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Individual Differences:Individual Differences:Mental Functioning, Emotional Intelligence, Mental Functioning, Emotional Intelligence, PersonalityPersonality Perception, Attitudes, and Perception, Attitudes, and ValuesValues
B = f (P,E)B = f (P,E)
(Behavior is a function (Behavior is a function of the person and the of the person and the environment.)environment.)
Why is the study of Why is the study of Individual Differences of Individual Differences of interest to managers?interest to managers?
Selection Placement Training Motivation Leadership
Mental AbilityMental Ability General Intelligence (g factor)
Correlates with most tests of specific abilityCorrelates with most tests of specific ability Correlates with performance in most jobsCorrelates with performance in most jobs
Specific Intelligences (s factors) e.g., memory verbal comprehension, numerical ability, e.g., memory verbal comprehension, numerical ability,
word comprehension, perceptual speedword comprehension, perceptual speed Correlate with Job Satisfaction in work utilizing the Correlate with Job Satisfaction in work utilizing the
specific ability in question specific ability in question
Cognitive StylesCognitive Styles
How do we gather information?
SensingSensing - Look at the facts, details. - Look at the facts, details.
IntuitingIntuiting - Brainstorm, get a general overview. - Brainstorm, get a general overview.
How do we choose between alternatives?
ThinkingThinking - Analyze objectively, reason. - Analyze objectively, reason.
FeelingFeeling - Consider the impact on people. - Consider the impact on people.
Cognitive StylesCognitive Styles
Sensation / Thinking (ST) (e.g., technician)
Intuitive / Thinking (NT) (e.g., planner)
Sensation / Feeling (SF) (e.g., teacher)
Intuitive / Feeling (NF) (e.g., artist)
Myers-Briggs TestMyers-Briggs TestHas 4 dimensions:
Sensing vs. IntuitingSensing vs. Intuiting
Thinking vs. FeelingThinking vs. Feeling
Extraversion vs. IntroversionExtraversion vs. Introversion
Judger vs. PerceiverJudger vs. Perceiver (decisive vs. flexible)(decisive vs. flexible)
Higher and lower positions in each of the dimensions are used to classify people into one of 16 different personality categories.
Emotional IntelligenceEmotional Intelligence
Dimensions1) Knowing one’s own emotions2) Controlling one’s emotions3) Recognizing others’ emotions (Empathy)4) Influencing others’ emotions
Author Daniel Goleman says incompetence in management occurs more often from lack of EQ than lack of IQ
PersonalityPersonality
Nature of Personality Internal StateInternal State UniquenessUniqueness ConsistencyConsistency StabilityStability
Managers should be aware of subordinates’ characteristics.
Managers should also be aware of their own characteristics.
Personality TheoriesPersonality Theories Developmental Stage (Psychodynamic)
(Freud, etc.)(Freud, etc.)
Trait-Based (“Big Five”, etc.) e.g., Neurotic, Extraversion, Authoritarian (Eysenck)e.g., Neurotic, Extraversion, Authoritarian (Eysenck)
Motive-Based e.g., Achievement, Affiliation, Power (McClelland)e.g., Achievement, Affiliation, Power (McClelland)
Belief-Based e.g., Internal vs. External Locus of Control (Rotter)e.g., Internal vs. External Locus of Control (Rotter)
Personality Theory: The Big Personality Theory: The Big FiveFive Traits:Traits:Personality Theory: The Big Personality Theory: The Big FiveFive Traits:Traits:
Extraversion (vs. Introversion)Extraversion (vs. Introversion) Sociable, friendly.Sociable, friendly.
Emotional Stability (vs. Neuroticism)Emotional Stability (vs. Neuroticism):: Neurotics are often critical and feel angry with Neurotics are often critical and feel angry with
others and themselves. others and themselves. AgreeablenessAgreeableness
Likable, care about others.Likable, care about others. ConscientiousnessConscientiousness
Careful, persevering.Careful, persevering. OpennessOpenness toto ExperienceExperience::
Flexible, with broad interests.Flexible, with broad interests.
Other CharacteristicsOther CharacteristicsOther CharacteristicsOther Characteristics
Self-Monitoring: Self-Monitoring: Tendency to manage impressions Tendency to manage impressions others have of youothers have of you
Risk taking and thrill seekingRisk taking and thrill seeking
Self-Esteem:Self-Esteem: Degree to which people feel good about Degree to which people feel good about themselves and abilities.themselves and abilities.
Locus of ControlLocus of Control People who believe that they are in control of their
own lives are said to have an Internal locus of control.
People who think that forces beyond their control dictate what happens to them are said to have an External locus of control.
Testing Intelligence and Testing Intelligence and PersonalityPersonality
When using in selection and placement: Back up with validity studies.
In General: Intelligence Tests-Intelligence Tests-
Moderate ValidityModerate Validity PersonalityPersonality Tests-Tests- Low Low
ValidityValidity
PerceptionPerception
“The link between the person and the environment”
Broadly defined, includes Social Perception (impressions of people)
The Perception ProcessThe Perception Process
Observing “data” via the senses
Screening the “data” and
selecting what to process
Organizing the selected “data” into
patterns for interpretation and
response
PerceptionPerception
Why are perceptions often distorted? Why do people not always perceive things as they are?Why do people not always perceive things as they are? Why do people perceive things differently?Why do people perceive things differently?
Different peopleDifferent people Same person at different timesSame person at different times
Sources of Perceptual DistortionsSources of Perceptual Distortions
Selectivity (perceiving only part of envir. or some parts more than others) External Factors (i.e., currently in physical External Factors (i.e., currently in physical
environment)environment) Similarity, Size, Nearness, MotionSimilarity, Size, Nearness, Motion
Internal FactorsInternal Factors Experience, MotivationExperience, Motivation
Closure (adding to your perception) StereotypingStereotyping Halo EffectsHalo Effects ProjectionProjection
General Perception ProblemsGeneral Perception Problems
Selectivity Only notice stimuli which are consistent Only notice stimuli which are consistent
with our values and beliefswith our values and beliefs Closure
Assume that what we don’t know is Assume that what we don’t know is consistent with what we do knowconsistent with what we do know
VALUES AND ATTITUDESVALUES AND ATTITUDES
Values (Basic Convictions – What is right, good, desirable)» GeneralGeneral - Contain many attitudes - Contain many attitudes» e.g., Conservative, Liberal, etc.e.g., Conservative, Liberal, etc.
Attitudes (Beliefs, Assumptions)» Evaluative judgments focused on Evaluative judgments focused on specificspecific objects, objects,
conceptsconcepts» e.g., Attitude toward welfare paymentse.g., Attitude toward welfare payments
Types of ValuesTypes of Values
Terminal Values Desired Goals e.g., World Peace, Happiness, Freedom, True
Friendship, Equality, Family Security Instrumental Values
Means of Achieving Terminal Values e.g., Ambition, Politeness, Self-Reliance, Honesty,
Cheerfulness, Open-Mindedness
Work Values Across GenerationsWork Values Across GenerationsGroup Entered Workforce ValuesVeterans 1945-1964 Loyal to Organization
Conforming
Boomers 1965-1984 Loyal to Careers Dislike Authority
Xers 1985-1999 Loyal to Relationships Seek Work-Life Balance
Nexters 2000-Present Loyal to Self & Relationships Self-Reliant but Team-oriented
ATTITUDES: THE ABC MODELATTITUDES: THE ABC MODEL
Affect» Feelings for an objectFeelings for an object
Behavioral Intentions» Observed Behavior toward itObserved Behavior toward it
Cognition» Beliefs about itBeliefs about it
ATTITUDE CHANGE TECHNIQUESATTITUDE CHANGE TECHNIQUES
Persuasion» Cognition -> BehaviorCognition -> Behavior
Conditioning» Affective -> Cognition -> BehaviorAffective -> Cognition -> Behavior
Cognitive Dissonance Production » Behavior -> Cognition -> AffectiveBehavior -> Cognition -> Affective
(Based on the assumption that people are motivated to protect their self-concepts. This requires a perceived consistency among the three components.)
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