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HUMAN DEVLOPMENT AND GOVERNANCE

3.1 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

“We define HD as expanding the choices for all people in society. This means that

men and women - particularly the poor and vulnerable are at the center of the

development process. It also means protection of the life opportunities of future

generations and the natural systems on which all life depends.”

(Source: UNDP, HDR 1996)

“HD is about people, about expanding their choices to lead lives they value

Fundamental to enlarging human choices is building human capabilities, the range

of things that people can do or be.”

(Source: Opening Sentence, HDR 2002)

3.1.1 Human Development Concepts

As Aristotle said in ancient Greece, “Wealth is evidently not the good we are

seeking, for it is merely useful for the sake of something else.” In seeking that

something else, HD shares a common vision with human rights. The goal is human

freedom and in pursuing capabilities and realising rights, this freedom is vital.

People must be free to exercise their choices and to participate in decision-making

that affects their lives. HD and human rights are mutually reinforcing, helping to

secure the well-being and dignity of all people, building self-respect and the respect

of others.

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“The basic purpose of development is to enlarge people's choices. In principle, these

choices can be infinite and can change over time. People often value achievements

that do not show up at all, or not immediately, in income or growth figures, greater

access to knowledge, better nutrition and health services, more secure livelihoods,

security against crime and physical violence, satisfying leisure hours, political and

cultural freedoms and sense of participation in community activities. The objective

of development is to create an enabling environment for people to enjoy long,

healthy and creative lives.” Mahbub ul Haq

Fig-1

21st century HD strategy can be promoting participation through democratic

governance (Fig-1). Participation promotes collective agency as well as individual

agency. It is important because collective action through social and political

movements has often been a vehicle of progress for issues central to HD protecting

the environment, promoting gender equality, and fostering human rights. In

addition, participation and other HD gains can be mutually reinforcing. Political

freedom empowers people to claim their economic and social rights, while

education increases their ability to demand economic and social policies that

respond to their priorities. (Source: HDR 2002)

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Fig- 2

The links between democracy and equitable development needs to be strengthened.

When more growth is considered, democratic institutions and processes contribute

to development (Fig-2). But the links are by no means automatic. Social injustices

are widespread in democratic and authoritarian regimes alike, whether deliberate or

otherwise. The HD paradigm is a holistic development model. It embraces every

development issue, including economic growth, social investment, people's

empowerment, and provision of basic needs, social safety nets, political / cultural

freedom and all other aspects of people's lives. While no aspect of the development

model falls outside its scope, the vantage point is widening of people's choices and

the enhancement of their lives. All aspects of life - economic, political and cultural

are viewed from that perspective. (Source: HD Foundation, Pakistan)

3.1.2 Sustainable Human Development

As per UNDP there are four key components of sustainable HD, all affecting the

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lives of the poor and vulnerable (Box-1). These can be practically achieved through

following five actions:-

Empowerment- The expansion of men’s and women’s capabilities and choices,

increasing their ability to exercise those choices free of hunger, want and

deprivation. It also increases their opportunity to participate in, or endorse decision-

making affecting their lives.

Co-operation- A sense of belonging important for personal fulfillment, well

being and a sense of purpose and meaning. HD is concerned with the ways in which

people work together and interact.

Equity- The expansion of capabilities and opportunities means more than

income. It also means equity, such as an educational system to which everybody

should have access.

CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

HD is a process of giving people more options. At all levels of development, the three essential rights that people have are to lead long and healthy lives, to acquire knowledge and to have access to the resources needed for a decent standard of living.

The following are four key components of sustainable human development:

1. Productivity: People must be allowed full participation in the process of income generation and remunerated employment. 2. Equity: People must have access to equal opportunities. 3. Sustainability: Equity must be ensured not only for the present generations but for future generations as well. 4. Empowerment: Development must be by the people, not for them

BOX-1 (UNDP 1995)

Sustainability- The needs of this generation must be met without compromising

the right of future generations to be free of poverty and deprivation and to exercise

their basic capabilities.

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Security - Particularly the security of livelihood. People need to be freed from

threats, such as disease or repression and from sudden harmful disruptions in their

lives.

3.1.3 Human Development Index

The UNDP’s HDI is a country level measure of social welfare based on national values for

average life expectancy, rates of adult literacy and school enrollment, and GDP per capita.

It is used to determine and indicate whether a country is a developed, developing, or

underdeveloped country and also to measure the impact of economic policies on

quality of life. The index was developed in 1990 by Indian Nobel prize winner

Amartya Sen, Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq, with the help from Gustav

Ranis of Yale University and Lord Meghnad Desai of the London School of

Economics and has been used since then by the UNDP in its annual HDRs. The

HDI measures the average achievements in a country in three basic dimensions of

HD:-

A long and healthy life, as measured by life expectancy at birth.

Knowledge, as measured by the adult literacy rate (with two-thirds weight)

and the combined primary, secondary, and tertiary gross enrolment ratio (with

one-third weight).

A decent standard of living, as measured by the log of GDP per capita at PPP

in US$.

Since HDI is based entirely on national averages it lacks any information about the

distribution of health, education, or income within countries. The distribution or

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access to key resources is an important determinant both of average levels of health,

education and income as well as absolute levels of deprivation. Due to this measure

of inequality, HDI is severely hampered in its ability to depict accurately the levels

and changes in social welfare.

3.1.4 History of Changes in HDI

Since inception in 1990 HDI has been reviewed and revised to capture measurement

of HD in better and scientific manner. The UNDP has been exceptionally receptive

to criticism regarding poor data, incorrect choice of indicators, and poor

specification of HDI overall and of HDI’s income component in particular. On

some points, HDI has been changed significantly in response to its critic’s charges

to the education and income indices. On other points, improved arguments have

been incorporated justifying the existing HDI formula. The year wise changes

incorporated are summed up as below.

Year HDI Components

1990

Component Index = (maximum-actual)/(maximum-minimum)

HDI = 1 - average of component indices

Ranked from worst (1) to best (130)

Maximum and minimum for current year

Education Index = adult literacy only

Income Index = log10 (PPP GDP/capita), with the average poverty line

for nine OECD countries as maximum

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1991

Ranked from best (1) to worst (160)

Education Index = adult literacy and mean years of school enrollment

Income Index = Atkinson formula = y* + 2(GDPi - y*) ½ + 3(GDPi -

2y*) + threshold; y* is the average poverty line for nine OECD

countries

1994

Component Index = (actual-min)/(max-min)

HDI = average of component indices

Fixed minimum and maximum (LE: 25/85 yrs, LIT: 0%/100%, ENR:

0%/100%, Y: $200/$40,000)

1995

Education Index = adult literacy and combined gross school enrollment

Income minimum changed to $100

1999

Income Index = Natural log (PPP GDP/capita) up to $40,000

(Source: UNDP 1990 to 2005)

3.1.5 Other Indexes

Human Poverty Index: The Human Poverty Index (HPI) is an indication of the

standard of living in a country, developed by the UN. The HDRs website

summarises this as (HPI-1), a composite index measuring deprivations in the three

basic dimensions captured in HDI a long and healthy life, knowledge and a decent

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standard of living. For highly developed countries, the UN considers that it can

better reflect the extent of deprivation for selected OECD countries. This (HPI-2) is

a composite index measuring deprivations in the three basic dimensions captured in

the HDI a long and healthy life, knowledge and a decent standard of living and also

capturing social exclusion (Annexure ‘D’).

Gender Empowerment Measure: The GEM is a measure of inequalities between

men's and women's opportunities in a country. It combines inequalities in three

areas political participation and decision making, economic participation and

decision making, and power over economic resources. It is one of the five indicators

used by the UNDP in its annual HDR.

Calculating the GEM involves several steps. First- percentages for females and

males are calculated in each area. The first area is the number of parliamentary seats

held. The second area is measured by two sub-components: a) legislators, senior

officials, and managers, and b) professional and technical positions. The third area

is measured by the estimated earned income (at PPP US$). Second, for each area,

the pair of gender percentages is combined into an Equally Distributed Equivalent

Percentage (EDEP) that rewards gender equality and penalises inequality. It is

calculated as the harmonic mean of the two components. The EDEP for economic

participation is the unweighted average of the EDEP for each of its sub-

components. The EDEP for income is computed from gender sub-values that are

indexed to a scale from 100 to 40,000 (PPP US$). Finally, the GEM is the

unweighted average of the three EDEP.

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Gender Development Index: The GDI is an indication of the standard of living in

a country. It aims to show the inequalities between men and women in the area of

long and healthy life, knowledge, and a decent standard of living (Annexure ‘E’).

GDI is simply HDI discounted or adjusted downwards for gender inequality.

Calculating the GDI involves three steps.

Step 1: Unit-free indices between 0 and 1 are calculated for females and males in

each of the following areas: (1) life expectancy, (2) education (the adult literacy rate

and the combined primary to tertiary gross enrollment ratio), (3) estimated earned

income (at PPP US$).

Step 2: For each area, the pair of gender indices is combined into an Equally

Distributed Index that rewards gender equality and penalizes inequality. It is

calculated as the harmonic mean of the two indices.

Step 3: The GDI is the unweighted average of the three Equally Distributed

Indices: Equally distributed life expectancy index, equally distributed education

index, equally distributed income index.

Fraser Institute’s Index of Human Progress: Since its introduction in 1990, the

United Nations HDI has attracted a great deal of attention as a measure to gauge the

development of nations. In UNDP index GDP per capita is adjusted, to limit its

impact in the index. It assumes that GDP per capita should be discounted on the

grounds that per capita income contributes minimally to development when it rises

past a certain modest amount. In addition, too little attention is paid to historical

trends in HD, whereas measuring development requires knowing how a country has

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progressed over time, not just how it compares to other countries in a single year.

The Fraser Institute’s Index of Human Progress is based upon unadjusted GDP per

capita and measurements from 1975 through 1999. This assumes that as GDP per

capita increases, the well being of the citizens of that country increases. The Fraser

Institute's Index of Human Progress uses unadjusted GDP per capita (1995 US$)

and 10 development indicators, six more than the HDI. Using more indicators

allows drawing clearer distinctions among countries. As long as data is reliable, a

greater number of indicators permit clearer distinctions among countries. In

addition, using more indicators makes the Index less vulnerable to any unreliability

in data, as the impact of a biased indicator on the overall score is reduced when

more indicators are used. The cost of increasing the number of indicators is that

fewer countries can be included in the Index of Human Progress (128 rather than

the UN 162) because some does not have complete data. The Fraser Institute's Index

of Human Progress uses the following indicators:-

Health

Life expectancy

Infant mortality (per 1,000 live births)

Mortality of children under five years of age (per 1,000 live births)

Adult mortality rate (number of adults, per 1,000 adults, not expected to

survive to age 60

Education

Literacy rate

Combined enrolment rate (combined primary, secondary and tertiary)

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Technology

Number of televisions (per 1,000 persons)

Number of radios (per 1,000 persons)

Telephone service (per 1,000 persons)

Fraser Institute has argued that

a key indicator of the state of

development in a country is

the diffusion of technology

within it. The availability of

leisure goods indicates that

citizens have choices about

how to spend their time and

money. Telephone service is included because an effective communications

infrastructure is important for a country to get beyond a moderate level of

development. One of the most important results of this study is that most countries

show an increase in their score on how much people's lives have improved over the

past twenty-five years (Graph-1).

Graph-1 The HDI with and without adjustment of GDP per capita

(Source: Fraser Institute’s Alternative to the United Nations Development Index Fred McMahon, Joel Emes, Oct 2001)

Social Indicators of Development: ‘SID’ contains the World Bank’s most

detailed data collection for assessing human welfare to provide a picture of the

social effects of economic development. Data is presented for over 170 economies,

omitting only those for which data are inadequate. Indicators reported are

considered useful for identifying broad trends and differences. The indicators refer

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to somewhat different dates within three broad time spans: 25-30 years ago

(centering on 1965), 15-20 years ago (centering on 1975) and most recent estimates.

Up to 94 indicators are reported for each country including size, growth, and

structure of population, determinants of population growth (including data on

fertility and infant mortality), labor force, education and illiteracy, natural

resources, income and poverty, expenditure on food, housing, fuel and power,

transport and communication, and investment in medical care and education. Each

of these indicators is broken into several subcategories.

(Source: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, The World Bank, 1995)

HDI beyond HD: The HDI has been criticized as being redundant because of its

high correlation with per captia income (McGillivray, 1991). This doesn’t seems to

be a valid objection since the correlation is imperfect, especially among low income

countries. HDI does tell us more about a country’s performance on some basic

elements of HD than income per capita when one adopts a broader definition of HD.

Thus extending the concept and measurement of HD to a broader set of dimensions

seriously affects the way one should measure and assess countries performance.

A paper written by G. Ranis, F. Stewart and E. Samman has considered how well

the HDI represents HD when more broadly defined. Following other contributions

in defining the characteristics of a full life, it identified 11 categories that seem to

encompass all the major dimensions of HD. For each category, it then identified a

potential set of indicators that seem to plausible measures and for which data are

available. Authors investigated correlations among these measures, and, in order to

reduce the number of variables representing each category, they included only one

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indicator for any set of indicators that are highly correlated with each other, also

retaining any indictor that does not show a high correlation with the any other

indicator in its category. Following the same procedure, researchers found that

under-five morality rates perform equally as well, as the HDI and income per capita

is less representative of other dimensions of human development. Additional

choices include political freedom, guaranteed human rights and self-respect. The

aim was to include only variables that are broadly independent. As per paper,

following are broad categories of HD:-

The HDI itself.

Empowerment.

Social relations.

Political freedom.

Mental well being.

Community well being.

Environmental conditions.

Economic security.

Leisure conditions.

Political security.

Work conditions.

Inequalities.

(Source: Journal of Human Development, Nov 2006)

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3.2 GOVERNANCE

The functions of government should be threefold, the creation of law, the

administration of law, and the enforcement of law. In that respect, structuring a

government with these functions in mind would appear to be ideal. This has

generally led to the creation of governments with legislative branches possessing

powers for the creation of law, executive branches possessing powers for the

administration of law, and judicial branches possessing powers for the enforcement

of law. Checks and balances between these branches have generally been added in

an effort to protect the divisions of responsibilities between the branches, but

perhaps history has shown that the best checks and balances are in the hearts and

minds of the people.

While many people have a general philosophy about what government should and

should not do, they often struggle to answer the question when faced with specific

policy problems. The role of government then is to secure the liberties enjoyed in

the state of nature by limiting individual behavior when it harms others. Exactly

what those limits should be and what kinds of behavior should remain unregulated

are the subjects of debate. Adjusting the continually tipping balance between liberty

and order is the primary business of government & politics.

(Source: Doug Casey, WorldNetDaily.com, Sep 2001)

Harry Browne demonstrated persuasively why government programs have a failure

rate over 99%. They never live up to their promises, too often do the exact opposite

of what was promised, always cost far more than their initial estimates, and create

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the conditions that justify enlarging themselves and adding more government

programs. As per him the seeds of today's runaway government were planted when

it was decided that government should help those who can't help themselves.

“Helping those who can't help themselves” is a paraphrase of Karl Marx's famous

dictum, “From each according to his ability, to each according to his need.” Once

this principle is adopted, more and more people will want to be part of the needy,

rather than part of the able, because nearly everyone prefers to be on the “to” side of

transfers, rather than the “from” side.

(Source: Why Government Doesn't Work, Harry Browne)

Whatever our views about the way we are governed and the people who occupy

positions of power, the business of government is something we cannot avoid, it is

all-pervading. Despite this, there is an alarming degree of ignorance and apathy

about the institutions and workings of government and the political process itself.

The dynamic political process is like studying the human body by visiting a

mortuary. There are many books about government in Britain and other individual

countries, but relatively few that attempt to cover a wider canvas.

(Source: In Defence of Politics, Crick Bernard, 1982)

The current governance framework has evolved to incorporate the values of various

actors, having the dominance of market values. Notwithstanding the continuous

search for better governance in developing countries, there is to date no consensus

about the meaning of governance in both policy and academic circles. Actually

governance frameworks emanate from the interactions of actors within governance

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contexts, while striving at the same time to guide the present and future behavior

and actions of actors.

Governance is interactions among structures, processes and traditions that

determine how power is exercised, how decisions are taken, and how citizens or

other stakeholders have their say. It comprises the mechanisms, process and

institutions, through which people articulate their interests, mediate their differences

and exercise their rights and obligations. By 1999, the international development

community had reached the consensus that poverty reduction should be the ultimate

end of development. Notwithstanding the importance of politics in the overall

governance process, the current framework tries to de-politicise governance since

politics is regarded as the source of corruption in its various forms. This is as a

result of the way politics is perceived by the exponents of good governance.

Politics is regarded as the source of corruption in its various forms.

(Source: D. Mcneill, ‘Human Development’, Journal of Human Development, March 2007)

3.2.1 Conceptualising Governance

The World Bank: Governance is defined as the manner in which power is

exercised in the management of a country’s economic and social resources. The

World Bank has identified three distinct aspects of governance (1) the form of

political regime (2) the process by which authority is exercised in the management

of a country’s economic and social resources for development and (3) the capacity

of governments to design, formulate and implement policies and discharge

functions.

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Governance consists of the traditions and institutions by which authority in a

country is exercised. This includes the process by which governments are selected,

monitored and replaced, the capacity of the government to effectively formulate and

implement sound policies, and the respect of citizens and the state for the

institutions that govern economic and social interactions among them.

UNDP: Governance involves the exercise of political, economic and

administrative authority in the management of a country’s affairs at all levels. It

comprises the mechanisms, processes and institutions, through which citizens and

groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations

and mediate their differences.

It is the process whereby public institutions conduct public affairs, manage public

resources and guarantee the realisation of human rights. Good governance

accomplishes this in a manner essentially free of abuse and corruption, and with due

regard for the rule of law. The true test of good governance is the degree to which it

delivers on the promise of human rights, civil, cultural, economic, political and

social rights. The institutions of governance should effectively guarantee the right to

health, adequate housing, sufficient food, quality education, fair justice and personal

security.

(Source: Good governance and human rights, UN Conference on anti-corruption measures, Warsaw,

November 2006)

UNESCAP: Governance means, the process of decision-making and the process

by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented). Governance can be used

in several contexts such as corporate governance, international governance, national

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governance and local governance. Since governance is the process of decision-

making and the process by which decisions are implemented, an analysis of

governance focuses on the formal and informal actors involved in decision-making

and implementing the decisions made and the formal and informal structures that

have been set in place to arrive at and implement the decision.

OECD: The concept of governance denotes the use of political authority and

exercise of control in a society in relation to the management of its resources for

social and economic development. This broad definition encompasses the role of

public authorities in establishing the environment in which economic operators

function and in determining the distribution of benefits, as well as the nature of the

relationship between the ruler and the ruled.

Commission on Global Governance: Governance is the sum of many ways

individuals and institutions, public and private, manage their common affairs. It is a

continuing process through which conflicting or diverse interests may be

accommodated and cooperative action may be taken. It includes formal institutions

and regimes empowered to enforce compliance, as well as informal arrangements

that people and institutions either have agreed to or perceive to be in their interest.

Mahbub-u-Haq Human Development Centre: Human Governance is governance

dedicated to securing human development. It must enable the state, civil society and

the private sector to help build capacities, which will meet the basic needs of all

people, particularly women, children and the poor. It requires effective participation

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of people in state, civil society and private sector activities that are conducive to

human development

Planning Commission of India: The problems of governance 20 years from now

will still include those issues which occupy attention today. These are transparency,

corruption, non-responsiveness, favouritism, bureaucracy, inefficiency, lack of

accountability, ineffectiveness of implementation etc. But rising expectations,

increasing levels of education, greater access to information and greater prosperity

will work to mitigate these factors to a large extent.

India NHDR 2001: Governance for HD relates to the management of all such

processes that in any society, define the environment which permits and enables

individuals to raise their capability levels on one hand and provide opportunities to

realise their potential and enlarge the set of available choices on the other.

3.2.2 Types of Governments

The Greek philosopher Aristotle was the first to attempt a systematic classification

of governments- any system whereby political authority is exercised. His main

distinctions were between government by one person, by few and by many

(monarchy, oligarchy and democracy). Although the characteristics of each may

vary between states and each may degenerate into tyranny (rule by an oppressive

elite in the case of oligarchy or by the mob in the case of democracy).

Modern systems of government distinguish between liberal democracies, totalitarian

(one-party) states and autocracies (authoritarian, relying on force rather than

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ideology). There are two types of governments, constitutional and non-

constitutional. Constitutional governments have a written document stating their

laws, rights and responsibilities. Just because a government has a constitution

doesn't mean it is a constitutional government. It must also be limited in power,

follow a higher law, and have constitutional stability. Types of constitutional

governments are representative democracies that are either presidential,

parliamentary or a mixture of the two. The presidential form of a representative

democracy has a chief executive often called the president or premier. He is elected

for a definite term of office. The constitution usually limits the leader to one or two

terms of office. In parliamentary, the chief executive must be a member of the

lawmaking body, so the leader of the majority party is automatically the prime

minister. Whenever the majority party loses a vote on a major issue, the prime

minister must resign and call for new elections. Non-constitutional governments are

dictatorships and absolute monarchies. These are hard on the citizens because they

don't have many rights. Totalitarian and authoritarian are the two types of non-

constitutional governments. In an authoritarian government, the power to make

decisions is in the hands of one person or a small group. Totalitarian government is

another form of authoritarian in which the government controls every aspect of

society.

(Source- S. Stephen, Government Building a New Nation, American Timeline, Oak View Elementary School)

The French philosopher Montesquieu distinguished between constitutional

governments whether monarchies or republics which operated under various legal

and other constraints and despotism, which was not constrained in this way. Many

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of the words used (dictatorship, tyranny, totalitarian, democratic) have acquired

negative or positive connotations that make it difficult to use them objectively.

The following would appear to be an ideal way to classify the types and forms of

government, along with simple definitions and distinctions for those types and

forms, as far as how they relate to the relationship between the rights and

sovereignty of the citizens as compared to one another, and as compared to their

government.

Types:

Centralized: A type of government whereby the sovereignty of the parties to

the union is totally in the control of the government.

Adhesioned: A type of government whereby the sovereignty of the parties

of the union is mostly in the control of the government.

Confederated: A type of government whereby the sovereignty of the

government is totally in the control of the parties to the union.

Associated: A type of government whereby the sovereignty of the

government is mostly in the control of the parties to the union.

Polarized: A type of government whereby the sovereignty of the parties to

the union and the government is shared or divided equally.

Forms:

Communism: A form of government, which is structured in a manner

whereby no party entity may possess and enjoy any sovereignty that is not

specifically authorized by the government.

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Socialism: A form of government, which is structured in a manner whereby

no party entity may possess and enjoy any sovereignty that is specifically

forbidden by the government.

Libertarianism: A form of government which is structured in a manner

whereby all party entities possess and enjoy full sovereignty, as long as the

expression of that sovereignty does not conflict with the sovereignty of any

other party, or that afforded to the government.

Democracy: A form of government which is structured in a manner

whereby any party entity may possess and enjoy any sovereignty, as long as it

is either authorized or not forbidden by agreement of the majority of the

parties.

Anarchy: A form of null government whereby all entities possess and enjoy

whatever sovereignty they can maintain by force, regardless of the harm it

causes to the sovereignty of other entities.

Level:

Town

State

National

Global

(Source: The Advocates for Self-Government, April 2004)

3.2.3 Seven Categories of 20th Century

There are always shades of gray in any government. Even the most liberal

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democracies limit rival political activity to one extent or another, and even the most

tyrannical dictator must organise a broad base of support. So it is very difficult to

pigeonhole every government of the Twentieth Century into following seven

narrow categories.

Multiparty Democracy: A government is democratic that is, whether its leaders

are chosen by means of fair, competitive elections, and whether its citizens are

allowed basic civil rights. As far as this category is concerned, it doesn't matter

whether the ultimate head of state is a monarch or president as long as the day-to-

day policy decisions are in the hands of elected representatives. By strict high

school definition, the citizens of a "democracy" exercise power directly, whereas

the citizens of a "republic" delegate power to elected representatives. Democracy is

defined so narrowly that it applies to absolutely no working government

whatsoever. All they've left us is the word republic, which they've defined so

broadly that it encompasses such diverse nations as the US, France, China and Iran

and yet is still too narrow to include constitutional monarchies like Japan and

Sweden. The common meaning of democracy is any government which derives its

power through the consent of the governed, regardless of how that power is

structured.

Limited Democracy: These are governments, which come close to being full

democracies, but they fall short in one critical field. It usually varies from country

to country. Some have freely elected legislatures subject to the veto power of a

military junta, a monarch or a strong president. Others are provisional governments

run by coalitions pending new elections. Many are fully tolerant democracies which

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disenfranchise a substantial percentage of their adult population especially women

early in the century.

Communist: The economy of these nations is centrally planned and operated by

fiat. All industry is owned by the state. Power is monopolized by a centrally

organised party, which supports its legitimacy by quoting Marxist dogma.

Technically, Communism is an economic system rather than a political system

Authoritarian: These are regimes, which severely limit who may participate in

politics and stifle dissent with varying degrees of brutality.

Military Junta: The regime came into power through force of arms, and one

or more career military officers set policies.

Single Party State: Power is restricted to a single faction with a unified

goal.

Autocracy: A single leader rules by decree. One person who wields more power

than others. If the civilian head of state has challenged the forces that originally

brought him into power. For example by purging of the ruling party in a one-party

state, or by declaring martial law in a democracy.

Monarchy: A Monarchy, from the Greek μονος “one”, and αρχειν, “to rule”, is a

form of government in which a monarch, usually a single person, is the head of

state. In most monarchies, the monarch holds their position for life.

Traditional Monarchy: The state is considered the private estate of a single

family. It is ruled at the discretion of the monarch and passed down from

father to son throughout eternity.

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Constitutional Monarchy: A constitutional monarchy is a form of

government established under a constitutional system which acknowledges an

elected or hereditary monarch as head of state.

Unclassified: There are three categories for regimes, which don't really have a

classifiable government:

No Self-Government : The region is under the authority of an alien and

geographically detached nation.

No Government: Because of widespread civil war the authority of the

central government does not reach throughout the nation. Policy decisions are

determined by firepower.

Category Uncertain: There is just not enough information to even guess at

what kind of government these countries have.

Classification of countries based on above system of governance can be seen at

Annexure ‘F’. (Source: Matthew White, December 2002)

3.2.4 World History of Governance

Number of Independent Governments: Number of countries having multiparty

democracy increased from non existent level to almost about 85 in 1997. It followed

a wave form with a turf in 1925 and 1962. In contrast autocratic governance which

was at peak in 1977 is now at a decline and currently less then 10% countries fall

under this category (Graph-2). In 1995, 73 of the world's 192 sovereign states were

liberal democracies and 72 were emergent democracies, 13 had authoritarian

nationalist regimes, 12 absolutist, 8 nationalistic-socialist, 7 military, 5 communist,

and 2 Islamic- nationalist.

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Graph-2

World’s Population and Regimes: The percentage of the world's population under

various political systems from 1900-1997 can be seen through Graph-3. What is

striking is that even today approx 22% of world population is still under communist

rule. With democracy being enjoyed by 61% of people it seems to have a better

future.

D 61%, L 2%, O 1.1%, M 4%, C 22%, Mo ½%

Graph-3

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World Bodies and Effects: First International organisation with almost all the

countries as its member was League of Nations (LON) formed in 1920. In its 26

years of life many new members

joined and many left. The main

cause of the failure of LON was

expulsion of certain states and

defiant approach of few other

countries combined with non

democratic style of functioning

of the league (Fig-3). The IInd

WW was the result and end of

the league.

(Fig-3) League of Nations 1920-46

Formed in 1945 with better International understanding and laws the UN is now the

most powerful and stable International organisation. Out of total 200 states, UN is

able to influence 177 countries for their progress towards democracy through the

instrument of HDRs/HDIs (Fig-4).

(Fig-4) UN in 1945 (S

ource: Matthews White)

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Regional Regime Changes: Polity IV contains coded annual information on

regime and authority characteristics for all independent states (with greater than

500,000 total populations) in the global state system and covers the years 1800-

2004. (Graph-4)

Graph-4

Apart from sudden rise in 1920 and equally sudden fall in 1940 the growth was

normal till end of IInd WW. There after the sharp upward movement reflecting

increased countries option for free and democratic state can be seen by the fact that

number of nations scoring more than 8 or higher rose from about 20 in 1950, to 60

in 2000, crossing 90 in 2005 (Graph-5). Polity IV report begins with a table that

summarises the regimes (Annexure-G).Its composite index gives scores for the

listed year and the previous year for the current regime, and an indication whether

the coded scores are tentative or not. The Polity IV country reports contain a

graphic in the upper right hand corner that tracks the country’s polity changes from

1946 to present and with a reference grid denoting thresholds for Democracy (+6

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and above), Autocracy (-6 and below), and the end of the Cold War (1991) and

symbols denoting special regime conditions. (Source: Polity IV, Country Reports 2003, CIDCM)

Graph-5

One Party States 1945-95: A single-party state or one-party system is a type of

government in which a single political party forms the government and no other

parties are permitted to run candidates for election. Sometimes de facto single-party

state is used about a dominant-party system where unfair laws or practices prevent

the opposition from legally getting power. Some single party states only outlaw

opposition parties but subordinate allied parties can exist as part of a popular front.

Fig-5

Relative Population of One-Party States, where power was kept for more than 30 years.

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A one-party system should not be confused with a non-partisan democracy which

prohibits all political parties. Also, some one-party states may allow non-party

members to run for legislative seats, as was the case with Taiwan's Tangwai

movement in the 1970s and 1980s. In most cases, single-party states have arisen

from fascist, socialist, or nationalist ideologies, particularly in the wake of

independence from colonial rule (India). One-party systems often arise from

decolonisation because one party has had an overwhelmingly dominant role in

liberation or in independence struggles.

Democratic Governments 1945-1995: There has been a lot of turnover in regimes

over the past hundred years. Almost every nation on the planet has seen at least one

violent or unconstitutional change in leadership over the past hundred years. In fact,

there are only a handful of countries that have had an unbroken chain of legitimacy

since 1900, the United States, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Switzerland and

Canada.

Fig-6

Relative Population of Long-Term Democracies

(Nations who spent more than 30 years as democracies during the period 1945-95)

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Democracy has seen some notable failures. The fall of Weimer Germany to the

Nazis is the mythic example, but there have been plenty of other democracies that

fell to more or less homegrown tyranny, Italy in 1922, Brazil in 1964, Chile in

1973, India in 1975 and Argentina in 1976. On average, at any given time during

last century, 31% of the human population has been living in fully democratic

nations. That means that one out of every three people has been able to speak his or

her mind with reasonable safety, and attempt to guide his or her nation's policy

without fear of legal retaliation. Sure, 31% is still a minority.

Monarchies, are supposed to pass father to son, but none have survived the past

hundred years without surrendering power to liberal parliaments. The only absolute

monarchies still around are younger than the 20th Century. Single-party states are

supposed to have orderly transitions of power, but here too, none have managed to

go a full century without collapsing. Compared to all these failures, democracy

looks a bit tougher.

The biggest enemy to democracy in the 20th Century has been Fascism, which was

actually voted into power in both Germany and Italy according to strictly

constitutional procedures. After dismantling those very same constitutions, the

Fascists then invaded and conquered neighboring countries, many of which were

stable, peaceful democracies. Across the century, other more or less fascist regimes

have replaced democracies time and again with military coups and declarations of

national emergencies.

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Communism has never been voted into office, nor has it overthrown a democracy,

which has been around longer than three years (Czechoslovakia, 1948). Democracy

has never flourished where Communism took hold, but the relationship is mostly a

matter of smothering the growth of democracy, rather than replacing it where it

stands. Historically, democratic regimes are immune to Communism.

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