Individual Differences:Individual Differences:Mental Functioning, Emotional Intelligence, Mental Functioning, Emotional Intelligence, PersonalityPersonality Perception, Attitudes, and Perception, Attitudes, and ValuesValues

B = f (P,E)B = f (P,E)

(Behavior is a function (Behavior is a function of the person and the of the person and the environment.)environment.)

Why is the study of Why is the study of Individual Differences of Individual Differences of interest to managers?interest to managers?

Selection Placement Training Motivation Leadership

Mental AbilityMental Ability General Intelligence (g factor)

Correlates with most tests of specific abilityCorrelates with most tests of specific ability Correlates with performance in most jobsCorrelates with performance in most jobs

Specific Intelligences (s factors) e.g., memory verbal comprehension, numerical ability, e.g., memory verbal comprehension, numerical ability,

word comprehension, perceptual speedword comprehension, perceptual speed Correlate with Job Satisfaction in work utilizing the Correlate with Job Satisfaction in work utilizing the

specific ability in question specific ability in question

Cognitive StylesCognitive Styles

How do we gather information?

SensingSensing - Look at the facts, details. - Look at the facts, details.

IntuitingIntuiting - Brainstorm, get a general overview. - Brainstorm, get a general overview.

How do we choose between alternatives?

ThinkingThinking - Analyze objectively, reason. - Analyze objectively, reason.

FeelingFeeling - Consider the impact on people. - Consider the impact on people.

Cognitive StylesCognitive Styles

Sensation / Thinking (ST) (e.g., technician)

Intuitive / Thinking (NT) (e.g., planner)

Sensation / Feeling (SF) (e.g., teacher)

Intuitive / Feeling (NF) (e.g., artist)

Myers-Briggs TestMyers-Briggs TestHas 4 dimensions:

Sensing vs. IntuitingSensing vs. Intuiting

Thinking vs. FeelingThinking vs. Feeling

Extraversion vs. IntroversionExtraversion vs. Introversion

Judger vs. PerceiverJudger vs. Perceiver (decisive vs. flexible)(decisive vs. flexible)

Higher and lower positions in each of the dimensions are used to classify people into one of 16 different personality categories.

Emotional IntelligenceEmotional Intelligence

Dimensions1) Knowing one’s own emotions2) Controlling one’s emotions3) Recognizing others’ emotions (Empathy)4) Influencing others’ emotions

Author Daniel Goleman says incompetence in management occurs more often from lack of EQ than lack of IQ

PersonalityPersonality

Nature of Personality Internal StateInternal State UniquenessUniqueness ConsistencyConsistency StabilityStability

Managers should be aware of subordinates’ characteristics.

Managers should also be aware of their own characteristics.

Personality TheoriesPersonality Theories Developmental Stage (Psychodynamic)

(Freud, etc.)(Freud, etc.)

Trait-Based (“Big Five”, etc.) e.g., Neurotic, Extraversion, Authoritarian (Eysenck)e.g., Neurotic, Extraversion, Authoritarian (Eysenck)

Motive-Based e.g., Achievement, Affiliation, Power (McClelland)e.g., Achievement, Affiliation, Power (McClelland)

Belief-Based e.g., Internal vs. External Locus of Control (Rotter)e.g., Internal vs. External Locus of Control (Rotter)

Personality Theory: The Big Personality Theory: The Big FiveFive Traits:Traits:Personality Theory: The Big Personality Theory: The Big FiveFive Traits:Traits:

Extraversion (vs. Introversion)Extraversion (vs. Introversion) Sociable, friendly.Sociable, friendly.

Emotional Stability (vs. Neuroticism)Emotional Stability (vs. Neuroticism):: Neurotics are often critical and feel angry with Neurotics are often critical and feel angry with

others and themselves. others and themselves. AgreeablenessAgreeableness

Likable, care about others.Likable, care about others. ConscientiousnessConscientiousness

Careful, persevering.Careful, persevering. OpennessOpenness toto ExperienceExperience::

Flexible, with broad interests.Flexible, with broad interests.

Other CharacteristicsOther CharacteristicsOther CharacteristicsOther Characteristics

Self-Monitoring: Self-Monitoring: Tendency to manage impressions Tendency to manage impressions others have of youothers have of you

Risk taking and thrill seekingRisk taking and thrill seeking

Self-Esteem:Self-Esteem: Degree to which people feel good about Degree to which people feel good about themselves and abilities.themselves and abilities.

Locus of ControlLocus of Control People who believe that they are in control of their

own lives are said to have an Internal locus of control.

People who think that forces beyond their control dictate what happens to them are said to have an External locus of control.

Testing Intelligence and Testing Intelligence and PersonalityPersonality

When using in selection and placement: Back up with validity studies.

In General: Intelligence Tests-Intelligence Tests-

Moderate ValidityModerate Validity PersonalityPersonality Tests-Tests- Low Low

ValidityValidity

PerceptionPerception

“The link between the person and the environment”

Broadly defined, includes Social Perception (impressions of people)

The Perception ProcessThe Perception Process

Observing “data” via the senses

Screening the “data” and

selecting what to process

Organizing the selected “data” into

patterns for interpretation and

response

PerceptionPerception

Why are perceptions often distorted? Why do people not always perceive things as they are?Why do people not always perceive things as they are? Why do people perceive things differently?Why do people perceive things differently?

Different peopleDifferent people Same person at different timesSame person at different times

Sources of Perceptual DistortionsSources of Perceptual Distortions

Selectivity (perceiving only part of envir. or some parts more than others) External Factors (i.e., currently in physical External Factors (i.e., currently in physical

environment)environment) Similarity, Size, Nearness, MotionSimilarity, Size, Nearness, Motion

Internal FactorsInternal Factors Experience, MotivationExperience, Motivation

Closure (adding to your perception) StereotypingStereotyping Halo EffectsHalo Effects ProjectionProjection

General Perception ProblemsGeneral Perception Problems

Selectivity Only notice stimuli which are consistent Only notice stimuli which are consistent

with our values and beliefswith our values and beliefs Closure

Assume that what we don’t know is Assume that what we don’t know is consistent with what we do knowconsistent with what we do know

VALUES AND ATTITUDESVALUES AND ATTITUDES

Values (Basic Convictions – What is right, good, desirable)» GeneralGeneral - Contain many attitudes - Contain many attitudes» e.g., Conservative, Liberal, etc.e.g., Conservative, Liberal, etc.

Attitudes (Beliefs, Assumptions)» Evaluative judgments focused on Evaluative judgments focused on specificspecific objects, objects,

conceptsconcepts» e.g., Attitude toward welfare paymentse.g., Attitude toward welfare payments

Types of ValuesTypes of Values

Terminal Values Desired Goals e.g., World Peace, Happiness, Freedom, True

Friendship, Equality, Family Security Instrumental Values

Means of Achieving Terminal Values e.g., Ambition, Politeness, Self-Reliance, Honesty,

Cheerfulness, Open-Mindedness

Work Values Across GenerationsWork Values Across GenerationsGroup Entered Workforce ValuesVeterans 1945-1964 Loyal to Organization

Conforming

Boomers 1965-1984 Loyal to Careers Dislike Authority

Xers 1985-1999 Loyal to Relationships Seek Work-Life Balance

Nexters 2000-Present Loyal to Self & Relationships Self-Reliant but Team-oriented

ATTITUDES: THE ABC MODELATTITUDES: THE ABC MODEL

Affect» Feelings for an objectFeelings for an object

Behavioral Intentions» Observed Behavior toward itObserved Behavior toward it

Cognition» Beliefs about itBeliefs about it

ATTITUDE CHANGE TECHNIQUESATTITUDE CHANGE TECHNIQUES

Persuasion» Cognition -> BehaviorCognition -> Behavior

Conditioning» Affective -> Cognition -> BehaviorAffective -> Cognition -> Behavior

Cognitive Dissonance Production » Behavior -> Cognition -> AffectiveBehavior -> Cognition -> Affective

(Based on the assumption that people are motivated to protect their self-concepts. This requires a perceived consistency among the three components.)

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