1.Age: 1.Age: the older the faster, the younger the the older the faster, the younger the better (Singleton, 1989).better (Singleton, 1989).

Age: an important factor for educational Age: an important factor for educational policy-making and lge pedagogy.policy-making and lge pedagogy.

Researchers: process in SLA is the same Researchers: process in SLA is the same whether a learner is an adult or a child.whether a learner is an adult or a child.

Adults: disadvantage at the level of phonology: Adults: disadvantage at the level of phonology: accent but advantage at rate learning.accent but advantage at rate learning.

A) What effect does age have on the rate of L2 A) What effect does age have on the rate of L2 learning?learning?

B) What effect does age have on learners’ B) What effect does age have on learners’ ability to achieve native speaker level of ability to achieve native speaker level of proficiency.proficiency.

c) What effect does age have on learners c) What effect does age have on learners levels of L2 achievement?levels of L2 achievement?

d) What effect does age have on the processes d) What effect does age have on the processes of L2 Learning?of L2 Learning?

What is the appropriate age to What is the appropriate age to introduce a Fl or SL in a country?introduce a Fl or SL in a country?

Should FL be introduced in the Should FL be introduced in the elementary school or wait till the elementary school or wait till the secondary school?secondary school?

Is it reasonable to try to achieve native Is it reasonable to try to achieve native like pronunciation in our learners?like pronunciation in our learners?

Lennenberg (1967) Lennenberg (1967) Crtical period Crtical period hypothesishypothesis: complete mastery of : complete mastery of language is impossible?language is impossible? (after age 6, (after age 6, difficult to achieve native-like accent)difficult to achieve native-like accent)

Explanations for Age Explanations for Age related differencesrelated differences

Social psychological explanationSocial psychological explanation

Cognitive explanation: LAD for the Cognitive explanation: LAD for the child and general problem solving child and general problem solving abilities for the adult.abilities for the adult.

2: Aptitude2: Aptitude language aptitude is the natural ability to learn a language aptitude is the natural ability to learn a

language, not including intelligence, motivation, language, not including intelligence, motivation, or interest.or interest.

It is a capability of learning a task; an innate It is a capability of learning a task; an innate factor or stable factor; not rerequisite for SLA i.e., factor or stable factor; not rerequisite for SLA i.e., all learners irrespective of their language aptitude all learners irrespective of their language aptitude may achieve a reasonable level of proficiency.may achieve a reasonable level of proficiency.

It is a combination of various abilities such as It is a combination of various abilities such as ability to :ability to :

identify sound patterns in a languageidentify sound patterns in a language recognize different grammatical functions of recognize different grammatical functions of

wordswords infer language rulesinfer language rules

Motivation can also be:Motivation can also be: *causative ( have an effect on learning)*causative ( have an effect on learning) *resultative ( be influenced by learning)*resultative ( be influenced by learning) * extrinsic ( derive from external sources * extrinsic ( derive from external sources

such as material rewards)such as material rewards) * intrinsic (derive from personal interests * intrinsic (derive from personal interests

and inner needs)and inner needs) Who will achieve and out-perform the Who will achieve and out-perform the

other, the learner with integrative or other, the learner with integrative or instrumental motivation, intrinsic or instrumental motivation, intrinsic or extrinsic?extrinsic?

Lukmani’s work (1972 ) Ss with Lukmani’s work (1972 ) Ss with instrumental motivation outperformed SS instrumental motivation outperformed SS with integrative motivation. with integrative motivation.

Orientation: underlying reasons for Orientation: underlying reasons for studying an L2.studying an L2.

Instrumental Instrumental integrative motivationintegrative motivation

5: Cognitive Styles and Learning 5: Cognitive Styles and Learning Styles.Styles.

characteristics in which characteristics in which individual learners orientate to individual learners orientate to problem solving i.e., how problem solving i.e., how learners perceive, organize and learners perceive, organize and process information or approach process information or approach a task.a task.

What is a style? Strategy? Process?What is a style? Strategy? Process?

learning styles/ cognitive learning styles/ cognitive controls/cognitive controls/cognitive styles/personality/ learning stylesstyles/personality/ learning styles

Do learning styles exist?Do learning styles exist? Can they be measured?Can they be measured? What should the instructor do What should the instructor do

about them? about them?

2: Aptitude2: Aptitude language aptitude is the natural ability to language aptitude is the natural ability to

learn a language, not including learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, or interest.intelligence, motivation, or interest.

It is a capability of learning a task; an It is a capability of learning a task; an innate factor or stable factor; not innate factor or stable factor; not rerequisite for SLA i.e., all learners rerequisite for SLA i.e., all learners irrespective of their language aptitude irrespective of their language aptitude may achieve a reasonable level of may achieve a reasonable level of proficiency.proficiency.

It is a combination of various abilities It is a combination of various abilities such as ability to :such as ability to :

1.1. identify sound patterns in a languageidentify sound patterns in a language2.2. recognize different grammatical functions recognize different grammatical functions

of wordsof words3.3. infer language rulesinfer language rules

3: Motivation3: Motivation : a key factor in SLA : a key factor in SLA Gardner (1985) defines motivation as : effort+ Desire to Gardner (1985) defines motivation as : effort+ Desire to

achieve a goal+ Attitudesachieve a goal+ Attitudes It can change over timeIt can change over time Influenced by external factorsInfluenced by external factors Integrative motivation : the learner wishes to identify with Integrative motivation : the learner wishes to identify with

another linguistic group e.g., to communicate with.another linguistic group e.g., to communicate with. Instrumental motivation: the learner learns for utilitarian Instrumental motivation: the learner learns for utilitarian

purposes eg., furthering a career, Improving social status, purposes eg., furthering a career, Improving social status, passing an examination passing an examination

Motivation can alos be:Motivation can alos be: *causative ( have an effect on learning)*causative ( have an effect on learning) *resultative ( be influenced by learning)*resultative ( be influenced by learning) * extrinsic ( derive from external sources such as material * extrinsic ( derive from external sources such as material

rewards)rewards) * intrinsic (derive from personal interests and inner needs)* intrinsic (derive from personal interests and inner needs) Who do you think will achieve and out perform the other, the Who do you think will achieve and out perform the other, the

learner with integrative or instrumental motivation, intrinsic or learner with integrative or instrumental motivation, intrinsic or extrinsic?extrinsic?

Lukmani’s work (1972 ) Ss with instrumental motivation Lukmani’s work (1972 ) Ss with instrumental motivation outperformed SS with integrative motivation. outperformed SS with integrative motivation.

Orientation: underlying reasons for studying an L2.Orientation: underlying reasons for studying an L2.

4:Attitudes:4:Attitudes: may be affected by: parents, peers, may be affected by: parents, peers,

learning situation, teachers, ethnicity.learning situation, teachers, ethnicity. Gardner and Lambert (1959) did not Gardner and Lambert (1959) did not

distinguish between motivation and distinguish between motivation and attitudes but in (1979) they redefined attitudes but in (1979) they redefined them attitude may affect motivation them attitude may affect motivation and therefore SLAand therefore SLA

Shift in performance due to attitude Shift in performance due to attitude can be synchronic or diachroniccan be synchronic or diachronic

6: Personality6: Personality: aspects of individual’s : aspects of individual’s behavior, attitudes and beliefs typical and behavior, attitudes and beliefs typical and distinctive to a person distinctive to a person

It is made up of little pieces or traitsIt is made up of little pieces or traits a) self-esteem: a) self-esteem: feeling of self-worth that an feeling of self-worth that an

individual possesses (See Brown, 1987: 101).individual possesses (See Brown, 1987: 101). Highest level: global self-esteem: overall self-Highest level: global self-esteem: overall self-

esteemesteem Middle level: specific self-esteem (how they Middle level: specific self-esteem (how they

perceive themselves at work)perceive themselves at work) Lowest level: specific taskLowest level: specific task Can we teach self-esteem to our learners? Can we teach self-esteem to our learners?

How?How?

b) Extroversion: b) Extroversion: extrovert is a person extrovert is a person whose conscious interests and energies are whose conscious interests and energies are often directed outwards towards other people often directed outwards towards other people than towards their own experience than towards their own experience

Extroverts are said to learn faster than Extroverts are said to learn faster than introverts introverts

Those who fall in the middle are called Those who fall in the middle are called "ambiverts" "ambiverts"

c) Anxietyc) Anxiety: may enhance or hinder SLA: may enhance or hinder SLA d) Risk-takingd) Risk-taking: Willingness to take risks: : Willingness to take risks:

degree to which a person is willing to take degree to which a person is willing to take risksrisks

e): Sensitivity to rejection: e): Sensitivity to rejection: Antithesis to Antithesis to risk-taking behavior. They avoid active risk-taking behavior. They avoid active participation in class fearing ridicule by their participation in class fearing ridicule by their classmates classmates

h) Tolerance of ambiguity: h) Tolerance of ambiguity: Reflectivity/Impulsivity: Reflectivity/Impulsivity: individual who have a reflective individual who have a reflective

cognitive style tend to mull things over when making a cognitive style tend to mull things over when making a decisiondecision

Aural/Visual: Aural/Visual: refers to a person’s preferred mode of refers to a person’s preferred mode of presentation ( Levin et at (1974): learners could be presentation ( Levin et at (1974): learners could be bimodal .i.e., learning via one mode or the other does not bimodal .i.e., learning via one mode or the other does not contribute to a difference in outcome.contribute to a difference in outcome.

Analytic/Gestalt: Analytic/Gestalt: Hatch (1974) made a distinction b/w Hatch (1974) made a distinction b/w learners who are data-gathered and those who are rule-learners who are data-gathered and those who are rule-formersformers

Analytic: Analytic: fluent but inaccurate producers of the TLfluent but inaccurate producers of the TL Approach lge in more holistic or gestalt-like manner.Approach lge in more holistic or gestalt-like manner. Gestalt: Gestalt: more halting in their use of the TL & more more halting in their use of the TL & more

accurate.accurate. Beaders: Beaders: analytic learners who learn the meaning of each analytic learners who learn the meaning of each

word and then string them together to make meaningword and then string them together to make meaning Braiders: Braiders: more holistic in their approach in that they more holistic in their approach in that they

assimilate lge in chunks and are more daring about using assimilate lge in chunks and are more daring about using them in social contexts than their more cautious them in social contexts than their more cautious counterparts, the beaders.counterparts, the beaders.

What are the basic approaches What are the basic approaches to learning styles and to learning styles and instruction? instruction?

What if there is a mismatch What if there is a mismatch between instructor style between instructor style and learners' styles? e.g., and learners' styles? e.g., suppose that learners suppose that learners prefer independent work prefer independent work and reading, but the and reading, but the instructor prefers group instructor prefers group projectsprojects

Contrasting L1 and L2 or TLContrasting L1 and L2 or TL Attitudes towards FL and national languagesAttitudes towards FL and national languages Languages in contact in moroccoLanguages in contact in morocco Motivations for learning X language Motivations for learning X language Language planning: perceiving effects of Language planning: perceiving effects of

Arabisation of science disciplinesArabisation of science disciplines Perceived functions and status of X languagePerceived functions and status of X language Teacher talk analyzedTeacher talk analyzed Second language learning and communication Second language learning and communication

strategiesstrategies Learner varietiesLearner varieties Variety according to sex, age, addresseeVariety according to sex, age, addressee Teacher /student classroom interactionTeacher /student classroom interaction Learning strategies approaches among Learning strategies approaches among

Moroccan university SSMoroccan university SS

Individual DifferencesIndividual Differences Introductory pointsIntroductory points --

1)What characteristics do good learners appear to 1)What characteristics do good learners appear to have which poor ones don’t? have which poor ones don’t? Why do some learners do better than others?

2) How can one 2) How can one IdentifyIdentify those characteristics and those characteristics and discriminatediscriminate between them and between them and between them and between them and other traits, which don’t relate to Foreign Language other traits, which don’t relate to Foreign Language achievement?achievement?

3) How can teachers be expected to be sensitive to 3) How can teachers be expected to be sensitive to

individual differences among their learners apart individual differences among their learners apart from general experience? from general experience?

How can we identify learner’s strategies?How can we identify learner’s strategies?Are strategies teachable?Are strategies teachable?What is the distinction between descriptive and What is the distinction between descriptive and

interventionist studies?interventionist studies?

Attitude Motivation Index 1 Attitudes to English Speaking people 1 Attitudes to English Speaking people 2 Attitudes to American and British People2 Attitudes to American and British People 3 Interest in Foreign Languages3 Interest in Foreign Languages 4 Integrative Orientation4 Integrative Orientation 5 Motivational intensity (degree: high or 5 Motivational intensity (degree: high or

low)low) 6 Desire to Learn English6 Desire to Learn English 7 Attitudes Towards Learning English7 Attitudes Towards Learning English 8 English Teaching 8 English Teaching - - EvaluativeEvaluative 9 English Course 9 English Course - - EvaluativeEvaluative 10 Instrumental Orientation10 Instrumental Orientation 11 English Class Anxiety11 English Class Anxiety

I need English to advance my careerI need English to advance my career It will enable me to gain good friends more It will enable me to gain good friends more

easily among English speaking peopleeasily among English speaking people One needs a good knowledge of at least one One needs a good knowledge of at least one

foreign language to merit social recognitionforeign language to merit social recognition It will help me to understand better the It will help me to understand better the

English speaking people and their way of lifeEnglish speaking people and their way of life I think it will some day be useful in getting a I think it will some day be useful in getting a

good jobgood job It will allow me to meet and converse with It will allow me to meet and converse with

more and varied peoplemore and varied people I feel that no one is really educated unless he I feel that no one is really educated unless he

is fluent in Englishis fluent in English It should enable me to think and behave as It should enable me to think and behave as

do English speaking peopledo English speaking people