shelf areas and\vell-defmedcurrents: the seaward botiridaries are iimited bythe seaward margiri of the major eoastaleurrent, rather thm·· the judicially designated 20D-mBe Excltisive Eeciriciriiie Zone ,(EEZ)liniits: .' AiIiong ihe ,major coastal curren.t LMEs are the Humboldt· Curreiit, CaiifomiaCurrent, .c:iriary Currerii, ~ Ktiroshio Currerit, arid BengtieIa Current. The coastal eeosystemsadjacent to the land masses are bdng stressed from habitat degradation, pollution; andoverexploitation of marine resources. Nearly ~5% of the' usable amlUal global biomass yieIdof fish ami other living maririe resources is produced in 49 LMEs (Sherman 1994) ideritifiedwithin, and in Iriany cases exteriding beyond, the boundarh:s. of the EEZs of single coastalmitions loe~ted a.round the margins of ocean basini (Fig.l)·

. . ., .Indices are being developed by NMFS io be used as measures of the changing states

of iarge rruifine ecosystems iri an effort to maxirriize long-term soeioeconorriic benefitS of.maririe resources withiIi ihe eeosystem. Data needed to derive the iridices, iriCludlng, time­.series assessmeriiS of key ecosystein'. parameters are obtained '. by synthesizing ~he. resuIts ofässessments using five linked modules related to ecosystem susciinability: ,(1) produciivity;

, (2) fish arid fisheries; (3) polhition arid' eeosystem health; (4)' socioeccinomie coneÜtions;and (5) periirient governance. regirries. The approa.ch· Is being ,iinplemented. 'in a

'collaboraiive effort among NOAA-NMFS and fiv~ coastal countries in the Gulf of ~uinea."

Productivity module ", . " I.

Produeiivity can be 'rela;ed io the carrying.c·apacity of the eeosystein f~r su~portingflsh resourees (Pauly arid Christensen 1995). Recently it has been reported that themaxunum global le~el of prirriary productivity for suppörtirig, the average :iiinual wodd catehof fisheries has been reached" and further large-scale 'unirianaged' increases iri fisl1eries

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yields from marine ecosystems are. likely to be at trophic, levels below fish in the marinefood chain (Beddington ,1995). Evidence of this effect. appears to be corroboraied by therecent changes in the species composition of the catches of fisheries from the East ChiiiaSea L11E (Chen and Shen 1995).' Measur~ment of ecosystein productivity can also serveas a useful. indication of the growing problem of coastal eutrophicatiori. (NSQSR 1993). Inseveral LMEs, excessive ilutrient loadings of coastal \Vaters have heen related to' äJgal'blooms that have beeil implicated in mass mortalities of living resources, emergence ofpathogens (e.g. cholera, vibdos, red tides, paralytic shellfish; toxins) 'and explosive growth ofnori-indigenous species (Epstein: 1993).

The ecosystem parameters measured in. the 'prodtictivitY 'module are zooplanktonbiodiversity and information' on species compositiori, zooplaItkton bi~mass, ,\vater columnstructure, photosynthetiCally:active radiation (PAR)~ tranSparency~ chlorophyll-a, N02, NO],and primary production~ Th6 plankton of LMEs can be measured .by deploying Coniiriüous

~ Plankton Recorder (CPR) systems from commercial vessels of opporturiity (Glover 1967).The' advanced plankton recorders can be fiited with sensors for iemperature, salimty,chlorophyll, nitcite/nitriie, petroleum, hydfocarbons, light, biol~niinescence" and prumiryproductivity (Aiken 1981; Aikeri and Bellan 1990; \Villiams and A~en )990; UNESCO 1992;\Villiams 1993), providing the int~anS to 'monitor. changes ,in phytoplankton,zoopl:üucion,prrrnary prodtietivity, .species coinposition and dominance, ,.arid long-term changes in thephysical and nutrient characteristics of the LME, as weIl as longer .term changes relatmg tothe biofeedback ofthe' plarikton to. the stress of, envirorimental change (Colebrook 1986;Dickson et a1. 1988; .\Villiams 1993). Plankton monitoring Using: the CPR system is atpresent expanding in ~e NOrth Atläriiic (Colebrook et a1. 1991).

The flsh rind fisheries module

Changes in biodiversity among the domina~t ~pecies \vithin' the' fish cOmInurnties ofLMEs have resulted' from: . (1) excessive exploitation (Sissenwine and Cohen 1991), (2)nafurally occurring enVii"onmentil shiftS in clirriaie regime (Bakun 1993, 1995) or (3) coastalpollution (Mee 1992;' Bombace 1993).Changes iri the biodiversitY of the fish commurutycan generate cascriding effects up the food chain to apex predators and down the food chairitoplankton 'components of the ecosystem (OverhoItz ,and Nicolas 1979; Payne et .11. 1990).

. These three' sources of variability in fisheries yield are operable in most LMEs. However,they cari be described as primary; secondary; arid ieriiary driving forces in fisheries yields,coritingerit ori' the ecosystem urider investigation. ,For exarnple, in the Humboldt., Currerit;Benguela. Curreni, and California Current LMEs, the pi-iniäry. driving force influendngvariability in fisheries yield is the influence of chzlIiges in upwelling strength (BakUn 1995,1993; MacCall 1986; Crawford et al. 1989; Alheit arid Bemal 1993) fishing and pollutioneffects are. secondary arid tertiary effects. on fisheries yields. In continerital Shdf LMEsincluding the Yellow Sea and NOrtheast us Shelf;excessive, fisheries effort has been thecause of large-scale 'declines in catch and changes in the.biodiversity and dominance iri thefish community (Tang, 1993; 'Sissenwine 1986). . In these .ecosystems:, pollution andenviromnental pertUrbation are of secoridary and. tertiary influenc~. In con~ast, significant

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, co::tstai. poiiution and' eutrophicatiori ha~e been the pdricipal factors driving ~he chaI'iges infisheries'yields ofthe Northwest Adriatic'(Boinoace 1993), the Black Sea (Mee '1992),andthe near coastal areas of the Baltic Sea (Kullenberg 1986). Overexploitation arid naturalenvirorunenial 'changes are of secondary and tertiaiy impoItarice., Consideration 'of the

, driving forces of change' in biomass yield is important when developing options, formanagement of living' maririe resources for long-tenn sustaiIUibility.. . . ..

The Fish arid Fi~heries module' inCl~des fishei"ies-iridependerii bottorn trawl surveysarid acoustic sUIveys for peIagie 'speCies to obbin time-senes irifonnatiori on ehanges inbiodiversity of the fish cominunity. S~ndardiZed sampling procedures, wheß. deployed fromsmall calibrated trawlers; can provide' import:irit irifonnation on diverse changes in fishspecies: The fish eateh provides biological sampies 'for stomach analyses, age, groWth~feeundity, imd size comparisonS (lCES '199i), data for clarifyirig and qu:iniifyirig multispedestrophie relaiioriships, and ttie eOlleetion of sarnpies to monitor cmistal pollution. ' Sarriplesof trawl-eaught fish eari be used to monitor pathological eonditions that inay oe associatedwith eoastal pollution. :rhe trawlers ean also be used as platforIns for obciining \vater,sediIrierit, arid benthie sarnples for mo~itoring harinful algal blooms, virus veetors of disease,eutrophication, anoxia; and chariges iri benthic eommunities.

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Polluiio~ and ec~sYStem heriIth module

, ,., . In several LMEs, pollutiön has been a principal dnving forCe, in changes of biomassyields. Assessing the changirig statUs of pollution and he:llth, of' the eniire. LME isseientifieallY challenging. Ecosystem 'health" is a eoncept of wide interest for whieh a single

.preeise' scientifie' definition is problematical. . Methods to assess the he:llth of LMEs are'bdng deveIoped from modifications to a senes of indicaiors and indices described by severalirivestigators (Coscinza 1992; Rapport 1992; 'Norton ' 1992; Karr 1992). The over-ridmgobjective is to monitor ehanges in health from an ecosysteni perspective as a measure of theoverall perforniance . of a complex system (CostanZa' 1992).The health paradigm is basedon the multiple-siaie comparisonS of ecosystem resilience and stability (Holling 1986; Piriun

, 1~84; Costinza 1992) arid is an evolving' concept.

. . . FoI1owing the ctefiftiiion of CostänZa (1992); to be healthy arid sustiinable, :in,ecosystem must mainciin its metabolic aetivitY level, its iriternal structure and organiZatiori,and must be resistint· to external stress over time' arid space seales relevant. to the ecosystem.These conceptS were discussed by panels of expertS at two workShops eonvened in 1992 byNOÄA (NOAA 1993). Arriorig the indices discussed by the particip:ints were five thai arebeing considered as experimerital measures of chänging ecosystem, states and' health: (1)diversity; (2) stability; (3) yields; (4) produciivity; arid (5) resilicirice. The data from

, which to derive the experimental indices are obtained from tinie-series monitoring of keyecosysü~m parameiers. An effort to validate the utility of the indices is under dev~lopmentby NOAA at the Northeast Fisheries Scierice Ceriter. The ecosysiem sarnpling strategy isfocused ,on' parameters reIatirig· to the resources at ,risk from overexploitation, speciesprotected by legislative authonty' (marine' manurials); arid oitler key biological and physical

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eomponents ,at the lower end of the food ehain (phinkton, nutrients, hydrography). TI1eparameters of iriterest depicte~ in Fig. 2 iriclucte zooplankton composition, zoopIankionbiomass, water coluinn, structu~e, photosynthetieally active "ra~iation (PAR)~' transparericy,cWorophyll-a, N02, NO), primary production, pollution, marine mamrrial biomass, mannemammal composition, rimoff, wind stress, seabird, comniumty structure, seabird couritS,finfish eomposition, finfish, biomass, donioic acid, saxitoxiri, and parälyiic sheIlfish poisorung(PSP). Tbe experimental parameters seleeted iricorporate the' behavior of iridividuals~ theresultant ' responses of populations .and communities, as well as their interactions with thephysical and chemical environment. ,TI1e seleeted parameters provide abasis for comparingchangirig health sunis among ecosystems.. Tbe interrelationS betweeri the data sets and theselected parameters are indicated by the arrows h~ading from coluiim i to columri 2 in Fig.2.Tbe measured ecosystem. components are shown in relation to ecosystem strUetUre in adiagrammatic conceptualiZation'. of patterns and activities within the LME at different levelsof eomplexit)r as depicted by Likens (LikenS 1992)(Fig.3). '

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, Fish, benthic invertebrates and other biological indicator speeies are used inthePollution and Ecosystem Health module to measure poli~tion effec~ on the eeosystemincluding the bivalve mo~itoririg strategy of 'Mussel-Watch', the, pathobiological ,examinationof fish (Goldberg 1976; Farringtori et al. 1983; ICES 1988; O'Conrior et al. 1991) irid theestuarine and nearshore monitonng of eontaminants in tbe \vater colurilri~, substrate, andselected groups of organisms. An importarit component of ihe assoCiated research tosupport the assessment. isthe definitiiori of foutes of exposure ' to toxie. contamiriants ofseIected finfish and shellfish and the assessnient exposure to toxie ehemiCals by several lifehistory stages. The, routes .of bioaccumulation, arid trophic transfer of contlminants' areassessed, and eritical life history stages and seleeted food-ch:iiri orgariisms are' exainined for

;' a 'variety of parameters that indicate exposure to, .arici effeets of" contairiIDants.Contaminant-related' ,effects measured inelude diseases, iIDpaired reproductive' eaiJaeitY, aneiimpaired growth. Many of these ,effects can be caused by direct exposure to conciriiinants~

,or by indireet effects, such as those resulting from alterations iri prey. orgariisms.' Tbe, assessment of chemical contaminarit exposure and effectS on fishirig resources arid food­

chain organisms eonsists of a suite of parameters; ineluding, bioehemical responses that' areclearly linked to coricirriinant exposure' coupled with measuremeritS of organ diseäse andreproductive status that' have ' been used' in. previous ~nidies to ,establish liOks' betweenexposure arid effects. The specific suite. of paranieters meä~ured will cover the same generalresponses ' and ,thus ,allow for comparable assessrIlent of ~e physiological status of eachspecies sampled as ii relates to chemical contaIIlinant exposure and effects at th6 iridividualspeeies and population level. The implemenUtion of protocols for assessing the frequeneyand effect of harmful algal blooms (Smayda 1991) and einergent diseases (Epsteiri 1993) is

. included in the pollution module. ... ' , ,

, The socioeconomic module

, This module is characterized by its e~phasis on practical appÜcations of its scientificfindings in managing the LME and on the explieit integration of ee,onomie ' analysis with the

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. s.cieriiific research' to assure that prospedive ,management measures are cost-effective.Economists and policy analysts will need to work closely ""ith ecologistS and other sCientistsio 'identify arid evalmite management options that are both' scientifically credible and'economically practical. '

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Tbe economic and management research will be closely integrated \vith the science 'throiJghout. arid is designed inteniionally to respond adapdvely, to enhanced scientific'iriformaiion. This componeni of the LME approach to manne resources management wasdeveloped by the late Jarnes Broadus: former Director of the Marine' Policy Center; WoodS

. Hole Oceanographic instimtion. 'It consists of six interrelated elements:

1. Human forcing' functions. Tbe natunil starting point is a generalized characterization of thc ways in which

human activities affe:ct the natural manne system and ,the expected 'seilsitivity' ofthese forcing funciiorls to vadoustypes and levels of human activhy.' Populationdynamics, coastal development. and land-use practices in the system's drainage basiri

, ,are clear exarnples.· \Vork iritegrating the effons \of' natural and social scientistsshould concentrate further on resolving, apparent effectS (such, as eutrophication­associated red tide events or changing fish population stmctures) that are confmiridedby cycles or complex dynamics in the natural system itsetf. Progress is possible, to~,in achieving better charaeterizations of the way in which human forcing is mediated

, by alternate management options., Emphasis should be on isohiiing and quaniifyingthose forcing activities (sewage discharge, agricultural ruriofr, fishing effort) likely tobe expressed most prominently in effects ori the natural system.

2. ' ASs~siiig' impacts ,'Anöther natural· element in the systemic approach is to estiniate and even predict theeconomic' impacts of ünrnariaged degradation in' the natUral ,system arid. obversely,

,tile expeeted benefits of management measures. Such assessment is a fOrm ofstandard henefit-eost analysis. but it requires scientific information to describe ,theeffects, of humari forcirig so. they may be quaritified in, ecoriomic terms. Irutialanalysis should foeus on the sodal and economic' sectors likely to experieriee .the

.largest impacts: . fishirig, aquac~lture, public health, recreation,' ririd tmirism.

3. 'FeedbackS ' . "Colhiborative effort ' should ' also' be .devoted to icteniifying arid estimatirig, thefeedbacks of econoinic impacts into the human forcing function. Extensive coastaleutrophicatiori, .for exarnple, associated with coastal development arid runoff, Iriight'reduce the suitability ,of c~astal areas for aquaeulture produciion. and, irlcreaseexposure . to red tide damage, thereby putting: a' premium on capture fi~hery andiricreasing pressure on wild stocks. Similar feedbacks~ .boih negative and' positive,should be' addressed arid expressed' in ecoriomic ,tenns foi- all the majo~ sectoli

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5. Environinental econol11ics ..'. Many of the elements describect in this section comprise topics in Environmental

Economics. Specialists in that, fie~d attempt to estimate the economic values (bothuse and non-use) associated with. environmental resources, and, to identify theconditions associatedwith their optimaL management (to denve the greatest netbenefits for society). An important element is the coIlaboration between scholarsfrom developing nations, and those from the developed countrles to transfer andadapt to the needs and techniques of Environmentai Economics.

4. . Ecosystem service/thc "alue of biodlversity '. .Special cOnSideration should be given to improved kIlowledge ,of how the natural

. system generates- economic' values. . 1iany valuable services providect by natlliilsystems are not traded in markets or included in planriing evaiuaiions, s<? extr:i caremust be made to assure that they are not sacrificed through ignorance. The servicesprovided by coastal wetlands as. nurseries for, fisheries, natUral p~lltition filters; andstorm buffers are well-known examples that have paiticular relevance to. coriscilreclamation activities. Other examples are. more subtle, including the importarice ofpredator-prey relationships and the possibility of losing umecognized .. 'keystone'species in a vahiable ecosystem. Experience _suggests that growing ecoriomic valueson aesthetic and recreational/tourism amenities may be expected in the LME settingas weIl. A varit~tY of sources of economic value arising from the natUral diversity ofthe LME' should be identified and· assessed in regard to ~xisting. uses and potential',' • '.' I

management mnovatlons.

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Iritegrated assessment .The ultimate objective is the integration of all the' resultS achieved above, withscientific characterizations of the LME, into acomprehensive ,analytic framework(decision support environment); ·that will pennit .integrated, assessm'ent' of human,practices, effects, and management options in the ,region. Such work is at thefore front of recent research on the human dimensions of global environmenulchange' as well' as resea~h on human interactions \vith natural mafine ~ystems.

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Governance module .: , . " "

..'.The Governance module is evolvirig based on case studies riow unctenvay for which

programs . are being developed for management regimes that are cognizantof ecosystem, level interactions .including the Yellow Sea Ecosystem, where the principal effort; is

undenvay by the Peoples ReP.ublic of China (Tang 1989), the mult~species, "fisheries of the. HengUela Current Ecosystem (Cra'Yford et al. 1989); the Great Harrier Red Ecosystem(Bradbury andMundy1989; Kelleher .1993) änd the Northwest Australian Continental ShelfEcosystem (Sainsbury 1988)under management by the state and federaL govenirrients ofAustralia; and tbe Antirctic, marine. ecosysterri' under the Commission for the Conservationof Antarctic Marine Livirig Resources (CCAMLR) and its 21 nation membership (Scullyetal. 1986; Sherrrian and Ryan 1988). Movement toward ecosystems management is emerging

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for, i~e Nonh Sea (NSQSR 1993), the Barems Sea (Eikeland ,1992) arid the Black Sea (Heyand Mee 1993). '

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:Implemenfaiion 'of the LME Approach

, Present liilkages between seience' arid improved global stewardship of natural. resources 'are', weak and rieed strengthening." SeientEts arid govemrnenial institiIiiorls

responsible 'for the sustainability of resöufces <ire preseritly. engaged iri acdvities to extendihe ripplication ' of emergmg adv~lIicemeritS for marine ecosystem resource assessmeriiS, andeconomic analyses to val~ations of sus~inable socioeconorriic' benefits.

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• ,': Fast Track LME and Iniegrated Coastal Management ", (FTICM-LME) Projects

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The LME modular frame\vork for linking science-based assessmentS of the cha~giIigst~ies of cmistai ecosysiems, to support the long-term: sustainabiÜty of envirorimenral qualityand renewable resources while also' guiding environmentally sourid economic developmentof ecosystem res'oufces arid management' practices is now emerging from aseries of regional ,efforts. They are aiiried' at cross-sectoral integration, of assessinents ,of coastal productivity,fish and fisheries, arid pollution arid ecosystem healtb, with regard to soCioeconomic benefitS '

,'and governance regunes. The appÜcation of this broad ecosystem-level assessmerit arid"managemerit frarnework is supported, in part, by grants from the GEF in coIiaboraiion \vith,'national govemmenis, of countries , bordering 'large manrie ecosys,tems, in Asia, Africa,Central and South Ariierica, and' e~stern Europe. ' . , . ,, : ',. '

The GEI: Operaiional, Strategy calls for the development and implementiiion ofprojeets iri the International' Waters Program that can acllieve globalbenefits through theimplementitiori by couritries of more comprehensive approaches for restodrig and proteciingthe "Iritemritfonal: 'Vaters" (lW) environment. ' Tbe. goal of the I\V program ,"is to assistcountries int1ulking changes in the waYs that' human activities are condueted in different sectorsso 1hat tlze panicularlVQter body and its multi-country drainage basin can sustainably suppon'Izulruin aetivities." The GEF has placed pnority on changing sectofal polkies arid activitiesrespönsible lor ihe most, serious root causes 01 thinsboundary environmental' concenis, ariddetermiriing ihe expected baseline and 'additional actions needed 10 resolve each pnonryconcem.Based on (he countnes' commitments .. to change 'sectoral poUdes or activities and ,io findbaseline investments, the GEF niay fund the agreeCI incremental cost 0/ additional measures(GEF i997)'-One of the' focai' areas for funding by the GEF is to rnitigate stressors onLarge Marine Ecosystems; arid promote pnority actions for improving enviroiunental qiialitYand 'the .sustainable developinerit of resoufces within LMEs imporcint to the ..economicgrowth'and food seciiiitY of devetoping coiIriiries in Asia, Africa, Ceriirril arid South Ainericarind eastem Eiirope. ' . '

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it is irnporcint to strengthen the Ünkages hetween sderice 'arid m:ciagemerit for the

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drainage b.lsins and near coasial arid geographic extent of the LMEs, and also to improveon the methodologies for eruiuring that riear coastal rind drairiage basin effecis on the LMEproper are included in thc overarching strategy for a systems approach to .l maiiägemeritstrategy that includes: (1) drainage basin, (2) near coastal, and (3) offshore coästalcomporients of the LME. ' .

Two model systems cari be used to flll tliis pressing' need for improved assessmentstrategies within LMEs: the. Baiangas Bay model in the PhÜippines arid the' XiamenMunicipality model in China. Both were developed as demonstration .. projects in IritegratedCoastal Management . (ICM) . "The projects. are part, of the .Global Envirorimericil, Facility,UNDP, International Maritinie Orgariiiation's Regional Prograrns for the 'Prevention 'andManagement .of Marine Pollutiori. in the E.lst Asiari Seas (Environmerit and NaturalResources Office ofthe Provincial Govemment ofBatangas, 1996). Thc: approach providesa framework for management of the coast of the Bacirigas Bay regiori of the Province ofBatangas in the P.hilippines. It incitides guidelines for the implemeritatiori of a core progrnmof: (1) integrated waste managemerit, (2)water pollution. abatement, (3) conservation· ofstressed . mangrove arid. coral red, areas, (4) coastal: tourism development, and. (5)

'. improvemenci of the iriuriicipal fishefies .. Special support programs addressiilg interestS ofthe st:lkeholders of the region have been developecl, and. are being implemented for: (1)devetopment of legal and institutiorial. mechanisms. for ICM~ (2) strerigthening of proviriCial

·integrated planrung and resource mamigement, (3) improvement of policy support systems,(4) upgrading ofmonitoring arid enforcement capabilities, (5) capacity building iritechriology

,transfer and coastal management, (6) coinmunity ouu-each, (7) esciblishment· öf a· multisectoral .information, education; and cOInmunication system, (8) expansion of research.lnd extension activities, (9) establishment' of a management irifcirmadori systerii, imd (10)development of sustainable financing rriechanisms. A list of the key environmentalmanagement issues that·. are the root cause of the .declining environmental quality of theregion is given in Table 4. ". , .'

Tbe principal components of an Action Plari adopted by the Provinciai Goverriirientto mitigaie the coastal stressors are given in Table 5. Thc plan is to be implemented by th6Batangas· Bay Coimcil for. Integrated' Coastal 'Mamigement~ ri .special 'Council cfeated by

· legislation by the Provincial' government. " This _Govemance body wili move forWard th6actions necessary - to mitigate the stressors on the coastal region. whÜ6, also. allowing forenvironmeriially' sustäinable development of the riatUral resmirces of the .region. '

\ I ": ,I _', , Il1o'

Tbis model system is expected' to be introduced by the GEF/UNDP/IMO . RegionalProgram to other candidate areas riround the. margms of the Souih, China Sea LME. Iriaddition, a, parallel development for the coastal region of Xiamen, in the south~est ofChina, has also been iIDplemented arid \vill serve as the model ICM demonstration. systemfor the Yellow Sea LME. It is to be followed by äseries of demonstration pröjecis to beknown as tlie Fast Track ICM-LME (FTICM-LME) projects' around the margin of theYellO\v Sea in China, Republic of Korea, and Democratic People's Republic of Korea, in

., support of the GEF sponsored Yellow Sea LME projeci:.

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. Efforts are ..uriderway to place greater. focus on the linkage between scientific' andsocietal rieeds and the utility of long-tenn, .coastal ocean assessrrients. airil(~d .at eriharidngthe long-tenn sustainability of marine resmirces and coastal areas and associated drainagebasins. If the proposition for time-series assessments. of changing ecosystem siaies is to berealized in this perioq of shrinking budgets, it wmild be in the best interests of scierice andeconomic development to be tightly linked in the erideavor. The basis for the linkage wasemphasized not orily in the UNCED. declaraiions on the oceans, but, also in aseries ofrecent' developmerits .revolving around: (1) global clirnate charige, ozorie depletiori, aridbiodiversity issii<~s; (2) the legal precedent for international cooperaiimi implicit in the Lawof the Sea; (3) a growing. interest ' in marine· ecosystems. as regiorial unitS for mäiineresearch, momtoring, and managerrient; rind (4) reriewed national interestS in irnproving thehealth of degraded coästal ecosystenis arid depressed fish populations from overexploitation. .

~ , '. .

Under the Operattoruii Guideiines of the GEF International \Vaters Progrnm,countries . are encouraged, . to consider irnplementation of Fast . Track . projects. thatderrioristrai6 new approaches, techniques, . innoyative technologies, arid .iriSiiiUiiorial

.arrangements for removing baITiers 10 sustiiinable development, particularly with regard toprojectS' for .coritrolling larid-based ac~ivities tIlllt degrade. miiriiie waters (GEF 1997)..Efforts are presently underway by NOAA in collaboration with the GEF arid De. Chua Thia­Erig, Coordinator of the' GEF/UNDPIIMO Regional Prograrn for the' East Asian Seas toextend the model systems' in place in Batarigas Bay in the Philippines, and Xiamen on thesmitheast coast ofchiIia,' to other.GEF suppon6d phinning and operational .effortS uriderwayin the Gulf of Guinea LME, Somali Current LME, Bengtiela Current LME, Bay of BengalLME and theBaitic Sea LME. The objective of these LME projects is in keepirig with theGEF Operaiiorial Strategy for International 'Vaters airned at changing , narrow, nationalseetoral policies irito broader drainage-bäsin-ecosystem-wide Fast Track ICM-LME projectsfor iInproving and promoting the developmerit arid use of marine resources in a mänrier thatprorilotes their long-term susta.inabilitY.

. , ..The ongoing arid proposed projects are based on assessments of the changirig states

of LMEs described in five peer reviewed published volumes. A list of the LMEs for whichanalyses have been published arid, the. pnncipal. authofs of the repoits are ·sumrnarized inTable 1. The. results of more recent LME syntheses are given in reportS receritly publishedby Biackwell Science on the U.S. Northeast shdf LME (Shennan ,et al. 1996) and by IUCNori the LMEs of the Indian Ocean, arid the LMEs of the Pacific Rirn (Okemwa et al. 1995; .Tang and Shennan 1995). .

The productivity. module is based, on assessments of the effects. of changes in' thestates of Large Marine .Ecosystenis on biomass yields, and on mulÜ-yeär tiIiie:-series orprodtictivity arid circulatiori nieasurements(Ingh:im 1982;O'Reilly et al. 1987; FigsA arid5). The fish and fish6ries module ·is based on fishery independent bohom träwl surveys(Grosslein 'el al. 1980; Figs. 6A and 6B); the ecosystem heaiili ~~dule is based on tune­series m6äsurements of selected biologicaf and cherriical' indicaicirs of coastal pollution(Vlhite and Robertson 1996; Jaworski arid Howarth 1996); (Tables iA,2B,ic, ami 2D);

11

O'Conner 1996; (Table 3). To aehieve eomprehensive management strategies, the seienee­based results shOlild be linked to the results of soeioeeonomie evaluations (Le. Murawski1996; Edwards and Murawski 1996) and a consideration of govemance issues (Le. Juda1996).'

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21

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•

~anr~ 1

Table 1. List of 29 l-~Es alle subSYStems for which svmheses reiatin~ to primarv. secondary. ortertiary nriving forces controlling vanability in biomaSs yteids have been compieted for inciusionin !ME volumes.

large Marine Ecosystem Volume No.· Authors

.'

, M. Sisssnwins4 P. FaikowsKI

4 J. Voder2 W. Richarcs and M. MeGawan4 B. Brown et al.

1 A. MacCall4 M. Mullin5 D. Bottom

1 L Inae anci J. Schumacnsr

3 H. Hovgard and E. Buch

3 B. Enertsen et al.

2 H. Skjoldal ana F. Re.,4 V. Borisav

1 N.Daan1 G. KuUenberg

2 T. Wyatt and G. Perez-Gandaras

5 G. Bombace

5 C. Bas

5 D. Binet and E. Marchal2 R. CrawfClrd et al.

.' .• 5 A. Bakun."

." 3 W. Ric:hards and J. BohnsacK

2 T. Piyakarncnana

2 a. Tang5 V. Kusnlltsav et al.

5 J. AJheit anc P. B,8ma.

3 J. Zijlstra ana M. Baars

5 S.Owiveoi, & 5 R. ScuUy et aJ.

3 G. Hempel

2 Me Teruaxi

2 T. Minoda

2 R. Bradbury and C. Mundy5 G. KeUeher

South China Sea 5 D. Pauly and V. Christensen

North Sea

Ballic Sea

lberian CoastaJ

Mediterranean-Adriatic Sea

C8nary Currem

GuII of Guinea

Benguaia Current

Pmgonian Shell

caribbean S9a

South China Sea-Gulf of Thailand

Velow Sea

S.. of Okhotsk

Humboldt Current

Indanesia Seas-Banda Sea

Bay of Bengal

AntaralC Marine

Weddell Se.

Kuroshio Cumam

ayasnio Current

Grell Banier Reet

Eutern Bering Shelf

West Greenlana Shelf

Norweglan Sea

Bantnts Sea

Califomla Current

U.S. Southeast Continental Shelf

Gulf of Mexicc

U.S. NortheaSl ContInental Shelf

•

·Val. 1. Variability ana Management cf large Marine Eccsystems. Edited by K. Sherman and LMe Aluanoer. AAAS Sel8Cled Symposium 99. Westview Press. Inc.. 80ulder. CO•.1986.VaL 2. Blamass Yields ana Geograpny of large Marine Ec:csystems. Edited by K. Sherman andL M. Aluanoer. AAAS Selected Symposium 111. Westvlew Press. lnc.. 8oulder. CO. 1989.Vt:Ä. 3. Large Marine Ec:osystems: Patterns. Processes. and Yields. Edited by K. Sherman. Ltot. Alexanaer. and B. D. Gold. AAAS SymposIum. AAAS. Washington. OC. 1990.Val 4. Feod Chains. Yields. Models. alld Management of Large Marine Ec:esystems. Edited byK. Sherman. L M. Alexanaer. and B. D. Gold. AAAS Symposium. Westvlew Press. lnc..Boulder. CO. '991.Vol 5. Stress. Mitlg31lOn. and Sustainability of Large Marine Ecosystems. Edited by K.Sh.rman. L M. Alexanaer. and B. D. Gold. AAAS Press. Washington. oe. 1992 (this volum.).

OATA SET PARAMETER INDEX

(basea on 1960 valU91

•

•

;:OOPLANKTONcouposmON~

'ZOOPLANKTON BIOMASS "\ OIVERSlTY

WA'nR COLUMN STRUC'TURE I

OOUOICAOC

~.--~PSP

BIOTOXINS

'rftID 5mESS --~CA;:;a::;;;;.p

MARINE BIRDS -=:::::-_~~,.'•.:::/::.._ 9um COWolUNrTYS't1lUCtURE

HABITAT

NUTRIENTS

BeNTHOS

CUUATOLOGY --....,,..g.~..::::::...;;;

SOOP~ZOOPLA~~'am<vOPU"""'" \

PHYTOPLANKTON

FIpre 2. A Ichematic represeDtatioD O{ the data bases aDd experimental parameters {or inda:in; thecbanging staleS o{ large marine ecosystems. The data base represeDts time-series me.asuremeats of keyecosysum compODents from the U.s. Northeast CODtiDentai Shelr ecosystem. Indices will be based ODchanges compared with the ecosystem stale in 1960.

•Ecosystem Level

• 5~,lCIft aloman• S~'leIll i'rodUC:lIYlrt• Enau Flu~

o !'i,nnalt Flu~ ana Cyclin~

• Resilicnc:e I SI~blhlY

• Oeftlollmenl

rn Population Levelo In~lIIc Compcllllon'~WlOnA!CI

Sia SlnIc:wn:• flaINlaü0n GroWl" Rate.~Cyc:lcs

• SllIIiU DismbulIOIl

•

(] In~ividual Level• I.Jlowtn

• RClIf'OlluclIon• MclnllIItY

• BehaYlor• MClftmCnl

." ..."

o'o·

19 Communitv Level• ; ntenpc:clIlC Compettnon

• Divenlty• Spaaial StruC:lure·Z-Oon• SlICIlZSSlon• ImtaSIOI\ I E~linc"on

·Indira:t Comocuuon IM....'5m

tapre .3. Dlagrammatie: e:oDc:eptualizatiOD Oe pauerus aDd ac:tivities at dllrereDt levels oe e:omplaity. Ea&:hsphere repraents u individual abiotie or biotic enoty. Abtotie is dwed as ooDllving mauer. Braad.doable-headed. IUTIJWS indicate eeed.badt betweeD eotltles ud the eoergy matrix for the system. na. tb1aUI'OWI repraeDt dlrec:t iDteractions betwem individual eotities. MDCh of ec:ology is devoted to 1&IId.JIDIlateractiODS betfteD blotle: ud ablotie entides witb a foc:us 00 the dlects of lOch iDterae:tiODS ODlIulividuals(n. populations \P). or cOIDIDUDioes (C) of orpDisms. EcosysteID ec:ology studies tbae1Dterac:tiODS Crom the viewpoint of thdr effect OD both the blotie and abiotie eDtities ud withlD tbe COIltat

of the system. The bOUDdaries of the system most be establlshed to eooduct quantitative stDdles 01 DIlLfII. 1 depic:ts the bOUDdaries oe LMEs, loeated arouad the lDal"gius of the Oc:eIUI basiDs, where tbe iaflueuceof ovclUPloitatioD, pollutlioD. aDd habitat degradatioD aDd c1imate dlange are affecüog the stnlc:ture BIldfwu:tiOD of the cc:os)'Stems. (From Lik.ens 1992)

•

•FIpR 4. Mean, DOD-tidal surface circulatiOD iD the Gull o( Malne,Geor'ges Baak. southem New EaglaD~ and the Mlddle Al1aDw:BlPt. The Donhem sec:tor oe the shelf ecosyst.em is chan&:lerized.",. c:ydoDic: gyre aDd a seasoaaily stnatifled three-layued wat.er­mau system over the deep bums oe the Gull o( MaiDe, aad maedwater with aa aDtic:ycloDic: gyre over the shoa! bottom oe GeorgesBuk. Farther south, the waten move soudnftsterly aloag thebraad sbelf of southern New EDglaDd to the DalTO'WU", geatly slopiDgsbelC plaiD oe the Mlddle At1aDtic: Blgbt. (From Ingbam et aL 1982)

..'.,)tI. .~-;

, ~7'

•

\ '.ESTlKA1ES or A~NUAl

PHYTOPLANKTON P~'MART

PROOUCTION(Partlcul.te • OiSSDIved

0MJlnlc c:ar'oon i8'1 REGION

9''-' ~-l

"

0" ..... ..

;r-./'-

'.

:.,

~.

290

Oltl collectea in tnese.,.., lS not l"clud&dIn tne Reo,anal EsttmAtesof Annual 'oroouct10n

'" "'"--.. -

F1pR 5. EsUmates oe AnDual Phytoplankton Prlmary ProductiOD(From O'Reilly et aL 1987)

A

...

".

,-,.,..',

ItoClUISl'_ 21-!!l!!l " ,~ 56-110 "

o '1'-1B!!l "

~ >18!!l ", 6C' 68

B

Ftpres 6A and 68. Area oC study Crom Cape Hatteras to Western Nova Scotia. (A) Trawi surft)' stratawida ICNAF statistica.l sampüng divis iOD bOUDdaries superimposed. (8) Geographie sub-anas used 111 fisJaf.aaDai llIIa!ysis. (From Gcosslein ct a1. 1980)

Taille ZA. Comoanson ot watersnea tlUl rates tor total organac caroon I TOe), total mtro·gen (1 NI. ana total ohosonorus I rPl (kglknNvri

PO~

TOCINTl'

=:llire LME watersnea

2.324997148

::hesaoeaK8 t3av watersnea

2.240920

70

Taille '28 • Prellmlnlry estlmatu ot orgaruc: cartlon. nitrogen. Ina phospnorus loadings 10

the Hortneast Shelf LME from 11'11 COIIIaI wlt8rllllda

TolIl orgaruc TolII nIlrogen TolIlll/lOSOOOfUsCoaslaI area carDan •glln"JyrI (glmilyf\ (gJm2IyT\

Gulot Maine 2.989 0.980 0.117S~m New Engiana 2.429 0.898 0.280MiddIe AtlantIC 8ight 11.550 5.620 0.730A.-w~ IYlnql 4.309 1.851 0.275

T..... 2C PreIImirwy eslllUta of__t1an (li x IO'ldayl. nutrient loldinq

(1lI)C 10'f0m, end fhm rms(It~tram U18 c:a..a ....

Wllle-wal8f TOC. kQ x lotlyf TN. kg x 10'1yf Tl'. kg x Ia>!yree.aJarea "_I x tO'fday (k~\ (ltgjkrn"tyr\ (lctJ1anlIyr1

GijofMan 2.!i92 ." 2ISJl (1,674\ 91.1 (548\ 11..5 (66\SoIMlemNew 5.138 145..5 (3.ll2Dl 5U(1.104\ t6.1 (350\

CftIjanlSMiddIe AUantIC 19.435 6T.U (2.639\ 3'Z1:r (1 .2821 ~U (167\

BqtToIII tor LME 27.163 1.111.9 /2.324\ ~n.lS (997\ 70.9 (1481

TOC. lalII an;wc _ IN .lDlIIlWlIlIM: i P • lDlII..--.

Taille 1D Pretimtnary.1iaIIt8s of m.... loadlnqa (k9 x 101/y111nra ftmra"lk~"-... coaaaa .......

ee.aJarel

Gijot MaineSoIMlem New EngIanat.tddIe AIIanlIC 8ighlToIII tor LME

227 (1.31282 (5.9\912 (3.61

1.421/2.91

14lQ.oB\ 337 (1.91 65lS (3.7\9 (0.19\ 119 (2.5\ 1,071 (22.21

24lQ.091 364 .'.4\ 1.81. (7.1\47 (0.091 820 (1.71 3.554 /7.4\

124 (0.7\S05 (10.51743 (2.91

1.372 (2.81

Tables lA, 2B, 2C and 2D reprinted trom Jaworski et aL 1996

NUI'Ilber Of srtes wltn nl~her concemranon

"High"Chanucal ::ncemranon In United Slales' " NE Shett LME 0; ,n NE Shelt LME

Ag 1,2 1Jg/g 37 26 70As 24 33 9 27Cd 1.2 41 24 S8Cr 230 30 8 27Cu 84 35 23 66Hg 0.49 34 23 68Ni 69 29 4 14Pb 89 39 25 64Zn 270 40 24 60

tPAH -4,000 nl19 39 28 67tODT 37 33 - 15 45tPCB 2lJ) - 39 2S 64

"n'-aaa-llI233.illlU:IlII'~I"""_"_O'f_" ___

. . ,.. ,.

Table 3. "High" coo&:eotratiOI13 (dry weigbt) of chemicals in the NS&T sampiels CrOlllthI'ougDout the coastai UDited States aod Bomben of sites with cooceotratiODS aboYe thoaeleftb 10 the eotire natioo aod 10 the Northeast Shell LME. (From O'CoDDor 1996)

Table 4. Key environmentai management issues in BataDgas Bay Region(exc:e~ted from PG-ENRO; as cited In ReCerences)

AREAOFCONCERN

Solid W_Gencrabon.CollcetioD, anaDisposa.I

Water and AirPollution

MuDicipal FIShing

Shipping ana PortDevelopment

HIIDWlSettlements andPopulationGrowtb., Espcciallyin Qla5tai Areu

Participation ofPrivate Sector andNongovemmentOrganizatioaa in&vironmenwManagement

Integrated Policies.P1an5. Programs.anc1 wtitutiolta1Support

ISSUES

AccwDu!aUon of uncoUectee1 solid-Lec:hcate pollutionIndisaimiDate mixiDg of solid_ ana toxic: ana bazardOIlS

wutea

lDaeucd thrcats of oild.iIcharp from indllStries ana oillpiI1 fIOm hcavy vessei trameDiIpoW of IlDtreatec1 agricuJtura.I(poWtry. piggery and fanniana)ud indllSUial wasres intotributaries ana coastaJ. waten;Habitat destnlCtion/loss, cspeciaIlythe c:ora1 reefs

Dcdining f!Sb harvestDecreasing effective fIShing area inthe BayRec1uced inlXlme

Uareguiatec1 environmen&allydeItIw:tive pra&:ticea

VCIId tnffiI: congcstionOlllpil1 and ship collisionMarine pollution

IDa'euing settlements alongcouta1areuPoor hca1th &Da unitarycondition5

Lack of effective ana 5ustaineaputicipation

Limited emph.asi5 on environmentin development planning andtDaDagcmentUIIl:OOIdiDated fonnu!ation andaaforcement ot policies, p1an5.propams, ud projectsOccurrena: of resoun:e-use

conflü:tsLDw compüaDa: to environmenwIawa ud regWatioll5

CONTRIBUI'ORY FACTORS

lnadcquate aump siresLow c:oUection effic:iencyRanaom aumping of unc:oUected wasteIndiscriminate aumping from aomestic passenger shipsAbsence of inc:ineratorsLack of coUection flect/vehiclesNarrow roads/5trects for iarge garllagc vehicles1rTeguiar 5treet 5Weeping and open~ clearingLack of incentives and penalties for waste minimization. segregatioa. ud JCCYdiDI

Oll 'Pill from ships, tanb, ana pipes of oil refmericaOlly wutes from oil refmeries, shipyard, and marine COIIW1IClioD iDdll5tricaGas ana particIl1ate emission5 from inallSUial and powu-gcaezatiq pJuaa ud lIIOIOr whide:OrgaDic wasres ana chemicals from crop ana livestodt raWulMine tailings &Dd sediments from mining and quarrying operatiooaDestruetive flShing methodsIndiscriminate aumping of households &Dd commen:ia1 estabÜ5hlllCllta

Absence of se_ge treatment plantsPoor enforcement and monitoring of environmentai 13_ ana regulatioaa

lnappropriate fIShing methodsOverfashingPollution from oil spill&croaclunent of commerciaJ fashingUnregulatec1 waste aisposa.l from lana- ana watu-bascd sou.rccsConversion of Batangas port to interDatiolta1 port

ApplicatioD of open-pit mining methodsLack of enfon:ennent of environmenw 13_

Small _tu area of the bayIncompatibility with 50me land and _tu IISCS of the bayUn~piatec1 flow of CllliO. passenger &Da flShing vesse!5Poor enfora:ment of vessei wety mcasurcsAbsence of vesse1 traffic systemlnaclcquacy of vessd traffle moDitoring eqwpmentWcak inteßCCtOral cooperation in oil~ill contingency plan execution

In-migration of indllStriai workers ana their familiesUmitec1 alternative livelihood opponunitiesImproper bousehold practiccslnadequate health facilities and services

lnadequate institutiolta1 ana legat famcwon for participation ud empowenm:allnaufftcient inc:entive mec:baDisms for partic:ipationLack of fllDctiolta1 organization of coastaI commllDitiesLow unaerstanding ana appreciation of development-cnvironment neDla

Absence of a centrai coorc1inating body for planning and development cl the Batangu BayRegion

Lack of an integratea land- and water-use policy and plan., incI:lIding zouIioD ldIcmc for thebayregion

Limited techDical capability to integrate environmenw conc:erns into clcYdopmcDt planDing amanagement

MOll Iocal planners have DO formal trainiDg in cnvironmenw manapmcmWeak interagency. interseetorai and interc1isciplinary coordinatiOllLacIl: of recognitiOll of LGU po_n; una« the Loc:a1 Gavemment Code ud Iadt cf tcdIDicalability to implcmcnt them

Fragmented information basePoor Ja,., enforccment anei mODitoring of its c:ompliance

Tahle 5. KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN nIE DECUNING ENVIRONMENTAL QUALrlY OF THE BBK.(!rum PG·ENRQ: as cited in Rdenncell

IMPROPER SOLID 1.1 Acalmulation of - Low collection effidencyWASTB 1lDCOllcc:tcd wlid waltu -Absence: of incineratoISCOllECl10N AND - Lacit of coUection fleet/vehiclesDISPOSAL -Ineguiar nrcct SM:eping and open d.raining

-Lacit of incentives and penalties for WlISlC minimiz3tiOn. sepcptioDand rc:e:yt:ling

1.2 Inadcquate solid walte -ümited capac:ity and unbcaithy condition of c:xisting dwnp liladisposa! facilities -Absence oi dump sites for toxil: anl1 hazardOUli wutes

-Absence of alternate Ianc1fllllites

WATERAND AIR 2.1 Disposa! of indUlitria.l -Solid and liquid wastu from oil rc:fmcrie:uhipbuilding anQPOLLUI10N wuteainthebay fabrication. wood treatment chc:mU:ai c:ompanica anQ fcrtilizu piaat

eMine tailings anl1 lCdimentii from liaIll1 and gravd opcncioaaeWutes from ships, espccially domc:stic passcnger vesscla

2.2 Disposai of domc:stic -Organic wastCS and chemil:ais from crop and üvestoclt raiIincand agricuiturai wastu in -Indiscriminate dwnping of uncoilccted/untIeated wute& bythc rivcIS and tributariCli houscholds and commercia1 cstab1ishmentli

-Absence of sewage treatment plantli

2.3 Olllipills and oil -Spills from lihips, tanks. anl1 pipc$ of oll rc:fmeriClidischargcs from inl1ustric:s -Wute water and chemicals from inl1ustries (Sec box 2.1)

2.4 Gu and paniculate -Absence of pollution monitoring equipment/facilitiesemisliions from industric:s -Absence: of technica1 capabilityand motor vehiclc:s

DECLINING FlSH 3.1 OvenlShing -Enaoachment of commercia1 fIShing boatliHARVESI' eEntry of smaU flSheIS from arcas outside the coasta.l communitica

:u Dcerc:asing cifective eIncrcasing numbcr of sca vessdaflShing arca in the bay eConveISion of domcstic port in Batangas City into intcmatioaal port

eResttietion on flShing by same companies operating private wua-(oil companics)

3.3 Habitat destruetion eDcsttuctivc flShing methods.ePollution from oillipill/discl1arges (See Boxcs 2.1,2.2,2.3)

IMPROPER MINING 4.1 Application of .Open-pit miningAND QUARRYING cnvironmcntally dcstruetivcOPERATIONS mctbods

EXPANDING 5.1 Vesse! traffle congestion -Smail watcr arca of thc baySHIPPING AND eAbsence of vessai traffle systemPORT -Inadequacy of vesscl traffle monitoring cquipmcnt/faciliticaDEVELOPMENTACI1VlTIES

S.2 Oillipill and ship eUnrc:gulated flow of cargo, pRIiICDger, and flShing VCSIdacollision eWealt interseetoral cooperation in oillipill contingency plan

implementation

5.3 Marine pollution eOillipills and dischaIp from industrics (See Box 2.3)eWurcs disposcd by domcstic pRIiICDger ships (See Box 2.1) in thc

bay

DETERIORATING 6.1lncrcasing population elmmigration of industrial workczl and thcir CamillcaSOCIOECONOMIC and IiCttlements in c:oastA1 -Displacemcnt of some sectors. c:spec:ially flShcrfolks. dua coCONDmONSOP arc:u indlllitria1 dcvelopmentPEOPLEIN eLimited altc:mative livelihood opponunitiesCOASI'AL AREAS

6.2 Poor bea1th and eLacit of cnvironmenta.l education and awarc:nc.ssunitation condition eImpropcr houscholc1 praetiCCl

eInadequqte aCCCS$ to healtb services

LACI(OP 7.1 Inadcquate institutionaI _Iasuffidcnt inceatives and Slrategies for participation by privaleMULTISEcroRAL aac1lcgal framc:wort for scetor, NGOs, ami communityPARTIaPATION IN panicipation .Low undeIStanding and apprc:c:iation of dcvelopment environmentENVIRONMENr ncxusMANAGEMENr eLacit of funetional orpnization of coasta.I communitica

- --