HUSH Unit 4

Jefferson, The War of 1812, and the Beginning of

the Market Economy

Continuing the

Virginia Dynasty

Jefferson Takes over

The Jeffersonian Democracy

• Jefferson was a “Republican” (aka Democratic-

Republican) and believed in a smaller government

• Hoped for a nation of farmers

• Tried to be a man of the people (even

though he was a very wealthy planter and

slaveowner)

Political Conflict: The Judiciary

• The Supreme Court was dominated by Federalists (all

had been appointed by George Washington or John

Adams)

• Many judges had been appointed just prior to John

Adams leaving office (so called “midnight judges”)

• Chief Justice John Marshall was one of these

“midnight judges.”

John Marshall (1755-1835)

• “Hero” of the XYZ

Affair

• From rural VA

• Served as Chief Justice

1801-1835

• One of the few

remaining Federalists

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

• William Marbury was appointed as a justice of the peace as one of the “midnight” appointments by John Adams

• However, his commission was not delivered before the presidential transition took place

• James Madison, the new president’s Secretary of State, refused to deliver the commission

• Marbury sued, asking for a writ of mandamus that would force Madison to deliver the commission (to do his job)

Marbury v. Madison: The Ruling

• The case was heard by the Supreme Court in 1803 and Chief Justice John Marshall delivered the unanimous opinion

• Marbury’s commission was legal and a writ of mandamus could be issued (Madison would have to deliver the commission)

• However, the Constitution had not authorized the Court to issue writs – an act of Congress had.

• Congress couldn’t extend the powers of the Constitution with a law so the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional

Marbury v. Madison: Results

• Since the act under which Marbury was to receive his commission was unconstitutional, he wouldn’t receive it (a victory for the Democratic-Republicans)

• BUT, this ruling affirmed the Court’s authority to review the constitutionality of acts of Congress (a Federalist victory)

• Basically, it authorized “judicial review”

Foreign Policy: Louisiana

• When Jefferson came to office, Louisiana was officially owned by Spain

• In 1802, it came to light that Napoleon and the King of Spain had negotiated to transfer the Louisiana territory to France - including New Orleans

Purchasing Louisiana

• Early in 1803, Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris to negotiate to purchase the city of New Orleans (and some surrounding land) for a maximum of $10 million

• If he failed, he was to go to Britain and negotiate an alliance that could resist French occupation of New Orleans (using the British navy & army)

Napoleon’s Surprise

• Difficulties in Europe and Haiti caused Napoleon to surprise Robert Livingston (the regular minister to France) with the offer to sell all of Louisiana

• Livingston acted before Monroe even arrived and agreed to buy all of the Louisiana territory for $15 million

The Territory

Implications

• The Louisiana Purchase more than doubled the size

of the United States

• The over 600 million acres were purchased for a little

less than 3 cents an acre

• However, Jefferson - a strict constructionist - had a

problem: the Constitution did not authorize the

president to purchase land for the country. Could he

do this?

Creating an Expedition

• Jefferson appointed Meriwether Lewis and William

Clark to head an expedition to explore (and map) this

vast new territory

Meriwether

Lewis

William

Clark

Goals of the Expedition

• To map the new territory

• To see what resources were present - including new

flora and fauna

• To see if the Missouri River connected to other rivers

(or itself connected to) the Pacific Ocean

• Negotiate peaceful relations with Indian tribes in the

area

Negotiating with Indians

Transversing the Rivers

• Lewis and Clark often used Native technology to continue on the expedition -such as these bear-skin boats

Sacajawea (1788-1812)

• A Shoshone Indian who was married to Toussaint Charbonneau (hired to be the expedition guide)

• She was very useful as a translator since she was from the region near the headwaters of the Missouri River

• Gave birth just before the trip (and brought her son along)

• Also useful in negotiations since her brother was chief of a tribe near the Snake River (ID)

Results

• Set out from St. Louis in

1804 following the Missouri

River

• Crossed the Rocky

Mountains and eventually

came to the Pacific Ocean

in present day Oregon

• Returned to St. Louis

(dividing the party) in 1806

Results - the data

• Lewis and Clark

brought back

detailed drawings

and information

about their journey

including these

drawings and

descriptions.

Map of Expedition

Impact of Lewis & Clark - Trails

Foreign Policy - Battles Abroad

• Jefferson did not believe in a large

military during peacetime

• Merchant shipping was being

attacked by Pirates of the North

African states (Barbary Pirates -

named for the Barbary Coast)

• Jefferson refused to pay tribute

and American ships were attacked

Building a Navy

• Jefferson reluctantly sent the

tiny navy to “the shores of

Tripoli” to protect American

interests

• A peace treaty was finally

reached in 1805, ending the

conflict

• Most importantly, the Navy

was gaining valuable

The Coming of the

War of 1812

Events and Actions

that preceded the war

Jefferson Reelected

• Election of 1804 was overwhelmingly for Jefferson

• He defeated Charles Pinckney 162 to 14 (the popular vote was 72% to 27% in favor of Jefferson)

• The 12th Amendment had been enacted earlier in the year so electors voted separated for President and Vice-President.

• Aaron Burr was not chosen as a candidate by the Democratic-Republican Party

• He then ran for Governor of New York

• George Clinton of New York defeated Rufus King of New York for the Vice-Presidency.

Jefferson (top)

& Pinckney

A Federalist Conspiracy

• Aaron Burr had formed a secret agreement with some New England Federalists to try and win the election of 1800

• He later hoped to win the Governorship of New York and possibly have NY secede from the Union but he lost

• Burr was also involved in a conspiracy to incite a rebellion in the Mexican territory of Texas and possibly set himself up as monarch in Mexico

• Burr, angry with Hamilton, challenged him to a duel; Burr’s shot fatally wounded Hamilton

• Burr was tried for treason (for the planned rebellion) but acquitted because of a lack of witnesses to any “overt act” by Burr

Challenges to US Neutrality

• Napoleonic Wars meant Britain and France were regularly attacking shipping meant for the other

• Britain also infuriated America by impressing sailors (and they were the more powerful nation at sea)

• Chesapeake-Leopard Affair

• In 1807, just off the Virginia coast, the British warship Leopard fired on the US warship Chesapeake

• Several Americans were killed; several more were impressed

• Many demanded war but Jefferson focused on diplomacy

Embargo Act 1807

• To avoid war, Jefferson persuaded Congress to pass the Embargo Act

• All American ships would be prohibited from sailing to any foreign port

• The hope was Britain, America’s largest trading partner, would be financially hurt and stop violating America’s rights at sea

• Plan backfired as Britain had little trouble finding new sources of trade and the US economy entered into a severe depression

• New England merchants and shipbuilders were hurt the worst

• The act was repealed in 1809 in the final days of Jefferson’s presidency

Election of 1808

• James Madison defeated Charles Pinckney for the Presidency (122-47)

• George Clinton was reelected as Vice-President

• Federalists did, however gain some ground including in the House and Senate due to unhappiness over the Embargo

• As President, Madison tried to continue diplomacy and economic pressure to deal with the Napoleonic Wars

Madison (top)

& Pinckney

Final Attempts at Diplomacy

• Nonintercourse Act of 1809

• America could trade with all nations except Britain and France

• Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810)

• Restored US trade with both

Britain and France but allowed

for an embargo to resume

towards one

• Napoleon agreed so the US

embargoed Britain – trickery!

The War of 1812

The Second War for American Independence

Causes of the War

• Freedom of the Seas/Respect of American neutrality/Impressment

• Frontier Pressures – influence of the British on the American frontier

• Influence of the “War Hawks” in Congress

The War Hawks

• Young Congressmen, mostly in the House of Representatives (some in the Senate)

• Mostly from the frontier states (Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio) and the south

• Definitely NOT New England

• Main leaders were Henry Clay (KY) and John C. Calhoun (SC)

• They wanted expansion of US territory (land from Britain and/or her allies) – Canada and Florida AND destruction of Native American resistance

Battle of Tippecanoe

Wm. H. Harrison Tecumseh Tenskwatawa(aka The Prophet)

Frontier Pressures

• Americans believed the British were arming the Native Americans and encouraging them to attack US frontier settlements to prevent Americans from moving westward

• The attempted establishment of an Indian Confederacy by Shawnee brothers Tecumseh (war leader) and The Prophet (religious leader)

• Tried to unite tribes east of the Mississippi River

• Gen. William Henry Harrison attempted to destroy this growing confederacy at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811

• Tecumseh not present, The Prophet was defeated

Impressment

• British Navy needed more sailors to fight its war against France/Napoleon

• Sought “British citizens” on trade ships owned by neutral nations –particularly American ships

• Some may have been British citizens claiming US citizenship to avoid naval service

• Harsh conditions in British Navy

• Would stop American ships on the high seas and “kidnap” sailors

The American Military

• The American army is relatively

small and inexperienced. The main

fighting units would be comprised

mainly of militia (non-professional

soldiers AKA farmers with guns)

• The American navy is bigger –

now up to 16 warships – but has a

fair amount of experience based

on their actions fighting the

Barbary Pirates off the coast of

North Africa

“Mr. Madison’s War”

• New England opposed the war because it would interrupt trade – their livelihood

• They saw impressment and raids on shipping as the cost of doing business

• The West and South supported the war

• They felt that war against Britain would give them the opportunity to expand US territory (Canada and perhaps land belonging to any of Britain’s allies)

• Would remove an Indian threat by removing the Indian’s source of arms if the British were defeated

Plan of Action

• Success depended on two things

• A land based invasion of Canada

• The American Navy had only 16 ships so a war at sea was not really possible

• The British strength was in Canada (the only British land in continental North America)

• Napoleon continuing his war in Europe

• His success would keep the British military busy and split by forcing them to fight on two continents

The Land Based War

• The US would launch a 3 point

invasion of Canada at

• Detroit

• Niagara

• Lake Champlain

• Shown at right is Detroit

• Major General William Hull failed

miserably and was forced to surrender

his 2000 troops to a smaller British

and Indian force

Invasion of Canada

• Fort Niagara

• The Americans invaded Canada in October 1812

• The invasion failed when the NY militia refused to cross the border to come to the aid of the army

• Lake Champlain

• Located in Northern New York

• This was the final attack of a three-part invasion

• As with the first two, it failed miserably

• Fort Dearborn

• Not a part of this invasion of Canada but this was one of the many frontier outposts that the Americans were also forced to surrender

• This gave Britain control of the entire Great Lakes region

Weapons

• Weapons were similar to those from the American Revolution

• Smooth bore muskets, swords and small arms (pictured)

Other Canadian

Invasions

• In 1813, the Americans attacked and burned the Canadian capital of York (Toronto)

• In 1814, the Americans under Winfield Scott attacked Fort Erie, defeated the British at Chippewa River and battled at Lundy’s Lane. They retreated back into the US, giving up the conquest of Canada

The War on Water

• The Americans were supposedly the weakest (militarily) with their navy

• They had only 16 warships and the British had hundreds

• But the tiny American Navy was successful

• The warship Constitution destroyed a British frigate in a fierce battle off Nova Scotia

• The warship Constitution later destroyed another British ship off the coast of Brazil

• The warship United States captured the British Macedonian

• The warship Wasp defeated the British Frolic

USS Constitution

More War on Water

• In 1813, in a fierce duel between the Chesapeake (Am) and the Shannon (Br) the dying American captain told his crew “don’t give up the ship” which became the rallying cry of the US Navy

• Overall, the 16 US Naval Warships never lost a fight to a British warship during the entire war

• some of the privateer vessels did lose battles

• USS Constitution would be nicknamed “Old Ironsides” because cannonballs “bounced” off her thick oak sides in a battle and the British thought she was actually made of iron and not wood

America Battles Back

• American Naval Commander Oliver Hazard Perry was the commander of a tiny fleet that was thrown together on Lake Erie (to battle the British fleet stationed there)

• This fleet surprised and soundly defeated the British at Put-In Bay in September 1813 effectively regaining control of the Great LakesPerry reported his victory by saying

“We have met the enemy and they are

ours.”

British Defeat at Lake Erie &

Beyond

• By the end of the war, American privateers (privately owned ships given permission by the government to act as “legal pirates” on behalf of the country) destroyed or captured over 1500 British ships

• But a military blockade of the American coast was inevitable and it brought all foreign commerce to a standstill

Battle of the Thames River

• William Henry Harrison led a force of militia into Canada pursing the retreating British, overtaking them at the Thames River in October 1813, defeating them decisively. At this battle, Tecumseh was killed, causing most of the Indians to desert the British and collapsing the Indian confederation.

The British Offensive

• By 1814, the British could focus entirely on the war with America since Napoleon had been defeated in Europe.

• Remember, the US saw Napoleon’s continued success as instrumental to American hopes for victory

• They began sending massive numbers of troops to America

• Over 15,000 troops were sent to Canada in 1814, ending America’s hopes for conquest

Lake Champlain

• About 11,000 troops invaded New York along Lake Champlain (but they needed to control the water too).

• Both had fleets in the lake but the British ships were better armored and more powerful

• But the Americans were able to outmaneuver the British and defeat them completely in 1814, forcing the army to retreat back to Canada

Creek War

• Creek Confederation conflict

• Red Sticks splinter group

• Mostly fought in Mississippi territory (included Alabama) & Georgia

• Ended with Treaty of Fort Jackson in Aug 1814

Attack on Washington

• In August 1814, the British arrived up the Chesapeake Bay and landed in Maryland. The capital was poorly defended, allowing the British to easily attack. On August 24, in retaliation for the burning of York, the British set fire to numerous buildings including the Executive Mansion. But they were driven out of the city by a large storm that hit the city.

Attack on Washington

• Dolly Madison, the president’s wife was

hurriedly loading valuables, furniture,

paintings (including the portrait of

George Washington), and documents

into wagons to flee the area as the

British were entering and setting fire to

the building itself.

Attack on Washington

• The Mansion would later be rebuilt and painted white to hide the scorch marks (hence the name White House).

Baltimore

• The British left Washington and sailed toward Baltimore – the biggest port on the bay – but found it well defended. The fleet (on September 12, 1814) tried to destroy the fort protecting the harbor all through the night but was unable to do so, so they gave up (and the American flag still flew over Fort McHenry by the dawn’s early light).

British Cannonball shot at Fort McHenry in 1814

The Star Spangled Banner

The Star Spangled Banner

• The Star Spangled Banner, a poem written by Francis Scott Key (who was an observer on a British ship in the harbor during the attack) commemorated the event

• The poem would later be set to the tune of Anacreaon in Heaven (a popular British drinking ballad)

• It would become the national anthem in 1931

Attention Shifts to the South

• The British sent over 7500 troops to invade the US via the Gulf of Mexico and landed them near New Orleans.

• A major naval battle occurred prior to the land battle but although the British won, they were delayed from helping at New Orleans

• This naval battle involved privateers who fought for the US, not regular naval vessels

• General Andrew Jackson, who had been repelling Indian attacks in the Southeastern US was able to beat the British to the city and build fortifications

New Orleans

• Using the contents of warehouses (including cotton bales) Jackson

and his men built significant fortifications around the city

• Jackson also used the help of pirates who agreed to fight on the side of the

Americans in exchange for a pardon on existing charges of piracy (illegal and

generally punishable by death)

• On January 8, 1815 the English began their attack but the Americans

were able to inflict tremendous casualties (more than 2000) with just

71 of their own

• This tremendous victory restored the nation’s pride and made a

national hero of Jackson

Andrew Jackson

Major General Andrew Jackson wore this uniform and

sabre at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815. The

British brought almost 10,000 troops to the battle

(versus 4000 soldiers, militia, Choctaw Indians, former

slaves and even pirates for Jackson). He forced the

British to attack a heavily fortified position, resulting

in a lopsided victory.

Jackson at the Battle of New Orleans, artist unknown

Ballou's Pictorial Drawing-Room Companion depicts the Battle of New Orleans, the last campaign of

the War of 1812. Andrew Jackson's troops--army regulars, Tennessee and Kentucky volunteers, and

two companies of African American volunteers from New Orleans--held off the better-trained British

troops in January of 1815. The battle made Andrew Jackson a national hero. (Historic New Orleans

Collection)

Possible Secession?

• Hartford Convention

• In 1814 politicians from New England met in Hartford, Connecticut

• The passed resolutions condemning the war and recommended constitutional amendments that would protect New England interests

• Some extremists even talked of secession from the Union and negotiating a separate peace with Britain but the war ended before any action could be taken

The Treaty of Ghent

• By the end of 1814, both sides had had enough and wanted peace

• They met in Ghent, Belgium and concluded a treaty of peace

• It ended hostilities

• All captured land would be returned to the pre-war owner

• No mention was made of impressment but it was generally believed that the practice would stop

• The treaty was signed and announced (locally) on December 24, 1814

Results of the War

• A new sense of nationalism

• American industry began to grow because of the blockade of shipping by the British

• Respect from other nations – especially in Europe

Results of the War

• Expansion westward was more feasible since the Indian threat had been removed (they were no longer being armed by the British and many had been killed or dispersed with Tecumseh)

• The most conspicuous casualty of the war was the Federalist party

• War heroes emerged—Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison—both to later become president