“In light of this, it is suggested…”:

Comparing n-grams in Chinese and British students’ undergraduate assignments from UK universities

Maria Leedham ICAME 2009m.e.leedham@open.ac.uk

Outline

1. Research questions and the corpora

2. Findings

2.1 N-grams and functional classifications

2.2 Four-grams in four corpora

2.3 Four-grams across disciplines

3. Conclusions and pedagogical implications

Research Questions

1. In what ways do n-grams differ in Chinese and British undergraduate students' academic writing in U.K. universities?

 

2. How do n-grams develop in Chinese and British students' writing from year 1 to year 3 of undergraduate study?

 

3. What are the pedagogical implications for teachers of academic writing?

4. Do n-grams reveal any disciplinary differences?

 

.

The Corpora

British Academic Written English (BAWE)

• 6,506,995 words • 2,896 texts• 2,761 assignments• 1,039 contributors• 30+ disciplines • 13 genre families• 4 levels of study

Compiling my corpora• L1 English and L1

Chinese• Divided into years 1&2,

and year 3• 12 disciplines• Extra students recruited

through teaching contacts, discussion lists and Facebook.

ESRC project number

RES-000-23-0800

Four corpora

L1 Chinese L1 English

Years 1 & 2 140,341 words [89 texts] 876,894 words [436 texts]

Year 3 139,354 words [57 texts] 458,782 words [175 texts]

Totals 279, 695 words [146 texts] 1,335,676 words [611 texts]

Changes in n-gram tokens

• The number of n-grams of each size reduces in year 3 Chinese…

• …and increases in year 3 English

3-gram 4-gram

Chi12 29499 2786

Chi3 23042 2074

Eng12 31999 2374

Eng3 41355 3762

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

40000

45000

Corpus No. textsChi12 89Chi3 57Eng12 436Eng3 175

Functional classification

• Participant-oriented: - Engagement features (eg it is important to) - Stance features (eg may be due to)

• Text-oriented:- Framing (eg in the case of) - Structuring (eg as shown in

the)- Resultative (eg as a result of) - Transition (eg on the other hand)

• Research-oriented:- Description (eg the size of the ) - Quantification (eg one of the

most)- Location (eg in the present study) - Topic (eg the currency

board system)- Procedure (eg the role of the)

(Hyland, 2008a,b)

4-grams: functional classification

52 5137 37

32 31

30 35

16 1833 28

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

CHI 12 CHI 3 ENG 12 ENG 3

participant-oriented

text-oriented

research-oriented

Outline

1. Research questions and the corpora

2. Findings

2.1 N-grams and functional classifications

2.2 Four-grams in four corpora

2.3 Four-grams across disciplines

3. Conclusions and pedagogical implications

A closer look at 4-gramsCHI 12 pmw ENG 12 pmw

ON THE OTHER HAND 36 IN THE CASE OF 101AT THE SAME TIME 26 IN THE FORM OF 83

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE 17 THE END OF THE 77

AS A RESULT OF 17 AS A RESULT OF 77IN THE CASE OF 16 CAN BE USED TO 76

IN THE LONG RUN 16 IT CAN BE SEEN 72IS ONE OF THE 11 CAN BE SEEN THAT 61

AS WELL AS THE 11 THE FACT THAT THE 60AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN 10 TO BE ABLE TO 59

CHI 3 ENG 3TO FIND OUT THE 20 CAN BE SEEN IN 77

ON THE OTHER HAND 18 IT IS POSSIBLE TO 53AS A RESULT OF 14 AS A RESULT OF 52AS WELL AS THE 13 IT CAN BE SEEN 42

CAN BE USED TO 12 IN THE CASE OF 41IN THE CASE OF 11 THE END OF THE 40

IT IS IMPORTANT TO 9 CAN BE USED TO 38AT THE END OF 9 IT IS IMPORTANT TO 37

AT THE SAME TIME 9 ONE OF THE MOST 35

KEYBold = common across L1 groups

Shaded = common across year groups

Concgrams with ‘can’

N Concordance

1 More details about BSL containment can be seen in table 1. 6. Such

2 effect of primers during annealing can be seen in Figure 3.2 (a) and Figure

3 be shown in the following page and also can be seen in Appendix 2. CRC BERC

4 and start converting. After debugger, 73 can be seen shown on the LCM. If we

5 only for low-level force measurement as can be seen from the experiment

6 be a difficult and arbitrary exercise. As can be seen, there are considerable

7 Law Review, January 2004 As can be seen, it is difficult to derive any

8 different results between samples as can be seen in Figure 3.1. Also, the

9 the occupational mobility of labour. It can be seen from Fig.8 that there seems

Difficulties with classification• Participant-

oriented: engagement features - address readers directly (eg it can be seen, as can be seen)

• Text-oriented: structuring signals - direct reader within the text (eg as shown in the, as shown in figure)

1. can be seen that participant-engagement x 4, text-resultative

2. can be seen in participant-engagement x 3

3. in light of the research-description x 2, text, text-framing x 5,

4. in the end of research-location x 3, research, research-topic x 2, text-structuring x 2, “deviant”,

5. is determined by the participant, research, text-resultative x 3,

6. last but not least participant-stance, research-quantification, text-transition, text-structuring

7. plays an important role

text-resultative x 2, text-framing, text-transition, research-quantification

8. relationship between the

text-resultative x 3, research-description, research

9. that there is a “deviant?”

10. as long as the text-framing x 3, text-resultative x 3, text-transition, research,

4-grams: functional classification

52 5137 37

32 31

30 35

16 1833 28

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

CHI 12 CHI 3 ENG 12 ENG 3

participant-oriented

text-oriented

research-oriented

Word docs and text files

• Tables, diagrams and images are tagged and deleted.=> The sense of the whole assignment is lost.

Non-prose features

Conclusions The experiment yielded the following conclusions: The efficiency of a single stage centrifugal pump at high pump speed (3000

RPM) is better than it at low pump speed (2000 RPM). The input power with high pump speed increases faster than the one with low

pump speed as discharge increases. The relationship between total head and discharge is not affected by pump speed,

but higher pump speed provides higher total head.

• These features reduce the need for connected prose

• Listlikes as a strategy ??

Methods

Refer to laboratory manual.

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

Chi12 Chi3 Eng12 Eng3

listlikes

lists

formulae

block quotes

figures

tables

Outline

1. Research questions and the corpora

2. Findings

2.1 N-grams and functional classifications

2.2 Four-grams in four corpora

2.3 Four-grams across disciplines

3. Conclusions and pedagogical implications

Chi123 Biol Chi123 Econ Chi123 Engin Chi123 Food Chi123 BusAS WELL AS THE IN THE LONG RUN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ON THE OTHER HAND ON THE OTHER HANDCAN BE USED TO ON THE OTHER HAND ON THE OTHER HAND IS FOUND TO BE WILL BE ABLE TO

THERE SEEMS TO BE AS A RESULT OF THE SENSITIVITY OF THE IN THE CASE OF AT THE SAME TIMETHE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE IN THE CASE OF IS DETERMINED BY THE LAST BUT NOT LEAST AS WELL AS THE

ON THE OTHER HAND THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF OF THE NUMBER OF IN ORDER TO AVOIDIS DUE TO THE AT THE SAME TIME ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF AS A RESULT OF IN THE LONG RUN

THE RATE OF REACTION IS THE SAME AS THE THICKNESS OF THE IT IS IMPORTANT TO AS A RESULT OFIS ONE OF THE WE CAN SEE THAT IN TERMS OF THE AS WE MENTIONED ABOVE COMPANY NEEDS TO BE

IS VERY IMPORTANT TO AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN IS ASSUMED TO BE IS DUE TO THE LAST BUT NOT LEASTIT IS VERY IMPORTANT CURVE TO THE RIGHT THE AIM OF THE DUE TO THE TIME IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE

AS WELL AS AN INCREASE IN IN ORDER TO IN ORDER TO IN ORDER TODUE TO THE THE EXCHANGE RATE IN TERMS OF THE NUMBER OF THE LONG TERMONE OF THE IN ORDER TO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DUE TO THE BE ABLE TO

IN ORDER TO AS WELL AS IN THE APPENDIX BASED ON THE ON THE OTHERTHE NUMBER OF FIND OUT THE HAS TO BE THE AMOUNT OF THE OTHER HANDTHE AMOUNT OF THERE IS NO ONE OF THE ACCORDING TO THE AS WELL AS

THE MEANS OF AS A RESULT DUE TO THE AS WELL AS ONE OF THEWAS USED TO IN THE LONG IS USED TO EACH OF THE IN THE FUTURETHE RATE OF IN THE ECONOMY PROPORTIONAL TO THE THE PRESENCE OF OF THE COMPANY

THE LEVEL OF IN THIS CASE OF THE SYSTEM IN THIS EXPERIMENT IN THE MARKET

Eng123 Biol Eng123 Econ Eng123 Engin Eng123 Food Eng1234 BusIN THE ABSENCE OF THE EXTENT TO WHICH CAN BE SEEN IN IT CAN BE SEEN OF THE PROJECT AND

IN THE PRESENCE OF AS SHOWN IN TABLE IT IS POSSIBLE TO CAN BE SEEN THAT THE PRODUCT LIFE CYCLEIN THE FORM OF IN THE LONG RUN CAN BE USED TO AS A RESULT OF THE PROJECT WILL BE

CAN BE USED TO AS WELL AS THE IT CAN BE SEEN THIS IS DUE TO AS A RESULT OFAS SHOWN IN FIGURE THIS IS SHOWN IN THE END OF THE IS DUE TO THE AT THE END OF

THAN THAT OF THE AS A RESULT OF CAN BE SEEN THAT THE TEMPERATURE OF THE IT IS IMPORTANT TOCAN BE SEEN IN IT IS DIFFICULT TO A TRUE AND FAIR THE SURFACE OF THE IN THE VODITE MARKETAS A RESULT OF IN THE INTERWAR PERIOD TRUE AND FAIR VIEW THE NUMBER OF COLONIES OF BOUGHT IN YARN

IT IS THOUGHT THAT IN THE FORM OF IN THE CASE OF IS ONE OF THE IN THE CASE OFTHE STRUCTURE OF THE IT IS POSSIBLE TO THE SENSITIVITY OF THE BE SEEN THAT THE IT IS CLEAR THAT

THE PRESENCE OF A NUMBER OF DUE TO THE IT CAN BE OF THE PROJECTDUE TO THE AN INCREASE IN CAN BE SEEN THE AMOUNT OF THE COST OF

THE RATE OF DUE TO THE IN ORDER TO CAN BE SEEN THE FACT THATIN ORDER TO AS WELL AS BE SEEN IN DUE TO THE THERE IS A

THE AMOUNT OF IN ORDER TO OF THE BEAM THE NUMBER OF THE NUMBER OFAS WELL AS AS A RESULT BE USED TO THERE IS A THE PROJECT ANDTHAT OF THE THE FACT THAT CAN BE USED BE SEEN THAT A NUMBER OF

CAN BE SEEN IN THE UK END OF THE AS WELL AS AS WELL ASIT HAS BEEN AS SHOWN IN IT CAN BE EACH OF THE THE PROJECT MANAGERONE OF THE SHOWN IN TABLE TO CALCULATE THE IN THE UK IN ORDER TO

Chi123 Biol Chi123 Econ Chi123 Engin Chi123 Food Chi123 BusAS WELL AS THE IN THE LONG RUN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ON THE OTHER HAND ON THE OTHER HANDCAN BE USED TO ON THE OTHER HAND ON THE OTHER HAND IS FOUND TO BE WILL BE ABLE TO

THERE SEEMS TO BE AS A RESULT OF THE SENSITIVITY OF THE IN THE CASE OF AT THE SAME TIMETHE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE IN THE CASE OF IS DETERMINED BY THE LAST BUT NOT LEAST AS WELL AS THE

ON THE OTHER HAND THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF OF THE NUMBER OF IN ORDER TO AVOIDIS DUE TO THE AT THE SAME TIME ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF AS A RESULT OF IN THE LONG RUN

THE RATE OF REACTION IS THE SAME AS THE THICKNESS OF THE IT IS IMPORTANT TO AS A RESULT OFIS ONE OF THE WE CAN SEE THAT IN TERMS OF THE AS WE MENTIONED ABOVE COMPANY NEEDS TO BE

IS VERY IMPORTANT TO AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN IS ASSUMED TO BE IS DUE TO THE LAST BUT NOT LEASTIT IS VERY IMPORTANT CURVE TO THE RIGHT THE AIM OF THE DUE TO THE TIME IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE

AS WELL AS AN INCREASE IN IN ORDER TO IN ORDER TO IN ORDER TODUE TO THE THE EXCHANGE RATE IN TERMS OF THE NUMBER OF THE LONG TERMONE OF THE IN ORDER TO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DUE TO THE BE ABLE TO

IN ORDER TO AS WELL AS IN THE APPENDIX BASED ON THE ON THE OTHERTHE NUMBER OF FIND OUT THE HAS TO BE THE AMOUNT OF THE OTHER HANDTHE AMOUNT OF THERE IS NO ONE OF THE ACCORDING TO THE AS WELL AS

THE MEANS OF AS A RESULT DUE TO THE AS WELL AS ONE OF THEWAS USED TO IN THE LONG IS USED TO EACH OF THE IN THE FUTURETHE RATE OF IN THE ECONOMY PROPORTIONAL TO THE THE PRESENCE OF OF THE COMPANY

THE LEVEL OF IN THIS CASE OF THE SYSTEM IN THIS EXPERIMENT IN THE MARKET

Eng123 Biol Eng123 Econ Eng123 Engin Eng123 Food Eng1234 BusIN THE ABSENCE OF THE EXTENT TO WHICH CAN BE SEEN IN IT CAN BE SEEN OF THE PROJECT AND

IN THE PRESENCE OF AS SHOWN IN TABLE IT IS POSSIBLE TO CAN BE SEEN THAT THE PRODUCT LIFE CYCLEIN THE FORM OF IN THE LONG RUN CAN BE USED TO AS A RESULT OF THE PROJECT WILL BE

CAN BE USED TO AS WELL AS THE IT CAN BE SEEN THIS IS DUE TO AS A RESULT OFAS SHOWN IN FIGURE THIS IS SHOWN IN THE END OF THE IS DUE TO THE AT THE END OF

THAN THAT OF THE AS A RESULT OF CAN BE SEEN THAT THE TEMPERATURE OF THE IT IS IMPORTANT TOCAN BE SEEN IN IT IS DIFFICULT TO A TRUE AND FAIR THE SURFACE OF THE IN THE VODITE MARKETAS A RESULT OF IN THE INTERWAR PERIOD TRUE AND FAIR VIEW THE NUMBER OF COLONIES OF BOUGHT IN YARN

IT IS THOUGHT THAT IN THE FORM OF IN THE CASE OF IS ONE OF THE IN THE CASE OFTHE STRUCTURE OF THE IT IS POSSIBLE TO THE SENSITIVITY OF THE BE SEEN THAT THE IT IS CLEAR THAT

THE PRESENCE OF A NUMBER OF DUE TO THE IT CAN BE OF THE PROJECTDUE TO THE AN INCREASE IN CAN BE SEEN THE AMOUNT OF THE COST OF

THE RATE OF DUE TO THE IN ORDER TO CAN BE SEEN THE FACT THATIN ORDER TO AS WELL AS BE SEEN IN DUE TO THE THERE IS A

THE AMOUNT OF IN ORDER TO OF THE BEAM THE NUMBER OF THE NUMBER OFAS WELL AS AS A RESULT BE USED TO THERE IS A THE PROJECT ANDTHAT OF THE THE FACT THAT CAN BE USED BE SEEN THAT A NUMBER OF

CAN BE SEEN IN THE UK END OF THE AS WELL AS AS WELL ASIT HAS BEEN AS SHOWN IN IT CAN BE EACH OF THE THE PROJECT MANAGERONE OF THE SHOWN IN TABLE TO CALCULATE THE IN THE UK IN ORDER TO

Linkers

157.2

131

104

67.9

35.729.9 28.6 26.2 21.4

60.648.6

9.7 14.2

08.2 13.4

2.9 0.70

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

Chi123

Eng123

Counts per million words

Chi123 Biol Chi123 Econ Chi123 Engin Chi123 Food Chi123 BusAS WELL AS THE IN THE LONG RUN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ON THE OTHER HAND ON THE OTHER HANDCAN BE USED TO ON THE OTHER HAND ON THE OTHER HAND IS FOUND TO BE WILL BE ABLE TO

THERE SEEMS TO BE AS A RESULT OF THE SENSITIVITY OF THE IN THE CASE OF AT THE SAME TIMETHE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE IN THE CASE OF IS DETERMINED BY THE LAST BUT NOT LEAST AS WELL AS THE

ON THE OTHER HAND THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF OF THE NUMBER OF IN ORDER TO AVOIDIS DUE TO THE AT THE SAME TIME ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF AS A RESULT OF IN THE LONG RUN

THE RATE OF REACTION IS THE SAME AS THE THICKNESS OF THE IT IS IMPORTANT TO AS A RESULT OFIS ONE OF THE WE CAN SEE THAT IN TERMS OF THE AS WE MENTIONED ABOVE COMPANY NEEDS TO BE

IS VERY IMPORTANT TO AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN IS ASSUMED TO BE IS DUE TO THE LAST BUT NOT LEASTIT IS VERY IMPORTANT CURVE TO THE RIGHT THE AIM OF THE DUE TO THE TIME IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE

AS WELL AS AN INCREASE IN IN ORDER TO IN ORDER TO IN ORDER TODUE TO THE THE EXCHANGE RATE IN TERMS OF THE NUMBER OF THE LONG TERMONE OF THE IN ORDER TO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DUE TO THE BE ABLE TO

IN ORDER TO AS WELL AS IN THE APPENDIX BASED ON THE ON THE OTHERTHE NUMBER OF FIND OUT THE HAS TO BE THE AMOUNT OF THE OTHER HANDTHE AMOUNT OF THERE IS NO ONE OF THE ACCORDING TO THE AS WELL AS

THE MEANS OF AS A RESULT DUE TO THE AS WELL AS ONE OF THEWAS USED TO IN THE LONG IS USED TO EACH OF THE IN THE FUTURETHE RATE OF IN THE ECONOMY PROPORTIONAL TO THE THE PRESENCE OF OF THE COMPANY

THE LEVEL OF IN THIS CASE OF THE SYSTEM IN THIS EXPERIMENT IN THE MARKET

Eng123 Biol Eng123 Econ Eng123 Engin Eng123 Food Eng1234 BusIN THE ABSENCE OF THE EXTENT TO WHICH CAN BE SEEN IN IT CAN BE SEEN OF THE PROJECT AND

IN THE PRESENCE OF AS SHOWN IN TABLE IT IS POSSIBLE TO CAN BE SEEN THAT THE PRODUCT LIFE CYCLEIN THE FORM OF IN THE LONG RUN CAN BE USED TO AS A RESULT OF THE PROJECT WILL BE

CAN BE USED TO AS WELL AS THE IT CAN BE SEEN THIS IS DUE TO AS A RESULT OFAS SHOWN IN FIGURE THIS IS SHOWN IN THE END OF THE IS DUE TO THE AT THE END OF

THAN THAT OF THE AS A RESULT OF CAN BE SEEN THAT THE TEMPERATURE OF THE IT IS IMPORTANT TOCAN BE SEEN IN IT IS DIFFICULT TO A TRUE AND FAIR THE SURFACE OF THE IN THE VODITE MARKETAS A RESULT OF IN THE INTERWAR PERIOD TRUE AND FAIR VIEW THE NUMBER OF COLONIES OF BOUGHT IN YARN

IT IS THOUGHT THAT IN THE FORM OF IN THE CASE OF IS ONE OF THE IN THE CASE OFTHE STRUCTURE OF THE IT IS POSSIBLE TO THE SENSITIVITY OF THE BE SEEN THAT THE IT IS CLEAR THAT

THE PRESENCE OF A NUMBER OF DUE TO THE IT CAN BE OF THE PROJECTDUE TO THE AN INCREASE IN CAN BE SEEN THE AMOUNT OF THE COST OF

THE RATE OF DUE TO THE IN ORDER TO CAN BE SEEN THE FACT THATIN ORDER TO AS WELL AS BE SEEN IN DUE TO THE THERE IS A

THE AMOUNT OF IN ORDER TO OF THE BEAM THE NUMBER OF THE NUMBER OFAS WELL AS AS A RESULT BE USED TO THERE IS A THE PROJECT ANDTHAT OF THE THE FACT THAT CAN BE USED BE SEEN THAT A NUMBER OF

CAN BE SEEN IN THE UK END OF THE AS WELL AS AS WELL ASIT HAS BEEN AS SHOWN IN IT CAN BE EACH OF THE THE PROJECT MANAGERONE OF THE SHOWN IN TABLE TO CALCULATE THE IN THE UK IN ORDER TO

Pronouns across disciplines

0500

100015002000250030003500400045005000

we

I

N Concordance

1 descriptive procedures everyday. We may denominate a food as being

2 by determining the nitrogen content, we can calculate the protein content in

3 but to arrive at that ultimate decision we go through a complex process,

4 concentration. In this experiment, we use the sodium hydroxide solution to

5 h 1 (see table 1 about the h 1 h 2) then we substitute all the value into the

6 several directions. (See table below) As we know the equation for the volume of a

7 of the hilum from different plants. We can identify the starch in plant by

8 as it is corrosive. However, before we start the distillation process, we need

9 before we start the distillation process, we need to add anti-bumping granules to

Some conclusionsAcross L1 groups

• L1 English students seem to use more participant-oriented chunks than L1 Chinese students

• BUT maybe this is more to do with the classification?• ALSO, over time, Chinese students increase their use of non-prose

features such as tables and listlikes - this perhaps reduces the need for textual and interpersonal chunks.

Across disciplines• Some n-grams are common across disciplines

(e.g. ‘as a result of’, ‘may be due to’) • Some n-grams are more discipline-specific

(e.g. ‘the amount of’, ‘the number of’ in Food Science)• Some n-grams such as ‘on the other hand’ are common across all

disciplines in L1 Chinese writing.

Pedagogical implications

• Writing in each discipline is different – in terms of chunks, use of diagrams and tables, acceptability of pronouns…

• => Discipline-specific EAP classes are useful

• Many genres are demanded of students (essay, lab report, reflective writing…)

• => Model assignments are a good idea.

• Both L1 Chinese and L1 English students need guidance as to appropriate language within their discipline and within each genre.

References

• British Council 2007. ‘China Market Introduction’. Downloaded from http://www.britishcouncil.org/eumd-information-background-china.htm

• Hewings, A. & Hewings, M. 2001 ‘Approaches to the study of disciplinary variation in academic writing: implications for syllabus design’, in David R. Hall, and Ann Hewings (eds.) Innovation in English language teaching, pp. 71-83. A reader. Open University/Routledge.

• Heuboeck, A., Holmes, J. & Nesi, H. 2007 The Bawe Corpus Manual. Retrieved from http://www.coventry.ac.uk/researchnet/d/505/a/5160.

• Hyland, K. (2008a). Academic clusters: text patterning in published and postgraduate writing. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 18(1), 41-62.

• Hyland, K. (2008b). As can be seen: Lexical bundles and disciplinary variation. English for Specific Purposes, 27(1), 4-21.

• Leedham, M. (forthcoming, 2009) ‘From traditional essay to ‘Ready Steady Cook’ presentation: reasons for innovative changes in assignments’ In Active Learning in HE.

• Nesi, H. and S. Gardner (2006) ‘Variation in Disciplinary Culture: University Tutors' Views on Assessed Writing Tasks’, in Richard Kiely, Gerald Clibbon, Pauline Rea-Dickins, and Helen Woodfield, (eds) Language, Culture and Identity in Applied Linguistics (British Studies in Applied Linguistics, 21) London: Equinox Publishing.