individual differences [recovered]

7/24/2019 Individual Differences [Recovered]

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UNDERSTANDING

INDIVIDUALDIFFERENCES

AND PERCEPTIONS


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Individual Differences Framework

Personality

Leadership Style and

Behaviours

Abilities &

Skills

alues

!urture"#nvironment

$ulture & education

Parental InfluencePhysical #nvironment

!ature"%eredity

enes

'ace"#thnicityender

I!DIID(AL $%A'A)#'IS)I$S


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Personality

Psychologicalcharacteristics

Stable over time andacross situations

A set of characteristics,rather than one trait

Makes the person

unique and differentfrom others


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Abilities and Skills

Ability, or aptitude, is a stablenatural talent for doing somethingmental or physical.

A skill is an acquired talent that aperson develops related to a specifictask.


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Values and Value Syste

Values are long-lasting beliefsabout what is worthwhile anddesirableFactors that aect values

include: Culture

Personality Gender Ethnicity Generational dierences


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Vie!s o" Et#i$s

The relativist view of ethicssuggests a belief that what isright or wrong depends on the

situation or the culture.

The universalist view of ethics

suggests that all activities shouldbe udged by the samestandards, regardless of thesituation or culture.


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Components f Emotional

!ntelligence Self!awareness

Managing emotions Self!motivation

"mpathy for others

#nterpersonal skills


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Characteristics of Creative

"eaders

Perseverance when facing

obstacles#elf-con$dence

%illingness to ta&e ris&s

%illingness to grow andopenness to new e'periences

(olerance for ambiguity


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)hree $ate*ories +f Leadership Skills

,- )echnical skills

.- Interpersonal skills

/- $onceptual skills


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Perception, Attribution

and Learning


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Social Perception

So$ial Per$e%tion &interpreting information

about another person


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Social Perception



Per$ei'er C#ara$teristi$s Familiarity with target Attitudes/Mood Self-Concept Cognitie structure


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Social Perception




Tar(et C#ara$teristi$s Physical appearance !erbal communication "onerbal cues #ntentions


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Social Perception


Tar(et C#ara$teristi$s Physical appearance !erbal communication "onerbal cues #ntentions

Situational C#ara$teristi$s #nteraction conte$t Strength of situational cues


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%he Perception Process

ATTENTION %he Perceied %he Perceier

ATTENTION %he Perceied %he Perceier

ORGANI)ATION Patterns Schemas Scripts

ORGANI)ATION Patterns Schemas Scripts

PERCEPTIONPERCEPTION


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$omprehending

PerceptionWe all have a different store of

knowledge.

We all therefore interpret the worldaround us differently.

Understanding relies upon the

speaker and his audience having thesame perception of the requiredoutcome.


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%nderstanding

Understanding is achieved by interpretingcurrent experience using past experienceas a source of reference, and establishinga context upon which to base this new

information. In other words: We are only able to understand today in

terms of, and because of, our pastexperiences.

et, we also know that !"oday! is unlike!esterday!.

We inherit esterday!s patterns and needthem to interpret what our senses are

experiencing in the present.


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&ow do we perceie'

We store a #model$ or memory of ob%ects. "he process of perceiving involves#matching$ what our senses areexperiencing to one of our #models.$

&erception is an active pattern'matchingprocess.

We recogni(e the world because of our

historical store of information. We create our own unique world, our owninterpretation of reality.


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(arriers to Social Perception

)elective perception )tereotyping *irst'impression

error Implicit personality

theory )elf'fulfilling

prophecies




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Personality %heories

"rait "heory ' understand individuals by breakingdown behavior patterns into observable traits

&sychodynamic "heory ' emphasi(es the unconsciousdeterminants of behavior

+umanistic "heory ' emphasi(es individual growthand improvement

Integrative pproach 'describes personality as a

composite of an individual$s psychologicalprocesses


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!ariables #nfluencing

#ndiidual (ehaiorT#e Person

s)ills * abilities

personality perception attribution attitudes alues

ethics


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s)ills * abilities


ethics

T#e En'ironent

organi+ation wor) group ob

personal life


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T#e En'ironent


personal life

*e#a'ior



s)ills * abilities


ethics


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#nteractional Psychology

Approach

T#e En'ironent


personal life

* + f,P-E.*e#a'ior

T#e Person s)ills * abilities


ethics


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$onscientiousness

"&traversion'introversion

(penness to e&perience

"motional stability Agreeableness

T#e /*i( Fi'e0 Personality

Diensions


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)ess an&ious Set harder goals

Manage stress well and adapt to

change More considerate of followers and

less likely to use coercive power

#nternal $"(s select risky andinnovative strategies

C#ara$teristi$s O" Indi'iduals

1it# Internal Lo$us O" Control


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%i*h need for control

0Doin* more in less and less time1

Definin* $haracteristics )ime ur*ency

$ompetitiveness Polyphasic behaviors

%ostility

2ork3'elated Behaviors

Poor dele*ation Likes to work alone

4umps into action Sets hi*h *oals %ard work Perceives more stress

$haracteristics +f )ype A Individuals


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Able to read cues from the

environment

Able to change behavior to matchsituation

Able to cope in cross!cultural

environments

May be a key factor in leadership

effectiveness

C#ara$teristi$s O" 2i(#

Sel"&onitors


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Sensation Thinkers (ST)

Focus on hard facts

'ealistic5 *oal3oriented but

can be impatient and 6ump

into action 7uickly

Intuitive Thinkers (NT)

$han*e a*ents

'esponsive to creativity

but can be unreasonable and

unaware of others

Sensation Feelers (SF)

Practical and carin*

ood understandin* of

systems but can be

reluctant to accept chan*e

)%I!8I! 9):

F##LI! 9F:

I!)(I)I#

!

S#!SI!&9

S:

Four ;a6or ;B)I )ypes

Intuitive Feelers (NF)

Personal charisma and

commitment to others

;any ideas5 trouble with

implementation


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*igh Machs are+ Skilled at controlling others

Able to perceive and resist

manipulation More successful inunstructured environments

)ow Machs are+ aive and trusting

)eadership is associated with

moderate Mach score

3a$#ia'ellian Personality


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Abrasive and intimidatin*

$old and arro*ant

(ntrustworthy

Self3centered and political

Poor performers

(nable to dele*ate

C#ara$teristi$s O"

Leaders 1#o Fail


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%he ohari .indow


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Myers-(riggs %ype #ndicator

-ased on arl /ung$s work &eople are fundamentally different &eople are fundamentally alike &eople have preference combinations for

extraversion0introversion, perception,%udgment

-riggs 1 2yers developed the 2-"I tounderstand individual differences

"ake it at:

http:00www.humanmetrics.com


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iersey %emperament Sorter

3.In most situations are you more

deliberate than spontaneous

spontaneous than deliberate 4.Is it worse to be

a softy

hard'nosed

5.Is it better to be %ust

merciful


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Myers-(riggs %ype #ndicator

Introvert'6xtrovert where you derive your energy

)ensing'Intuitive where you obtain your

information "hinking'*eeling analysis 1 logic versus pleasing

people /udging'&erceiving

how you make a decision


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M(%# Preferences

Ea$# 3ana(er 2as a Parti$ular Personality Ty%e


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Ea$# 3ana(er 2as a Parti$ular Personality Ty%e

T#at Fo$uses Attention and Presents Stren(t#s and

1eaknesses in Dealin( 1it# Situations

0$troersion

#ntroersion

Focuses on

people

and things1

sociable1

outgoing

Focuses on

thoughts

and concepts1

reflectie1

inwardly directed

2ood at social

interaction1 en-

thusiastic and

confident1 insti-

gates action1 open

and straightforward

2ood at personal

interaction1 stays calm

and focused1 can con-

centrate intensely1

deelops ideas1 uses

discretion in tal)ing

#ntellectual super-

ficiality1 intrusie1

lac) of respect for

others3 priacy1

easily distracted

May lose touch

with outer world1

)eeps people at

a distance1 easily

preoccupied

Psychological%ypes

Focus and

Preferences Strengths.ea)nesses4if 5ere$tended6

Ea$# 3ana(er 2as a Parti$ular Personality Ty%e T#at


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Fo$uses 2is or 2er Attention and Presents Stren(t#s and

1eaknesses in Dealin( 1it# Situations as T#ey Arise ,Cont4.

Sensing

#ntuitie

%hin)ing

Facts1 data1 details1

concrete1 reality

based1 present

oriented

Possibilities1

hunches1

speculations1 theor-

etical 1 future

oriented

Analysis1 obectie1

logic1 impersonal1

ustice1 systematic

in7uiry

Pragmatic1 precise1

stable1 results orient-

ed1 sensible1 system-

atic

#maginatie1 concep-

tuli+es easily1 creatie1

intellectually tenacious1

idealistic

8ational1 analytical1

assertie1 logical1 care-

fully weighs alternaties1

firm but fair1 e$plains

thoroughly

Lac)s long-range

outloo)1 may reect

innoatie ideas

9nrealistic1 out of

touch1 bored by

routine1 scattered

9nderalues feel-

ings1 oerly anal-

ytical1 insensitie1

critical1 udgmental

Psychological%ypes

Focus andPreferences Strengths

.ea)nesses4if 5ere$tended6



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( y y%Fo$uses 2is or 2er Attention and Presents Stren(t#s

and 1eaknesses in Dealin( 1it# Situations as T#ey

Arise ,Cont4.

Feeling

udging

Perceiing

Sympathy1

subectie1 humane1

personal1

compassion1 trust1

consideration

5rgani+ed1 planned1

settled1control one3s

life1 set goals1 struc-

tured1 routine

Pending1 fle$ible1

curious1 spontaneity1

tentatie1 let life

happen1 undaunted

by surprise1 open tochange

Persuasie1 empathic1

warm1 sensitie1 demon-

stratie and e$pressie1

loyal

Plan, organi+e, and

control well1 persistent1

decisie1 conscientious1

reliable

5pen minded1 adaptable1

spontaneous1 under-

standing1 tolerant1

in7uisitie

5erly sensitie1

moody1 can become

emotionally oer-

burdened

Close minded1 in-

fle$ible1 can ump to

conclusions too

7uic)ly1 intolerant1

udgmental

#ndecisie1 procrast-

inates1 unfocused1

disorgani+ed1 im-

pulsie1 may collect

data too long beforedeciding

Psychological%ypes

Focus andPreferences Strengths

.ea)nesses4if 5ere$tended6


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Understandin(Indi'idual Di""eren$es 5

Per$e%tion

Perception is 8eality


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Understandin( Indi'idual

Di""eren$es 5 Per$e%tion

-hy is this topic worth studying

Perception refers to the process through

which we receive, organi/e and interpretinformation from the environment

#f we understand ourselves and thosearound us, we can be more effective

#f we integrate factual and perceptual inputsinto our belief system, we can change theway we think and behave


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-hat is perception

7ur interpretation of reality cognitive process of simplifying and

mentally organi(ing the environment series of mental models of common

characteristics series of scripts to make events

predictable


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-hat influences perception ognitive functions &ersonality &ast experiences 6ducation

8ender, age, ethnicity, culture


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(ur perception of a situation+ ffects how we view our managers,

coworkers, and subordinates Impacts the way we manage people ffects how we make decisions an lead to inappropriate behavior


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$ommon perceptual biases Stereotyping: assumptions about others

based on belonging to a certain category

or group *alo effect: one characteristic influencesyour overall evaluation of a person

Selective perception+ tendency to

consider information that reinforces yourexisting beliefs


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0iases related to decision!making+ Availability bias: tendency to base

decisions on information that is

readily available 1epresentative bias: assessing the

likelihood of an occurrence based on

pre'existing data "scalation of commitment:

increasing the commitment to a

decision in spite of negative

U d di I di id l


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So -hat

7ur perceptions in the workplace are biased byour experience, the culture, our education, andsociali(ation

We tend to make assumptions and act on our

perceptions as if they were ob%ective truth thatwere obvious to everyone We rarely check the accuracy or validity of our

assumptions &eople make inferences about others and

situations without regard to factual information

U d t di I di id l


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-hat is personality

&ersonality is the sum of total waysan individual reacts to and interactswith others

Understanding one$s personality canhelp a manger predict employeebehavior

U d t di I di id l


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-e can understand personality throughtesting

Myers 0riggs Type #ndicator, categori(esindividuals into one of sixteen personality types,extroverted vs. introverted, sensing vs. intuitive,thinking vs. feeling, perceiving vs. %udging

0ig 2ive Model, five basic dimensions underlieall others and explain most of the variation inhuman personality, extroversion, agreeableness,conscientiousness, emotional stability, opennessto new experience

U d t di I di id l


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-hy should you take this seriously

"here is irrefutable evidence that tests have

predictive validity and can help us interpretperformance

"here is a link between personality dimensionsand %ob performance

Whether you believe in this or not, many

employers do


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9nderstanding #ndiidual

:ifferences

Myers-(riggs :ebrief

9 d t di # di id l


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:ifferences

"&ercise Summary3. *ow groups were formed for this

e&ercise Using 4 dimensions of cognitive style )urveys you took were mini'version of real

test 8roups were not really cognitively

homogenous4. 5uestions+ +ow did it feel to be part of a homogenous

group9

ould you sense that there was cognitive

9 d t di # di id l


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:ifferences

"&ercise Summary

6. (utcomes+ ognitive diversity can lead to

process loss and inefficiency or canlead to efficiency and teamwork.

7. 8oal of this e&ercise: "o minimi(e process loss by grouping

people with common personalitytypes.

9 d t di # di id l


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:ifferences

"&ercise Summary

9. *ow to use this at work: If two dimensions have predictive value,

we can make predictions about howothers will behave.

If we understand where individuals fit onthese two dimensions, it may lead toclearer communications and betteroutcomes.

We can create norms of interaction that

respect differences

9 d t di # di id l


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:ifferences

The Two :imensions %sed in the"&ercise

ST: &roblem focus: set up leadership andformal structure work fast definesolutions not processes concentrate onroutines and procedures "ask oriented,look for cost0benefit.

S2: &eople focus, hierarchical but open tounstructured situations, concerned abouthuman qualities of people doing work asindividuals, interest in maintaining goodinterpersonal and social relations a

primary focus, focus on facts how to

9 d t di # di id l


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:ifferences

The Two :imensions %sed in the"&ercise

T: "heoretical orientation, comfortablewith complex situations, concentrate ofdefining problems, goals, analytical in theabstract often create complicatedprocedures, using a messy process with

little consensus. 2: reative process, guided by insightsand imagination emphasi(ingdecentrali(ed, humanistic organi(ations2oral concerns with a ;people orientation


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:ifferences

*ow we gather information+ Sensing=)> ? getting the facts, good at

details, comfortable with standard

solutions to problem solving, working withtested ideas

#ntuition=@> ? developing data throughinsight and imagination, get bored with

routine, see the possibilities, lessconcerned with facts, seek innovation, seethe big picture

9nderstanding #ndi id al


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:ifferences

*ow we make decisions+ Thinking="> ? analytical, look for

cost0benefit0 focus on analysis0prefer

clarity, task oriented 2eeling=*> ? personal convictions or

beliefs, can become committed to

personal views, nostalgic, traditional,principles oriented



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:ifferences

*ow we choose priorities+ Perceiving=&> ? oriented towards

generating data, can procrastinate,

open minded and curious,comfortable with ambiguity

;udging=/> ? oriented towards

decision making, clarity, order, dislikeambiguity, decisions are importantnot information gathering



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:ifferences

*ow we establish relationships+ "&travert=6> ? requires variety and

stimulation, become bored easily, sociable,look for new situations, often viewed asinfluential, not easily organi(ed, likemeetings

#ntrovert=I> ? "hink things throughbefore communicating, harder to get toknow, communication is more of a strain,few tasks at one time, few interruptions,others around the introvert often feel leftin the dark



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:ifferences

#nterpretation of #ndividual Scores onsider how cognitive differences affect

organi(ational situations *our or more points viewed as a significant

preference, less than four points means no clearpreference on that dimension

Aoes your score feel right9 ou can probably think of a situation where your

behavior was inconsistent with your 2yers'-riggsscore

@o right or wrong answers, your results representa lifetime of experience

ccording to the theory, we all have the abilityand potential to develop both sides thepersonality dimension



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:ifferences

$losing Thoughts

"here are differences based on country, culture, andexperience

ge and education influence personality Bisk of organi(ational homogeneity )eek balance in your own personality, balance is the key to

effectiveness and this ability resides within all of us "o derive the best solution seek cognitive diversity, groups

grasped only a part of the problem, best solution was acombination of ideas

&sychological testing can deepen self'knowledge, andimprove teamwork but can be misused in promotion andhiring decisions

individual differences [recovered]

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