INDEX

521

Abiotic stress, 71Abiotic transformation reactions, 101–104ABS. See AkylbenzylsulfonatesAbsorption

coefficients of, 33dose, 185routes of, 194of toxicity, 193–194

Abyssal ocean, 281Acclimation, 111Accumulation, 332Acetone

risks for, 222Acid-base reactions

inorganic contaminants and, 91–93Acid-mine drainage

in groundwater, 277Acid rain, 48Acid Rain Program, 31Acinetobacter, 153Actinomycetes

characteristics of, 64defined, 60–61in soil, 67

Activitiesdefined, 90

Activity coefficients, 90ionic strength influencing, 91

Actsdefined, 234

Adaptation, 111Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

energy storage and, 69Adsorbates, 97Adsorbents, 97Adsorption, 90, 97

of inorganic contaminants, 98vapor, 100

Advection, 79, 81–82AEC. See Anion exchange capacityAerated ponds, 441Aerated static pile, 448Aerobic digestion, 447Aerobic microorganisms, 20Aerobic mineralization, 106Aerobic ponds, 440Aeromona, 153Aerosolization, 73

endotoxins, 128Aerosols, 125–128

biological, 460of concern, 126–128human-made, 127–128plumes generated, 461visibility and, 382

Aflatoxins, 374

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry(ATSDR), 112

Agricultural activitieschemical contaminants and, 133–138fertilizers, 249groundwater pollution and, 261particulate matter and, 382pesticides, 250–253plant genetic engineering, 494–495

Agrochemical pollutionof subsurface, 272–274

Air. See also Atmosphere; Indoor airdeforestation and, 246environmental characterization of, 9–10federal regulations regarding, 235filters, 373flow, 389gray, 384microorganisms in, 73–75mixing, 389neutral stability, 53particles in, 125–128pathogen exposure via, 460quality regions, 238sampling, 9stable, 53, 388temperature conversion, 53temperature variations, 54unstable, 53velocity, 389

Air emissionsfrom surface mining, 245

Air Pollution Control Act, 179Air sparging, 324–325

of saturated zone, 325Airborne pathogens, 74Akylbenzylsulfonates (ABS), 112Albedo

defined, 352of soil canopies, 353of vegetable canopies, 353

Alcaligenes eutrophus, 504Aldicarb, 252

structure of, 208Alexandrium tamarense, 291Algae

blue-green, 63defined, 62harmful blooms, 290–294in soil, 68structure of, 63

Alkylationof metals, 118

Alkylphenolic chemicals, 512Allergens

animal, 370

arthropod, 370–371plant, 371

Allochthonous, 35Alpha particles, 103Alternaria, 128Alyssum lesbiacum, 496American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and

Air-Conditioning Engineers(ASHRAE), 374

Ames test, 192diagram of, 193

Ammoniaatmospheric concentrations of, 47fluxes, 360in water, 288

Amoeba, 68Anabaena, 163, 293Anaerobes

facultative, 20Anaerobic digestion, 447, 448, 457Anaerobic/oxic process, 436

microbiology of, 438Anaerobic ponds, 440–441Anaerobiosis, 115Analytical detection technology

advances in, 10Anatoxins, 293

structure of, 294Anderson six-stage impaction air sampler, 10Animal allergens

indoor air and, 370Animal wastes, 138, 253–254

hazards of application of, 466historical perspective on, 452land application benefits, 465–466nonpoint-source pollution from, 465nonpoint sources of, 253–254point-source pollution from, 465point sources of, 253–254sediment in water from, 282sources of, 464–465specific pollutants in, 254wastewaters and, 452–453

Anion exchange capacity (AEC), 98Annealing, 493Antarctic ozone hole, 387, 405Anthropogenic emissions, 399Anti-cyclonic flow, 51Antibiotics, 500

bacteria resistant to, in food, 502, 503bacteria resistant to, in hospitals, 502–503classification and function of, 500development of bacterial resistance to, 501isolation and detection of bacteria resistant to,

502mode of action of, 501

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AOGCMs. See Atmosphere-Ocean General Circu-lation Models

Aphanizomenon, 163, 293Aquaculture, 408

wastewaters and, 445–446Aqueous-phase complexes, 93

precipitation-dissolution reactions and, 93Aqueous solubilities

of organic contaminants, 95–96Aquifers

DRASTIC and, 267Arithmetric averages, 168Arizona Mined Land Reclamation Act, 342Arrhenius, Svante, 398Arsenic, 143

concentrations of, 205in surface water, 286toxicity, 205

Arthrobacterdefined, 65

Arthropod allergensindoor air and, 370–371

Artificial night sky brightness, 355Asbestos, 126

case study on exposure to, 127Ascaris, 162–163, 464

eggs of, 162ASHRAE. See American Society of Heating, Refrig-

erating, and Air-Conditioning EngineersAshthma and Allergy Foundation of America, 374Aspergillus, 67, 128Assimilatory nitrate reduction

in water, 289Asthma

air pollution and, 378Asymptomatic, 163Atmosphere. See also Air; Atmosphere pollution

carbon monoxide in, 246chemical composition of, 47circulation of, 51constant components of, 47density, 50–51gas concentrations in, 47lower, 56–57physical properties of, 49–57precipitation in, 55pressure, 50–51radiative transfer in, 55–56sampling, 179–181structure of, 57temperature, 51–54upper, 57variable components of, 47water vapor in, 55wind in, 50–51

Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Models(AOGCMs), 402

Atmosphere pollutionasthma and, 378carbon monoxide and, 381in China, 379–380concepts, 378–379condensation of, 391dry deposition of, 391effects of, 379gravitational settling of, 391hydrocarbons and, 381lead and, 383natural sources of, 380nitrogen oxides and, 383particulate matter and, 381–382primary, 380–383radiative, 385–388removal, 391–392secondary, 383–384sources of, 379–380stratospheric, 386–387sulfur dioxide and, 382–383toxic, 385transformation, 391–392turbulence and, 388–391types of, 379–388in United States, 392–393weather and, 388–392wind and, 388–391

Atmospheric boundary layer, 56

Atomic absorption (AA) spectroscopy, 10ATP. See Adenosine triphosphateAtrazine, 251, 252ATSDR. See Agency for Toxic Substances and

Disease RegistryAttainment Areas, 238Autochthonous, 35Automobile exhaust, 127Autotrophic mode, 64Avogadro’s number, 33

Bacillariophyta, 68Bacillus

defined, 65Bacillus thuringiensis, 494Bacteria

aerobic, 65anaerobic, 65autotrophic mode of, 64, 65bacteriophage, 158–159characteristics of, 64coliform, 153conjugation of, 63defined, 60–61development of antibiotic resistance, 501distribution and function of, 65–66ecological classification of, 65electron acceptors of, 65enteric, 147, 149–151enumeration of, 73facultative anaerobic, 65fecal streptococci, 157–158gene transfer between, 504–505growth curves of, 7heterotrophic mode of, 64, 66indicator, 153, 157indoor air and, 370isolation and detection of antibiotic resistant,

502MF test for, 154–155MPN test for, 153–154nutrition of, 64–65opportunistic, 153P-A test for, 155–157plant resistance to, 495quantitative assays for, 150schematic representation of, 61shapes of, 64sizes of, 60in soil, 63–66, 67transduction of, 63transformation of, 63

Bacteriophage, 158–159Bacteriophage assay, 150Balanced chemical reaction, 90Balancing criteria, 314

for evaluating remedial action alternatives, 317BamHI, 491Bardenpho process, 436Base-substitution, 200BCF, Bioconcentration factorBenthic organisms, 407Benzene, 519Benzoate, 117Best Available Control Technology, 254Best Management Practices (BMPs), 235, 254Beta particles, 103Bifurcation ratio, 38Bioaccumulation

of mercury, 284Bioactivation, 195Bioaerosols, 9, 73–74, 128

air samplers used to estimate, 74fate and transport of, 74–75land application of biosolids and, 461–464sample sites, 461

Bioaugmentation, 71, 328, 497cell, 497gene, 497soil, 497

Bioavailability, 106Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 430

calculation of, 431carbonaceous, 431determining, 304, 430impact of, 305

nitrogenous, 431in sewage, 304

Bioconcentration factor (BCF), 216for organic and inorganic compounds, 217

Biodegradationaerobic, 112–115of alicyclic hydrocarbons, 114–115of aliphatic hydrocarbons, 112–113, 115–116anaerobic, 115–117of aromatic hydrocarbons, 113–114, 116–117cometabolic, 327environmental effects on, 108–109genetic engineering for pathways of, 497of metal pollutants, 117–118microbial activity and, 108–112nitrogen in, 111oxidation and, 110oxygen in, 327pathways, 112–117pollutant structure and, 111–112process of, 106–108

Biodiversity, 396Biofilters

of wastewaters, 434Biological analysis

advances in, 10Biological oxygen demand (BOD), 30, 129Biomagnification

of mercury, 284Bioremediation, 326–328

ex situ, 326feasibility of, 328in situ, 326

Biosolid amendment, 342–343mine tailings and, 344–345physical stabilization in, 342–343site study in, 342soil microbial response in, 342soil nitrate and metal concentrations in, 343

Biosolids, 164, 339bioaerosols and, 461–464class A, 447, 453class B, 447, 453, 458community risk in land application of, 462dioxin-like chemicals and, 459–460flame retardants in, 460historical perspective on, 452land application injection method, 453land application of, via manure spreader, 455land application of, via spray applicator, 455land application of, via sprinkler system, 455occupational risk in land application of, 463pathogenic species in, 164pathogens in, 460–464pharmaceuticals in, 460as plant nutrient source, 456pollution reduction and, 457production scheme of, 454requirements for application of, 458soil properties and, 456–457surface application of, 453wastewaters and, 452–453

Biotic stress, 70–71Biotransformation

phase I, 195, 197phase II, 195steps of, 196of toxic substances, 195

Bioventing, 328Blue-baby syndrome. See MethemoglobinemiaBlue-green algae, 63, 147, 163BMPs. See Best Management PracticesBOD. See Biochemical oxygen demandBreakthrough curves

fate processes and, 85Brevetoxins

structure, 292Broken-edge bonds, 18Brookhaven National Laboratory, 390Brown cloud, 384BTEX, 519Building design, 373Building maintenance, 372–373Bulk density

of soil, 21By-catch, 407

522 Index

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Cadmium, 204–205metabolism of, 204–205toxicity, 204

CAFOs. See Concentrated animal feedlot operationsCAIR. See Clean Air Interstate RuleCalcium carbonate, 31Campylobacter, 150, 503Cancer. See also Carcinogens

deaths from, 197development of, 198incidence rates of, 198lifetime risks for, 218linear multistage model, 218multihit model, 218multistage model, 218one-hit model for, 218probit model, 218risk characterization, 220–221

Capillary fringe, 39Capsids, 147Carbon

missing, 401in soil, 71in water, 288

Carbon credits, 410Carbon dioxide

atmospheric concentrations of, 47concentrations of, 398, 399fossil fuels and, 402historic trends in levels of, 399national inventories of, 400in water, 30–31

Carbon monoxide, 48air pollution and, 381atmospheric, 246emissions of, 381indoor air quality and, 368

Carbon offsets, 410Carbon tax, 410Carbon tetrachloride, 209Carcinogenesis bioassay, 189Carcinogens, 197–199. See also Cancer

classes of, 199EPA categories for, 215initiation of, 197–198invasion and, 199metastasis and, 199progression and, 199promoters, 199RfDs for, 219tests for, 189–190toxicity data for, 220

Carlson’s TSI, 36Carson, Rachel, 250, 296, 507Case-control studies, 190–191

design of, 190Case-fatality

for enteric viruses, 227Catecholamines, 209Cation-exchange capacity

of soil, 18Cave formation, 31CCA, 251CEC. See Cation exchange capacityCell-proliferation assays, 514Centerline concentration, 310Central Arizona Project, 277–278Central nervous system

in toxicity distribution, 194Ceriodaphnia dubia, 188Cestoda, 161CFCs. See ChlorofluorocarbonsChemical analysis

advances in, 10Chemical contaminants

agricultural activities and, 133–138industrial and manufacturing sources, 138municipal waste sources, 138–140natural sources of, 143radioactive sources, 141–142resource extraction/production sources, 141service-related sources, 140–141types of, 133

Chemical of concern, 341Chemical oxygen demand (COD), 30, 430

calculation of, 431

in sewage, 304Chemical precipitation, 419–420Chemical toxicity, 201–202

halogenated hydrocarbon, 209heavy metals, 202–206herbicide, 208–209insecticide, 207–208radionucleotides, 206–207structures of, 201target organ, 202

Chemisorption, 98Chick-Watson model, 471China

air pollution in, 379Chloramine

microorganism inactivation by, 473in water treatment, 474–475

Chlorine, 50, 469combined, 474free available, 474in groundwater, 270microorganism inactivation by, 472storage tanks, 474in water treatment, 473–474

Chlorine dioxidein water, 473, 475

Chlorine monoxide, 388Chlorobium, 70Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 385, 386, 391, 404

ozone and, 388Chloroform

risks for, 222Chlorophyta, 68Chloropicrin, 251Chromatium, 70Chromium, 331

immobilization of, 321in surface water, 286

Chronic daily intake, 221estimation of, 221

Chrysophyta, 68Ciguatoxin

structure of, 291Cilliates, 68Citrobacter, 153Clarifiers, 435Clay lenses, 17Clean Air Act, 31, 360, 392

passing of, 238Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR), 255Clean Air Mercury Rule, 255Clean Water Act, 234, 237, 297

goals of, 237passing of, 234

Cloaca maxima, 430Clostridium, 157Closure plans, 335Co-precipitation, 94Coagulation, 469

of industrial waste, 420Coal-burning electric power plants

wastes from, 254–255Coastal zone, 280

degradation of, 408–409pollution regulations in, 281

Coccidioides immitis, 68Coccidioidomycese, 128Cockroaches, 371COD. See Chemical oxygen demandCod fishing, 408Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), 234Cohort studies, 191

design, 191Colborn, Theodora, 296, 507ColE1, 505Coliphage

F-specific RNA, 158somatic, 158

Colloids, 129Colony forming units, 73Combined sewer overflows, 297Combustible wastes, 417Combustion products, 368Cometabolism, 107Community risk

in land application of biosolids, 462

Competitive assays, 512–513Completed test, 153Complexation

of metals, 118Compliance monitoring

of surface water, 310–311Composting

aerated static pile method of, 448efficient, 448enclosed system, 449windrow process of, 448–449

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compen-sation, and Liability Act (CERCLA),177, 223, 224, 314. See also Superfund

authority of, 239passing of, 237–238

Concentrated animal feedlot operations (CAFOs),7, 253, 464

manure in, 465Conceptual plan

in site characterization, 335–336Condensation

of air pollution, 391Conditioning

sludge, 449Conduction, 52Confirmation test, 153Conidia, 66Coning, 390Conjugation

of bacteria, 63Consensus, 341Construction materials

indoor air and, 367–368Containment technologies, 319–322

hydraulic barriers, 320–321physical barriers, 320

Contaminant loadsin groundwater pollution, 265

Contaminant plumes. See PlumesContaminants. See also Chemical contaminants; In-

organic contaminants; Physical con-taminants; Pollutants

exposure standards for airborne, 374inorganic, 5organic, 5phase distributions of, 85–86properties of, 80–81quantifying transport and fate of, 86–87radioactive, 133, 141–142resulting in pollutants, 5source zone, 322spatial and temporal distributions of, 83–85transport and attenuation properties of subsur-

face, 266transport of, 79–80

Continuum, 6Convection, 52Convective cells, 51Cool pavements, 353Coral bleaching, 409Coral polyps, 409Coriolis effect, 405Coxsackie virus

community risk of, 462Creosote, 251Critical flocculation concentration of, 130Cryptosporidium, 6, 59, 62, 145, 160–161, 432,

446, 464, 470, 477life cycle of, 161in Milwaukee, 162outbreaks of, 160–161in water, 230

Currentsin oceans, 34

Cyanobacteria, 63, 68, 337Cyclonic flow, 51Cyclospora, 6, 62Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, 294Cylindrospermum, 293Cynodon dactylon, 343Cysticercus, 163

Darcy’s Law, 40–41experimental apparatus and, 41for groundwater velocity estimation, 81

523Index

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Data acquisition systemsbasic components of, 174

Davies equation, 91DDT, 194, 250, 273, 392

biomagnification of, in food chain, 207metabolism of, 208in water, 295

Death phasein population growth, 7

Deep-well injectiondesign, 422industrial waste from, 421

Deforestation, 245–246air quality impacted by, 246examples of, 245global change and, 405–406local land pollution impacts of, 246in Russia, 406sediment in water from, 282

Dehalogenase, 115Deinococcus radiodurans, 497Deionization, 341Denaturation, 493Denitrification systems, 437Dense nonaqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs), 268Density

in lentic systems, 36–37Deoxyribose nucleid acid (DNA), 490Desertification, 335

global changes and, 406–407Desorption, 97Desulfobacter, 284Desulfovibrio, 284Dew point temperature, 55Dewatering and drying

of industrial waste, 420sludge, 449

Diatoms, 682,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 2501,3-dichloropropene, 251Die-off, 300–301Diel pattern

of dissolved oxygen, 30Diethylstilbestrol, 201Diffuse double layers, 129Diffuse-source contamination, 272–275Dilution, 74

of effluents, 306–308enumeration of soil bacteria via, 73initial, 307in large water bodies, 307measurement of, 307–308in streams and rivers, 306transport factor, 308

Dimethyl sulfoxide, 1941,4-dioxane

in groundwater, 276Dioxin

chemical structure of, 209toxicity of, 208–209

Dioxin-like chemicalsin land application of biosolids, 459–460

Dioxygenase, 114Disease

classes of, 145–146waterborne, 145

Disinfectionby-products, 477–478factors affecting, 472–473methods of, 471in water treatment, 471–472

Dispersion, 79, 82–83freshwater and saltwater mix in, 274processes causing, 82

Dissimilatory nitrate reductionin water, 289

Dissociation constants, 18Dissolution

defined, 83Dissolution-equilibrium constant, 94Distillation, 341Distribution

of toxicity, 194–195DNA. See Deoxyribose nucleid acid

altering, 192DNA sequencing, 493

DNA synthesis, 492–493DNAPLs. See Dense nonaqueous phase liquidsDose

absorbed, 185systemic, 185threshold, 192–193total, 185toxicity and, 184–186

Dose-response assessment, 12, 167, 213for enteric pathogen ingestion, 229extrapolation of, 218in risk assessment, 217

Drain systems, 320Drainage density, 38DRASTIC, 267

vulnerability assessment of, 268Dry deposition

of air pollution, 391Drylands, 406Dust Bowl, 406Dust mites, 370Dust storms, 51, 52Dye tracing

of plumes, 308–309Dysentery, 145

Ecological risks, 213Ecological succession, 337EcoRI, 491Ecosystem goods and services, 411Ecosystem restoration

active, 338defined, 335invasive species and, 339natural, 337passive, 337–338site characterization in, 335–336site monitoring in, 336site restoration in, 336using organic amendment, 338–339

Ecosystemscontamination in, 109restoration of, 12

EDCs. See Endocrine disrupting compoundsEffluents, 408

dilution of, 306–308outfall, 47

El Niño-Southern Oscillation, 397Electrical double layer

thickness of, 130Electricity

magnetism and, 361Electrokinetic methods, 326Electromagnetic fields (EMF), 360–362

diagram depicting, 361effects of, 361–362guidelines for exposure to, 363levels of, 361–362

Electron acceptorsof bacteria, 65

Electron donors, 109Electronmagnetic spectrum, 363Elements

of economic importance, 418major, 94trace, 94

Eluviation, 14Embededness, 283EMF. See Electromagnetic fieldsEndocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs), 507

adverse effects of, on wildlife, 509characteristics of, 507priority research for, 515risks of, 514–515in water, 507–511

Endocrine system, 507Endotoxins, 369

in aerosols, 128indoor air and, 369

Endpoints, 224assessment, 224measurement, 224

Energybalance, 398biological generation of, 69–70recovery of industrial waste, 423

Enhanced flushing, 323–324Enterobacter, 153Enterococcus, 157–158Enterohemerrhagenic (EHEC), 151Enteropathogenic (EPEC), 151Enterotoxicogenic (ETEC), 151Enteroviruses, 148Environment

global perspective on, 5–6Environmental characterization, 6–9

of air, 8–9of soil, 8of subsurface, 8of water, 8

Environmental Monitoring for Public Access andCommunity Tracking (EMPACT), 485

Environmental offsets, 335Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 49, 340

pollutants regulated by, 459on primary pollutants, 380–381TLVs of, 375

Environmental tobacco smoke, 368Enzymes, 106EPA. See Environmental Protection AgencyEpidemiological studies, 190–192Epilimnion, 37Equilibrium constant, 92Eragrostis lehmanniana, 343Erosion, soil

control of, 249sheet, 247water, 247–249

Escherichia coli, 6, 151, 156, 496in GI tract, 194

Essential elements, 249Estrogen, 507Estrogenic compounds

measuring, water, 512–514physical, chemical, and biochemical properties

of, 512transport of, 511–512

Estuaries, 280Ethidium bromide, 11Ethinyl estradiol, 510Ethyl benzene, 519Eukaryotes, 69

gene expression in, 493European Economic Community (EEC)

environmental standards of, 240European Union

water standards in, 167Eutrophication, 408

of surface water, 286–294Evaporation, 341

defined, 83of organic contaminants, 96water, 27–28

Excavation, 322Exchangeability, 98Exchangeable sodium percent, 246, 247Excretion

of toxicity, 195Exited states, 102Exoenzymes, 106Exons, 490Exponential models, 228Exponential phase, 7

in population growth, 7Exposure

to airborne contaminants, 374concentration, 184duration of, 189EPA default factors, 216pathway, 215, 216route, 215toxicity and, 184–186

Exposure assessment, 12, 213in risk assessment, 215–216

Extension, 493Extirpation, 407Extrapolation, 185

Facultative anaerobes, 20Facultative ponds, 441Fanning, 390

524 Index

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FAO. See United Nations Food and Agriculture Of-fice

Fate processescontaminant plumes affected by, 85

Fecal coliforms, 156TMDL for, 302

Fecal streptococci, 157–158Feces

enteric viruses in, 432protozoa in, 432

Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCS),251

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act(FIFRA), 224

passing of, 238on pesticides, 250

Federal Solid Waste Disposal Act, 239Feedback effects, 396Feedlots

antibiotic-resistant bacteria in, 504runoff from, 138

Fertilization effect, 396Fertilizers, 136

groundwater pollution and, 261historical trends for, 250land pollution from, 249nitrogen, 273

Fetch, 34FFDCS. See Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic ActField capacity, 21FIFRA. See Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Ro-

denticide ActFiltration

direct, 469in-line, 469rapid, 469slow sand, 469

Fishdepletion of, 407–408

Flagellates, 68–69Flavobacterium, 153Flocculation, 469

of common cations, 130of industrial waste, 420of soil particles, 129–130

Flooding, 283Flue gas desulfurization wastes, 254, 420Fly ash, 254Food chain

aerobic, 117DDT in, 207mercury in, 206oceanic, 407

Food-to-microorganism ratio, 435Forcing agents, 396Formaldehyde, 198

indoor air and, 367Fossil fuel

carbon dioxide levels and, 402Frankia, 66Free water surface, 445Frequency distribution, 172Freshwater

resources, 280Freundlich Isotherm, 100Full-cut-off (FCO) lamps, 355Fumigation, 390Fungi

characteristics of, 64defined, 62plant resistance to, 495in soil, 66–68, 67structure of, 63

Furnishingsindoor air and, 367–368

Fusarium, 68, 128Fusion

latent heat of, 26

Gabions, 248Gadus morhua, 408Gaia hypothesis, 397�-galactosidase, 513Gambierdiscus toxicus, 291Gamma radiation, 103

Gaseous phaseof soil, 20–21of vadose zone, 21

Gene cloning, 490steps of, 492

Gene expressionheterologous, 493

Gene transferin bacteria, 504–505mechanisms of, 501in soil, 504

Genetic threats, 4Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

potential problems due to, 497–498Geographic information system (GIS), 175

data layers in, 175Geographic positioning system (GPS), 173–175Geometric averages, 168Geosmin, 61

soil odor and, 66Geostatistics, 172–173Germicidal ultraviolet (GUV) light, 372Giardia, 62, 159–160, 432, 446, 464, 470

in drinking water, 234life cycle of, 159throphozoites of, 160

GIS. See Geographic information systemGlobal biogeochemical cycle, 396Global change, 396

acid rain, 403–404in atmospheric ozone, 404–405coastal degradation, 408–409deforestation and, 405–406desertification and, 406–407fish stock depletion, 407–408human welfare and, 396sea level, 404temperature, 402–403

Global warmingfrom greenhouse gases, 401

Glyphosate, 251, 252GMOs. See Genetically modified organismsGovernment

in pollution control, 517GPS. See Geographic positioning systemGrand Canyon, 28Grasshopper effect, 392Gravitational settling

of air pollution, 391Gray air, 384Graywater, 430Great Salt Lake, 28Green architecture, 373Green roofs

benefits of, 353Greenhouse effect, 55, 385, 397–401Greenhouse gases, 397

global climate and, 401–403global warming from, 401levels of, 400

Groundwaterarsenic in, 277contaminant plume, 84, 268contour map, 81diffuse-source contamination of, 272–275extraction balanced by recharge, 274for irrigation, 263landfill pollution in, 270–272monitoring, 177–178pathogen contamination of, 275pathogen exposure via, 460percent of population relying on, 262potable water obtained from, 261pump-and-treat process for, 323as resource, 260–261resources of, 264sampling, 177–178, 316–317site characterization, 315–318in situ treatment of, 329sources of contamination of, 263, 264sustainability of, 277–278use of, in U.S., 262velocity of, 81viruses in, 276vulnerability map of, 267

vulnerability to pollution of, 265withdrawals, 261

Groundwater pollution, 261–2651,4-dioxane, 276acid-mine drainage, 277chlorinated-solvent, 270MTBE, 276nitrate, 268organic chemical, 268–270perchlorate, 276–277pesticide, 273risk assessment, 265–267salt water intrusion, 274–275

Groundwater Protection List, 251Grout curtains, 320Growth curves

of bacteria, 7Gymnodinium breve, 291, 292

Hadley cells, 50Half-lives

for organic compounds, 103Haloacetic acids, 478

produced during disinfection, 479Halogens

in water treatment, 473–477Halophytes, 335Halorespiration, 116Hand auger, 8Hand-dug wells, 260Hardin, Garrett, 410Harmful algal blooms, 290–294

in freshwater systems, 293–294in marine systems, 290–293

Hazard identification, 12, 213in risk assessment, 215

Hazard indexchemical exposure and, 221

Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), 385Hazardous waste

disposal of, 417federal regulations regarding, 235risk characterization, 223

Hazen approximation, 42Health-based risks, 213Heat, 352–354

controlling, islands, 353effects of, islands, 352–353islands, 401latent, 397sludge treatment, 449sources of, islands, 352urban, 352

Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), 372Hedonic tone, 359Helicobacter pylori, 6Helminths, 147, 161–163Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation, 93Henry’s coefficients

for organic compounds, 95Henry’s constant, 96, 97Henry’s law, 96Hepatitis A virus (HAV), 148Hepatitis E virus (HEV), 6, 148Herbicides, 208–209

plant resistance to, 495Heterologous gene expression

in eukaryotes, 493in prokaryotes, 493

Heterotrophic mode, 64Heterotrophic plate count (HPC), 73, 158High-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps, 355Hollow stem auger, 9Hoover Dam, 482Horizontal gene transfer, 501

environments favoring, 501–502Hormone mimics

in U.S. streams, 509in U.S. surface waters, 510

Hormones, 507in U.S. streams, 509in U.S. surface waters, 510

Hospital-acquired infections (HAI), 503Hospitals

antibiotic-resistant bacteria in, 502–503

525Index

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Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, 246Human species

health of, 517population growth of, 7

Humidityrelative, 55

HVAC. See Heating, ventilation, and air conditioningHybrid cars, 410Hydraulic barriers, 320–321Hydraulics

conductivity, 42–44Darcy’s Law and, 41–42head, 40hypothetical situations for, 41permeability of saturation and, 42soil-water potential head, 40of streams, 38

Hydrocarbonsair pollution and, 381alicyclic, 110, 114–115aliphatic, 110, 112–113, 115–116aromatic, 110, 113–114, 116–117halogenated, 209health effects of, 209nitrogen oxides interacting with, 383nonmethane, 381polyaromatic, 113, 459

Hydrogen sulfide, 50Hydrologic cycle, 25–26Hydrolysis, 101

ion-dipole attraction and, 92products of, 92

Hydroseeding, 341Hydroxides

insoluble, 92Hyperaccumulation, 496Hyperaccumulators, 332Hypolimnion, 37Hypophalous acids, 478Hypoxia, 129

Illuviation, 14Immobilization, 321Impaction, 9Impingement, 9In situ chemical oxidation (ISCO), 329

at Superfund sites, 330In situ chemical treatment, 329–331In vitro bioassays, 513, 514In vivo bioassays, 513, 514In vivo tests, 514Incineration, 426

industrial waste from, 421–422Indicators

die-off of, 300–301standards and criteria for, 166–168

Indoor air. See also Air; Atmosphereanimal allergens and, 370arthropod allergens and, 370–371biological pollutants and, 369–371building design and, 373building maintenance and, 372–373combustion products and, 368construction materials and, 367endotoxin and, 369exposure to, 371–374filtration units, 373formaldehyde and, 367fundamentals of, quality, 366furnishings and, 367–368lead and radon and, 368LPS and, 369mold and, 369monitoring, 374–375pesticides and, 367sensitive populations and, 373–374source prevalence of, pollutants, 371–372sources of, pollutants, 366–371VOCs and, 367–368

Inductively coupled plasma (ICP), 10Industrial Revolution, 416–417Industrial waste, 138–140

chemical precipitation, 419–420coagulation of, 420from coal burning electric power plants, 254–255

deep-well injection, 421disposal of, 419–423energy recovery from, 423flocculation of, 420forms of, 417–418gas, 419from incineration, 421–422from landfills, 421metal reuse, 423mineral solubilities of, 421muds and, 423from oil drilling, 254from oilfield waste, 421organic chemicals in, 255oxidation of, 420–421particulate emissions, 419prevention of, 426–427from refinery sludges, 421regulations for, 417reuse of, 423solidification of, 420solvents of, 423stabilization of, 420stockpiling and, 423tailings and, 423treatment of, 419–423

Industrialization, 416–417Infection

clinical, 226outcomes of, 226–227risk of, 225subclinical, 226

Infiltrationwater, 27–28

Infrared radiation, 55, 362Initiators, 197Inorganic contaminants, 5

acid-base reactions and, 91–93adsorption of, 98aqueous phase activities and concentrations of,

90–91basic properties of, 90–94classification of, 91disposition of, 90ion hydration and, 91–93ion hydrolysis and, 91–93precipitation-dissolution reactions and, 93–94sorption of, 97–98speciation of, 90

Insect resistance, 494–495Insecticides

Bt, 494carbamate, 208organochlorine, 207organophosphorous, 207–208

Integrated Risk Information Systems (IRIS), 220defined, 221

Interaggregate pores, 17Interception

water, 27–28Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC), 402International Dark-Sky Association (IDA), 354Interspecies inferences, 186Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), 50Intraggregate pores, 17Introns, 490Invasion, 199Invasive species

adaptive traits of, 255ecosystem restoration and, 339pollution from, 255–257

Inversion height, 53Ion activity product (IAP), 94Ion-dipole bonds, 92Ion hydration

inorganic contaminants and, 91–93Ion hydrolysis

inorganic contaminants and, 91–93Ionic strength, 91

activity coefficients influenced by, 91Ionization, 18Irrigation

groundwater used for, 263low-rate, 443

ISCO. See In situ chemical oxidationIsomorphic substitution, 18, 97

K-selection, 65Keeling, Charles, 398Klebsiella, 153, 157Koch, Robert, 469Kudzu, 256Kyoto Treaty, 419

Lag perioddefined, 6

Lakes, 35–37reservoirs compared to, 35stratification of, 36thermal stratification of, 37trophic categories for, 36

Laminar flow, 38Land application

benefits of, 456–457, 465–466bioaerosols and, 461–464of cake biosolids, 455community risk, 462dioxin-like chemicals and, 459–460hazards of, 457–464, 466injection methods, 453loading rates for, 459manure spreader, 455metals in, 457–459nitrates and, 457occupational risk, 463phosphates and, 457public perceptions of, 466of sewage effluent, 443site restrictions of, 457slinger application, 455spray applicator, 455sprinkler system, 455surface application methods, 453

Land-based pollutionanimal wastes and, 253–254from deforestation, 246from fertilizers, 249from industrial wastes, 254–255from invasive species, 255–257from pesticides, 250–253soil acidity-salinity, 246–247from surface mining, 244–245

Land reclamation, 339–348Mission copper mine, 342–343

Land surveys, 174Landfarming

of oilfield wastes, 421of refinery sludges, 421

Landfills, 140common contaminants in, 271industrial waste from, 421leachate plumes, 272modern sanitary, 425–426numbers of, 424old-style, 425subsurface pollution from, 270–272

Lapse rate, 53Law of Basin Areas, 38Law of Stream Numbers, 38Law of the Minimum, 286Laws of Stream Lengths, 38LD50, 186, 187Le Chatellier’s Principle of Equilibrium Chemistry,

98Leachate, 270, 425Lead

air pollution and, 383indoor air and, 368responses to, 204sources of, 203toxicity of, 203

Legionella, 6, 146, 151–153sources of, 152

Legionnaires’ disease, 146Lentic systems, 35–37

density and layering in, 36–37trophic state of, 35–36trophogenic area of, 36typology of, 35

526 Index

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Liebig, Justus Von, 286Light

abiotic stress and, 71in aquatic environments, 33–34below waters surface, 33–34controlling, 355–356effects of, pollution, 354–355glare, 354sources of, pollution, 354trespass, 354

Lignin, 19Lignin-modifying enzymes (LMES), 496Lime stabilization, 449Limestone, 48

calcitic, 347dolomitic, 347

Line intercept method, 336Linear effects, 396Linear Isotherm, 100Linear multistage model

for carcinogenesis, 218Lipopolysaccharides, 128, 369

indoor air and, 369Liquid phase

of soil, 21Lloyd, William, 410LMES. See Lignin-modifying enzymesLOAEL. See Lowest observed adverse effect levelLofting, 391Logging

conceptual model for, 226sediment in water from, 282

Los Angelesphotochemical smog in, 383

Lotic system, 37–38Low-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps, 355Lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL),

219Luciferase, 513Lux (lx), 354

Macronutrients, 249Magnetism

electricity and, 361Management goals, 225Manufacturing activities, 138Manure

decay of, 466mounding of, 465

Maps, 173–175planimetric, 174soil survey, 175thermatic, 174topographic, 174

Marine waterresources, 280

Mass balance equation, 106Mass burning, 426Mass transfer, 79, 83Mathematical modeling

approaches to, 319in site characterization, 318–319

Mauna Loa, 398–399Maximum contaminant level goals (MCLG)

for drinking water, 234Maximum contaminant levels (MCL), 478

in drinking water, 234Maximum tolerated dose (MTD), 189MCL. See Maximum contaminant levelsMCLG. See Maximum contaminant level goalsMembrane filter (MF) test, 154–155

method for, 156Mercury

biomagnification of, in food web, 206common transformations of, 285in food, 385methylation of, 32, 285in surface water, 284–285toxicity, 205

Mesophilic, 447Mesosphere, 57Metabolism

DDT, 208of toxic substances, 195

Metal-cyanide complexes, 245

Metal-ligand complexes, 93Metalimnion, 37Metals, 4

alkylation of, 118biodegradation of, 117–118chemical toxicity from, 202–206complexation of, 118concentrations of, in reclamation projects, 343in land application, 457–459oxidation/reduction of, 118precious, 418reuse of, 423as surface water contaminants, 284–286

Metam-sodium, 251Metastasis, 199Methane

atmospheric concentrations of, 47oxidation of, 107

Methane monooxygenase, 107Methanotrophic bacteria, 107Methemoglobin, 136Methemoglobinemia, 194Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

(MRSA), 503Methyl-tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE), 140

in groundwater, 276Methylation

of mercury, 324-methylumbelliferyl-�-d-glucoronide (MUG), 157Microbes

activity of, in soil, 72–73in air, 73–75biodegradation and, 108–112chlorine inactivation of, 472comparative sizes of, 60impacting human health, 6major groups of, 59–63metals and, 118scope and diversity of, 59soil, 63, 70–71in subsurface, 69in surface water, 76–77in wastewaters, 431

Microbial consortium, 114Microbial pathogens, 5Microbial properties

monitoring, 11Microbial source tracking (MST), 300Microcosms

laboratory, 189Microcystin

structure, 294Microcystis, 163, 293Microsporidia, 62Mine spoils, 244Mine tailings, 244–245

biosolid amendment and, 344–345Mineralization, 106Minimal Tillage systems, 248Minimum infectious dose, 228Mining. See Surface miningMissense, 200Mission Mine Project site

experimental reclamation plan, 342–343nitrate concentrations at, 345TOC at, 346vegetation transects at, 344

Mitigation strategies, 409Mixed-liquor suspended solids (MLSS), 435MIxed-liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS),

435Mixing depth, 56Mixing zones

of surface water, 310MLSS. See Mixed-liquor suspended solidsMLVSS. See MIxed-liquor volatile suspended solidsMNA. See Monitored natural attenuationmob genes, 505Modifying criteria, 314

for evaluating remedial action alternatives, 317Moisture problems, 372Mold

exposure to, 372indoor air and, 369

Molecular diffusion, 82

Monitor well design, 179Monitored natural attenuation (MNA), 331–332Monitoring

atmosphere, 179–181basics of, 171–172groundwater, 177–178indoor air, 374–375site, 336–337soil, 176–177tools for, 173–176vadose zone, 176–177water, 179, 482–483

Monochloramine, 478Monooxygenase, 114Monte Carlo simulation, 222Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the

Ozone Layer, 385–386Most probable number (MPN) test, 153–154

evaluation table, 155procedure for, 154

Motorcycles, 358MPN test. See Most probable number testMRSA. See Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus

aureusMST. See Microbial source trackingMSW. See Municipal solid wasteMTBE. See Methyl-tertiary-butyl etherMuds

industrial waste and, 423MUG. See 4-methylumbelliferyl-�-d-glucoronideMultihit model

for carcinogenesis, 218Multiple-component organic phase, 96–97Multistage model, 218Municipal solid waste (MSW), 417

composition of, 424disposal of, 424–426recycling rates of, 424reduction of, 426treatment of, 424–426

Municipal waste, 138–140regulations for, 417

Mutagens, 199–200chemical, 200physical, 200

Mutations, 199base, 200frameshift, 200point, 200

Mycotoxins, 128, 374

NAAQS. See National Ambient Air Quality StandardNanoparticles, 125NAPL. See Nonaqueous phase liquidsNational Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS),

125, 238National Pollution Discharge and Elimination Stan-

dards (NPDES), 237National Primary Drinking Water Standards,

315–316National primary drinking water standards, 134–135National Priorities List (NPL), 314National Research Council (NRC), 461National Water-Quality Assessment, 261Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), 405Navajo Indian Reservations, 340–341NaviculaNear infrared, 55Nematoda, 161Nephelometric turbidity units (NTU), 284Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), 291Neutral stability, 53Nitrates

assimilatory reduction of, 289dissimilatory reduction of, 289groundwater contamination with, 268in land application, 457mobility of, 273soil, 343

Nitrification, 70in water, 288

Nitrobacter, 70Nitrogen

in aquatic systems, 287in biodegradation, 111

527Index

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fertilizer use, 273removal of, from sludge, 436in soil, 71soil transformations, 137in water, 288

Nitrogen dioxide, 48indoor air quality and, 368

Nitrogen oxidesources of, 49

Nitrogen oxidesair pollution and, 383emissions of, 381hydrocarbons and, 383ozone destruction and, 387–388

Nitrosomonas, 70Nitrous oxide

atmospheric concentrations of, 47, 386No-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL), 188

for dose-responses, 219threshold dose approximated by, 192

NOAEL. See No-observed-adverse-effect levelNodularia, 293Noise, 356–358

effects of, 358hearing, 356–357physics of, 356sources of, 358

Noise Control Act, 356Nonaqueous phase liquids (NAPL), 80, 269, 330Nonattainment Areas, 238Nonlinear effects, 396Nonpoint-source pollution, 124

animal waste, 465of animal wastes, 253–254

Nonsense, 200Nonthreshold response

assessment of, 218threshold response v., 217

Normal distributions, 173Norovirus, 149Nostoc, 68, 293Nowalk virus, 149NPDES. See National Pollution Discharge and

Elimination StandardsNRC. See National Research CouncilNRDC. See Natural Resources Defense CouncilNSP. See Neurotoxic shellfish poisoningNTU. See Nephelometric turbidity unitsNucleic acids, 490

sizes of, 60transfer of sequences of, 490–492

Nursing homescase fatality rates in, 227

Nutrientsin surface water, 286–294

Occupational riskin land application of biosolids, 463

Occupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA), 356, 359

Oceanspollutant transport in, 34salts in, 34water morphology and currents in, 34

Ochratoxins, 374Odor, 359–360

common, 359perceptions, 359regulations on, 360response, 359sources of, 359–360

Oil drillingwastes from, 254

Oilfield wastelandfarming of, 421

Oligotrophoic conditions, 20Oncogenes, 197One-hit model, 218Open ocean waters, 280–281Organic amendment

ecosystem restoration using, 338–339Organic contaminants, 4

aqueous solubilities of, 95–96basic properties of, 94–97

dissolution of, 95–96evaporation of, 96in groundwater, 268–270half-lives for, 103Henry’s coefficients for, 95multiple-component organic phase of, 96–97phases of, 94–95sorption of, 98–101vapor pressures of, 95

Organic matterin soil, 19–20

Organic wastewater contaminants (OWCs), 509Oscillatoria, 293OSHA. See Occupational Safety and Health Ad-

ministrationOur Stolen Future (Colborn), 296, 507Outfall, 280Overburdening, 244Overland flow, 443OWCs. See Organic wastewater contaminantsOxidation

biodegradability and, 110of industrial waste, 420–421of metals, 118sulfur, 70

Oxidation ponds, 439–440aerated, 441aerobic, 440anaerobic, 440–441facultative, 441profiles of, 440

Oxidation-reduction reactions, 101–102full, 101in water, 32

Oxidesinsoluble, 92

Oxyanionssoluble, 92

Oxygenin biodegradation, 327dissolved, in water, 303–304, 305sag curve, 305soil respiration and, 20–21in water, 29–30

Oxyhemoglobin, 136Ozone, 49, 384

bad v. good, 404CFCs and, 388chemicals species catalyzing, 387climate and, 405global change in, 404–405hole in Antarctic, 387, 405holes, 404layer, 404microorganism inactivation by, 473nitrogen oxide destruction and, 387–388regional transport, 384Southern Hemisphere map of, 386stratospheric, 386temperature and, 405water and, 388in water treatment, 475

Ozone holes, 49

P-A test. See Presence-Absence testPAH. See Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonsPAN. See Peroxyacetyl nitrateParticulate matter, 380

agriculture and, 382air pollution and, 381–382

Pasteur, Louis, 469Pathogenesis-related proteins, 495Pathogens, 4

air exposure to, 460density limits, 453enteric, as water contaminants, 296–297in environment, 162fate of, 165–166in groundwater, 275groundwater exposure to, 460removal of, from wastewater, 437–438in seawater, 166soil exposure to, 460–464sources of, 163–165survival times of, 165

transport of, 165–166types of, 147

PCBs. See Polychlorinated biphenylsPCR. See Polymerase chain reactionPedosphere, 396Peds, 16Pelagic species, 396PELs. See Permissible exposure limitsPenicillium, 67, 128, 500Pennisetum ciliare, 343Pentachlorophenol, 251Performance bond, 336Permeability of saturation

hydraulic conductivity and, 42Permissible exposure limits (PELs)

for airborne contaminant exposure, 374Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), 383Persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic (PBT) chem-

icals, 133, 136in water, 294–295

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 133, 392Pesticides, 136

classes of, 137extent of use of, 251fates of, 252–253groundwater pollution and, 261, 273indoor air and, 367land pollution from, 250–253persistence of, in soil, 253types of, 250–251use of, by type, 251

pH-dependent charge, 18pH-dependent ionization reactions, 97Phage

defined, 59–60Phanerochaete chryosporium, 68Pharmaceuticals

in biosolids, 460Pharmaceuticals and personal care products

(PPCPs), 507Pharmacokinetics, 187Phase distributions

of contaminants, 85–86Phase I transformations, 195–196Phase II transformations, 196–197Phase transfer

of pure pollutants, 95Phosphates, 138

in land application, 457Phosphorous

cycle in aquatic systems, 290removal of, from sludge, 436in water, 289–290

Photic zone, 34Photobacterium phosphoreum, 192Photochemical reactions, 102–103Photolysis

direct, 102indirect, 102, 103

Photon, 33Photosynthesis

of soil organisms, 70Phylogenic extrapolation, 225Physical barriers, 320Physical contaminants

aerosols, 125–128nanoparticles, 125particle origins, 124particle size, 124–125in water, 128–130

Physisorption, 98Phytoextraction, 495Phytoremediation, 332, 341, 496

types of, 333Planck’s equation, 33Plant allergens

indoor air and, 371Plant associations, 336Plant residues

constituents of, 19Plant surveys, 336Plants, genetic engineering of, 494–495

for bacterial resistance, 495for fungus resistance, 495for herbicide resistance, 495

528 Index

Nitrogen, (continued)

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for insect resistance, 494metal remediation via, 495–496organic remediation via, 496for virus resistance, 494, 495

Plasmid addiction, 502Plastics, 416–417Plating, 74

enumeration of soil bacteria via, 73Platyhelminthes, 161Plumes

aerosol, 461cone-shaped, 389coning, 390defined, 378dye tracing, 308–309fanning, 390fumigation, 390groundwater, 85, 268landfill leachate, 272lofting, 391looping, 390patterns, 389spatial and temporal variation, 309–310spatial distributions of, 85

PM2.5, 125PM10, 125Point-mutations, 200Point-of-use (POU) purification systems, 479, 480,

481–482common, 482

Point-source pollution, 124animal waste, 465of animal wastes, 253–254of subsurface, 267–272

Poisson distributions, 229Polar amplification, 402Pollen, 371Pollutants, 5. See also Contaminants

biodegradation and, 111–112biological effects on, 106contaminants resulting in, 5metal, 117–118modes of release of, 416in oceans, 34sources of, 416at Superfund sites, 135

Pollutionbiosolid use and, 457defined, 4future of, 518–522government control of, 517population pressures and, 6–7prevention, 426–427, 517–518science and, 4

Pollution potential, 79Pollution Prevention Act

passing of, 239Pollution science

risk based approach to, 10–11scientific disciplines and, 7

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 194, 284in water, 295

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), 284Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 490

amplification, 493automated, 11in biological analysis, 10steps in, cycles, 493

Polymerization, 108POPs. See Persistent organic pollutantsPopulation growth

death phase in, 7exponential phase in, 7human species and, 7lag period in, 4stationary phase in, 7

Population pressurespollution and, 6–7

Populations, 172Pore space, 17, 18Postsegregational killing, 502Potassium permanganate, 331Potency factor, 219POU purification systems. See Point-of-use purifi-

cation systems

Powell, John Wesley, 44PPCPs. See Pharmaceuticals and personal care

productsPrecipitation, 90

in atmosphere, 55Precipitation-dissolution reactions

inorganic contaminants and, 93–94Preferential flow

of water through soil, 18Presence-Absence (P-A) test, 155–157Pressure

atmospheric, 50defined, 50

Pressure-vacuum lysimeter, 178Presumptive test, 153Primary particles, 127

massive, 17soil texture and, 16

Primary production, 35, 79Probit model

for carcinogenesis, 218Procentrum, 291Produced water, 141Progression, 199Prokaryotes

gene expression in, 493Promoters, 199Prophyridium, 68Protein formation

steps of, 490Proteus, 153Proton dissociation, 92Protozoa, 147, 159–161

defined, 62in feces, 432incidence of, 163in soil, 68–69

Providencia, 153Pseudomonas, 153, 496

defined, 65Pseudomonas dentrificans, 70Public Land Survey System, 174Pump-and-treat process, 322

groundwater remediation with, 322Purine bases, 491Pyrimidine bases, 491Pythium, 68

QAPP. See Quality Assurance Project PlanQuality Assurance Project Plan (QAPP), 8Quanta, 33

R-selection, 65Radiant flux of light, 33Radiative transfer

in atmosphere, 55–56Radioactive decay, 103

of uranium, 206Radioactive materialRadiofrequency (RF) radiation, 360–361

effects of, 362levels of, 362from wireless telephones, 363

Radioisotopesanthropogenic, 142

Radionucleotides, 206inorganic, 206–207

Radon, 142, 207indoor air and, 368

Ragweed, 371Rain, 48

acidity of, 31, 48, 403–404Ralstonia eutropha, 496, 504Raoult’s Law, 96Rapid Infiltration-extraction projects, 447Rapid infiltration extraction (RIX), 443RCRA. See Resource Conservation and Recovery

ActRecharge

groundwater extraction balanced by, 274Reclamation

defined, 335land, 339–348

Recombinant DNA technology, 490Record of decision (ROD), 223

Recyclinggrowth rate of, 426of MSW, 424

Red tide formation, 292Redox potential

soil, 71at which soil substrates are reduced, 72

Redox reactions, 32Reduced Tillage, 248Reductive dehalogenation, 116Reference dose (RfD), 219

chemical, for carcinogens, 219Reforestation, 348Refuse-derived fuel, 426Regulations, environmental, 234

development of, 236for industrial waste, 417for municipal waste, 417scope of, 235

Regulatory useof surface water, 310

Rehabilitationdefined, 335

Relative saturation, 94Remedial investigation/feasibility study, 314, 316

criteria for, 317Remediation, 12

air sparging, 324–325bioremediation, 326–328containment technologies, 319–322electrokinetic methods, 326excavation, 322genetically engineered plants for, 495–496microbial-assisted, 496–497MNA, 331–332modifying criteria for, 317overhead view of, 321phytoremediation, 332pump and treat process, 322–324removal, 322–326In situ chemical treatment, 329–331in situ treatment, 326soil vapor extraction, 324thermal methods, 325–326threshold criteria for, 317

Remote sensing, 175–176Removal, 322–326Replication, 492

in protein formation, 490Reporter-gene assays, 513Research priorities, 517, 518Reservoirs, 35–37

lakes compared to, 35stratification of, 36trophic categories for, 36

Residential watercontamination of, 479–480

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA),140, 177

passing of, 239Resource extraction/production, 141Respiration, 102

aerobic autotrophic, 70aerobic heterotrophic, 70defined, 30of soil organisms, 70

Respirators, 373Restoration. See also Ecosystem restoration

flow chart of, 335natural, 337site, 336

Restriction endonucleases, 490Restriction enzymes, 490Revegetation

defined, 335RF radiation. See Radiofrequency radiationRfD. See Reference doseRhinovirus, 370Rhizoctonia, 68Rhizopods, 68Rhizosphere, 65Rhodamine WT, 308, 309Rhodophyta, 68Rhodospirillum, 70Ribonucleid acid (RNA), 490

529Index

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Risk analysis, 214Risk assessment, 10–11

applications of, 214for common risks, 214comparative, 213defined, 213dose-response assessment in, 217ecological, 213, 223–225exposure assessment in, 215–216factors affecting, 214for groundwater pollution, 265–267hazard identification in, 215health-based, 213microbial, 225–230process, 11risk characterization in, 220–223for shellfish consumption, 229

Risk characterization, 11, 213cancer, 220–221hazardous waste, 223noncancer, 222risk projections and management, 223uncertainty analysis in, 222–223

Risk perception, 214Rivers, 37–38

dilution in, 306RIX. See Rapid infiltration extractionRNA. See Ribonucleid acidROD. See Record of decisionRotary mud drilling, 8Rotaviruses, 6, 148–149, 227

dose-response for, 228in drinking water, 229mortality from, 230

Runoffwater, 27–28

Russiadeforestation in, 406

Russian thistle, 339

Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 177development processes under, 237guidance manuals under, 237passing of, 230, 234

Safe yield, 278Safety factors, 219Salmonella, 149–150, 464

dose-response for, 228risk exposure to, 230

Salmonella, 503Salmonella typhimurium, 192Salsola tragus, 343Salt cedar, 256–257Saltation, 248Salts

in oceans, 34Saltwater intrusion

in groundwater, 274–275Sampling

atmosphere, 179–181basics of, 171–172data quality objectives of, 171groundwater, 177–178random, 171soil, 176–177, 177of surface water, 310systematic, 171tools for, 173–176vadose zone, 176–177water, 179

Santa Ana Watershed Project Authority (SAWPA),447

SARA. See Superfund Amendments and Reautho-rization Act

SAT. See Soil aquifer treatmentSAWPA. See Santa Ana Watershed Project Author-

itySchistosoma, 146Schmutzdecke, 470Science

pollution and, 4Screening

sludge, 449SDWA. See Safe Drinking Water ActSea level

rise in, 404

Seagrass meadows, 409Secchi disk, 34

transparency, 34Secondary attack rate, 227Secondary particles, 127Security

water, 482–483Sediment oxygen demand (SOD), 30Sedimentation, 469Sediments

bed load, 282–284solute load, 282–283in surface water, 282–283suspended load, 282traction load, 283

Seleniumin surface water, 286toxicity, 287

Self-purification capacity, 305Selfish DNA theory, 505Semi-cut-off (SCO) lamps, 355Sensitive populations, 373–374Sensitivity analysis, 222Sensory pollutants

EMFs, 360–362heat, 352–354light, 354–356noise, 356–358odor, 359–360

Septagecharacteristics of, 442

Septic systems, 139, 297, 441–443damage to, 140in United States, 442

Sequestering, 410Serratia, 153Service-related activities, 140–141Sewage. See WastewatersSewage lagoons, 439Sex hormone binding-globulins, 507Sex hormones

cellular response to, 508SFS. See Subsurface flow systemsSheet piling, 320Shellfish

risks of consuming, 229Shigella, 146, 150Short-term exposure limits (STELs)

for airborne contaminant exposure, 374Sick building syndrome (SBS), 366Silent Spring (Carson), 250, 296, 507Silica, 126–127Sinks, 406Site characterization, 315–318

approaches to, 318conceptual plan and site assessment in, 335–336contaminant identification in, 315in ecosystem restoration, 335–336mathematical modeling in, 318–319overhead view of, 321surveying in, 315–316

Site monitoringecosystem, 336–337

Site remediation, 12Site restoration

ecosystem, 336Size fractionization

soil constituents and, 16SKC biosamplers, 9, 10Sludge, 164, 417, 452–453

aerobic digestion of, 447anaerobic digestion of, 447–448, 457composting and, 448–449conventional activated, 435defined, 453digesters, 435heat treatment of, 449landfarming of, 421lime stabilization of, 449microbial pathogens in, 164nitrogen removal from, 436phosphorous removal from, 436primary, 164processing, 449secondary, 164

Sludge volume index (SVI), 436

Slurry walls, 320Slurry waste, 417SMCRA. See Surface Mining Control and Recla-

mation ActSmog, 50

in Los Angeles, 383photochemical, 383

Sneezes, 367Soil, 14

abiotic stress in, 71acidity, 246, 347actinomycetes in, 67air erosion, 248–249albedo and, 353algae in, 68auger, 177bacteria in, 63–66, 67biosolids and, 456–457bulk density of, 21cation-exchange capacity of, 18constituents of, atmosphere, 20cores, 519enumeration of bacteria, 73environmental characterization of, 8erosion, 247–249fate of pesticides in, 252fungi in, 66–68gene transfer in, 504liquid phase of, 21microbe activity in, 72–73as microbe environment, 70–71microbes, 63monitoring, 176–177nitrogen transformations, 137organic matter in, 19–20particle flocculation, 129–130particles, 129pathogen exposure via, 460–464persistence of pesticides in, 253porosity, 21–22protozoa in, 68–69saline-alkalai, 348salinity, 246–247, 347sampling, 8, 176–177, 177site characterization, 315–318size fractionization of, 16sodic, 347–348solid phase of, 14–16temperature, 22vapor extraction, 324venting, 324washing, 322water erosion, 247–248water potential head, 40

Soil aggregates, 18Soil amendments, 136Soil aquifer treatment (SAT), 443Soil-forming factors, 14

soil horizon development and, 15Soil horizons, 14

illustrations of, 15Soil pH, 18–19

regimes, 19Soil structure, 16–18Soil texture

primary particles and, 16triangle, 17

Soil-water content, 22Solar constant, 33Solar radiation, 398Solid phase

soil profiles, 14–16of vadose zone, 20

Solid waste, 164–165, 417Solidification

of industrial waste, 420Solubility product constant, 94Soluble complexes, 90Somatic coliphage, 158Sorption

defined, 83of inorganics, 97–98magnitude and rate of, 100–101of organic contaminants, 98–101

Soundintensity factors, 357

530 Index

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physics of, 356pressures, 357

Source reduction, 426Source zone, 267Spatial distributions

of contaminant plumes, 85Speciation

of inorganic pollutants, 90Specificity

between absorbates and adsorbents, 97Spectrophotometer

calibration of, 173SRB. See Sulfate-reducing bacteriaStabilization, 332

sludge, 449Stable air, 53Stachybotrys chartarum, 372Staphylococcus aureus

methicillin-resistant, 503Stationary phase

in population growth, 7Statistics, 172–173

descriptive, 172symbols, 172

Stepwise degradation, 107Stockpiling

industrial waste and, 423Stokes’ Law, 126, 128Stormwater runoff, 139

TARP control of, 298–299Stratospheric pollution, 386–388Stream capacity, 283Stream competence, 283Streams, 37–38

channels, 39dilution in, 306hydraulics of, 38morphometry of, 37–38ordering of, 37properties of, 3

Streptococcus, 157–158Streptomyces

defined, 65Streptomyces griseus, 500Streptomyces scabies, 66Streptomycin, 61Stressors, 223

response profile, 225Subclinical infection, 226Substrates, 106Subsurface, 14

agrochemical pollution of, 272–274cross-section of, 14diffuse-source contamination of, 272–275environmental characterization of, 8landfill pollution in, 270–272microbes in, 69organic liquid spilled into, 79point-source pollution of, 267–272sampling, 8transport and attenuation properties of, contam-

inants, 266water in, 40–41

Subsurface flow systems (SFS), 445Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB), 32, 284Sulfur dioxide, 254

air pollution and, 382–383sources of, 49

Sulfur oxidation, 70Superfund

ISCO at, 330process, 314–315

Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act(SARA), 314

Superfund sitescommon pollutants found at, 135

Suppressor genes, 199Surface complex, 97Surface layer, 56Surface mining, 244–246

acid drainage, 244air emissions from, 245sediment in water from, 282

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SM-CRA), 177

Surface Treatment Rule, 234

Surfactant, 323–324Surrogate measurements, 401Suspended solids, 283–284Sustainable building, 373Sweetwater sites, 446Synthetic estrogens, 511Systemic acquired resistance, 495

Taenia saginata, 163Taenia solium, 163Tailings

industrial waste and, 423TARP. See Tunnel and Reservoir PlanTCA. See TrichloroethaneTDS. See Total dissolved solidsTeleconnections, 397Temperature

atmospheric, 51–54of earth’s surface, 403global, 402–403inversion, 53, 388of soil, 22

Tension-saturated zone, 39Teratogens, 200–201Terminal electron acceptor (TEA), 109Terrorism, 482Testosterone, 507Thermal methods, 325–326Thermal properties

of water, 26–27Thermocline, 37Thermodynamic stability constant, 93Thermodynamics

second law of, 69Thermosphere, 57Thickening

sludge, 449Thiobacillus thioxidans, 71, 348Thlaspi caerulescens, 496THM. See TrihalomethanesThreshold criteria, 314

for airborne contaminants, 374for evaluating remedial action alternatives, 317

Threshold effects, 192–193Threshold Limit Values (TLVs)

EPA, 375Threshold response

nonthreshold response v., 217Thymine dimers, 477Tillage, 248Time-weighted averages (TWAs)

for airborne contaminant exposure, 374TLVs. See Threshold Limit ValuesTMDL. See Total maximum daily loadsTobacco, 368TOC. See Total organic carbonToluene, 519Total coefficient of absorption, 34Total dissolved solids (TDS), 271Total maximum daily loads (TMDL)

development and implementation of, 301for fecal coliform bacteria, 302of surface water pollution, 300

Total organic carbon (TOC), 343, 430at Mission Mine, 346

Total suspended solids (TSS), 283Tox Tracer System, 193Toxicity. See also Chemical toxicity

absorption of, 193–194acute, 186arsenic, 205biotransformation and, 195cadmium, 204–205carcinogenicity tests, 189–190carcinogens and, 197–199data for carcinogens, 220dioxin, 208–209distribution, 194–195dose and, 184–186epidemiological studies, 190–192evaluation of, 186–193excretion of, 195exposure to, 184–186of lead, 203manifestations of, 187–188mercury, 205

metabolism and, 195mutagens and, 199–200nontoxicity and, 184organisms used in testing, 188responses to, 193–196routes of, 194short-term tests for, 192subchronic, 186target organ, 202teratogens and, 200–201testing, 188–189threshold effects, 192–193in U.S., 184of various compounds, 210

Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure, 495tra genes, 505Trace organic measurements

in U.S. surface waters, 510Trade winds, 51Tragedy of the commons, 410Transcription, 492

in protein formation, 490Transduction

of bacteria, 63Transformation

of bacteria, 63quantifying rates of, 103–104

Transformation reactions, 79, 83Translation, 492

in protein formation, 490Trematoda, 1612,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 250Trichloroethane (TCA), 330Trichloroethene (TCE), 107, 330Trichothecenes, 374Trickling filters, 435

of wastewaters, 432–433Trihalomethanes (THM), 478

produced during disinfection, 479Triple point

of water, 27Trophic state

of lentic systems, 35–36Trophogenic area

of lentic systems, 36Tropopause, 56Troposphere, 56TSS. See Total suspended solidsTunnel and Reservoir Plan (TARP)

for stormwater control, 298–299Turbidity, 283–284Turbulence

atmosphere pollution and, 388–391Turbulent flow, 38TWAs. See Time-weighted averagesTyphoid fever

death rates from, 145

UATs. See Urban air toxicsUltraviolet light, 476

in water treatment, 475–477Ultraviolet radiation, 55Ultraviolet sunlight, 49Umezakia natans, 294UMTRA. See Uranium Mill Tailings Remedial ActionUncertainty factors, 219

analysis, 222–223Unclassifiable Areas, 238Underground storage tanks (USTs), 140

leaking, 519releases, 270

United Nations Environment Program, 407United Nations Food and Agriculture Office

(FAO), 407United States

pollution trends in, 392–393toxicity in, 184

United States Department of Agriculture (USDA),247

United States Geological Survey (USGS), 508Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), 247Universal solvent

water as, 28–32Unstable air, 53Uranium

decay of, 206

531Index

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Uranium Mill Tailings Remedial Action (UM-TRA), 340–341

restoration plan for, 340Urban air toxics (UATs), 385Urban forestry, 353Urbanization

sediment in water from, 282U.S. Public Land Survey, 174USDA. See United States Department of AgricultureUSGS. See United States Geological SurveyUSLE. See Universal Soil Loss EquationUSTs. See Underground storage tanks

Vadose zoneair extraction from, 325defined, 14gaseous phase of, 21monitoring in, 176–177sampling in, 176–177solid phase, 20

Valley Fever, 128Value engineering, 341Vapor adsorption, 100Vapor pressures

for organic compounds, 95Variovorax paradoxus, 504Vectors, 147Vegetation mapping, 336Vegetation transects, 343Verification sampling

of surface water, 310–311Vertical absorption coefficient, 33Vibrio, 151Virus resistance, 495Viruses, 147–149

case-fatality rates for enteric, 227defined, 59–60enteric, in feces, 432exposure to enteric, 226in groundwater, 276indoor air and, 370quantitative assays for, 150repair of, 477simple forms of, 61sizes of, 60subclinical infections with enteric, 226

Visibilityaerosols and, 382

Visible radiation, 55Vitrification, 320–321VOCs. See Volatile organic compoundsVolatile organic compounds (VOCs), 367–368Volatilization

defined, 83Volcanic explosions, 56Vulnerability maps

groundwater, 267

Walker’s law, 354Waste management, 12Wastewaters, 417. See also Sludge; Water

animal waste and, 452–453in aquaculture, 445–446average microorganism removal from, 439biofilters of, 434biosolids and, 452–453blending, 297BOD in, 304COD in, 304composition of, 430conventional activated sludge, 435–436enteric organisms in, 164estrogenic compounds in, 512–512land application of, 443–445large debris removal from, 434microorganisms in, 431nature of, 430–432nitrogen in, 436oxidation ponds and, 439–440pathogen removal, 437–438phosphorous in, 436

primary treatment of, 432, 434removal of inorganics from, 439removal of organics from, 439secondary treatment of, 432, 435in septic systems, 441–443small debris removal from, 434tertiary treatment of, 437treatment process for, 433trickling filters of, 432–433in wetlands, 445–446

Water. See also Wastewaters; Water treatmentammonification of, 288arsenic in, 286assimilatory nitrate reduction in, 289BOD and, 305carbon dioxide in, 30–31carbon in, 288charge distribution of, 26chlorine dioxide in, 473chromium in, 286compliance monitoring, 310–311concentration terminology, 28–29Cryptosporidium in, 230Darcy’s Law and, 41–42DDT in, 295denitrification of, 289density of, 26dilution in, 306–307dipole structure of, 92dissimilatory nitrate reduction in, 289dissolved oxygen in, 303–304distribution of, 25, 480–481drinking, 134–135, 229, 230EDCs in, 507–511enteric pathogens in, 296–297environmental characterization of, 8eutrophication of, 286–294evaporation, 27–28federal regulations regarding, 235flushing, 322freshwater resources, 280global use of, 260hydraulic conductivity and, 42–44hydrologic cycle of, 25–26infiltration, 27–28interception, 27–28light below, surface, 33–34light energy in, 33marine resources, 280measuring estrogenic compounds in, 512–514mercury in, 284–285metals as contaminants, 284–286microbes in, 76–77mixing zones of, 310monitoring, 179nitrification in, 288nitrogen in, 288nutrients in, 286–294open ocean, 280–281organic matter in, 303–304oxidation-reduction reactions in, 32oxygen in, 29–30ozone and, 388PBT compounds in, 294–295PCBs in, 295phase changes of, 27phosphorous in, 289–290physical contaminants in, 128–130polarity of, 26pollution sources, 281–282, 301portable, 483preferential flow of, through soil, 18produced, 141properties of, 180quality meter, 181quantification of, pollution, 300–304real-time monitoring of, 482–483regulatory use of, 310runoff, 27–28sampling, 8, 179security, 482–483

sediment contamination, 282–284selenium in, 286structure of, 26in subsurface, 40–41supply deficiencies, 481tap, 216thermal properties of, 26–27TMDLs of, 300triple point of, 27as universal solvent, 28–32untreated, 480UV disinfection of, 476, 478verification sampling of, 310–311

Water-based disease, 146–147characteristics of, 148

Water Intrusion Events, 482Water Intrusion Laboratory, 484Water Pollution Control Act, 314Water Quality Center (WQC), 461, 484Water quality standards, 166

ih European Union, 167recreational, 167

Water-related diseases, 147Water treatment

chlorination in, 469chlorine dioxide in, 475chlorine in, 473–474coagulation in, 470deficiencies, 480–481disinfection in, 471–472filtration in, 469, 470flocculation in, 470halogens in, 473–477ozone in, 475point-of-use, 481–482processes of, 469–471residential, 479–482sedimentation, 470ultraviolet light in, 475–477

Water vaporin atmosphere, 55

Water Village, 484research areas within, 484

Water-washed disease, 146Waterborne disease, 145

causes of outbreaks of, 481characteristics of, 148outbreaks of, 146

Watershed, 44Weather

atmosphere pollution and, 388–392Wed deposition

of air pollution, 391Well-field systems, 320Westerlies, 51Western Regional Air Partnership, 382Wet deposition, 55Wetlands

aquatic plants used in, 446wastewaters and, 445–446

Wildfiresediment in water from, 282

Windrow process, 448–449Winds

atmosphere pollution and, 388–391cyclonic flow of, 51trade, 51

Wireless telephones, 363World Health Organization, 239, 359

on China, 379

X-ray radiation, 103Xenobiotic waste

defined, 4Xylene, 519

Yeast-based reporters gene assay, 513Yersinia, 150

Zebra mussel, 339Zooanthellae, 409

532 Index

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