history of architecture: indian architecture

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College of ArchitectureUniversity of Santo Tomas

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 31

stSemester Ay 2012-2013

LECTURE 1: INDIAN ARCHITECTURE (2,500 B.C. – Present)

INDUS REGION - was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations

A. INFLUENCES:

I. Geographical and Topographical Influences: India - Bharat in Hindi Seventh-largest country (3,287,240 km

2) in the world and the second most populous

(1,147,995,904), after China Consists of the entire Indian peninsula and portions of the Asian mainland, once included

Pakistan, and Bangladesh Borders:

North - Afghanistan, Tibet, Nepal, China, and Bhutan;South - Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar, which separate it from Sri Lanka, and theIndian Ocean;West - Arabian Sea and Pakistan;East - Myanmar (Burma), Bay of Bengal and Bangladesh, which almost cuts off north-east India from the rest of the country.

The capital of India is New Delhi, and the country’s largest city is Mumbai (formerlyBombay).

Well defined geographical regions:1. Mountain zone of the Himalayas,2. Indo-Gangetic plain (formed by the basins of three great rivers Indus, Ganges and

Brahmaputra),

3. Central and Southern peninsula of the Deccan Plateau,4. Western Region – divides India from Pakistan

• Kashmir

• Punjab plains

• Great Thar desert 5. Islands – Andaman and Nicobar

II. Climate: Tropical to temperate zonal extremes; The temperature extremes are confined largely to the slopes of the Himalaya. Except in

the more mountainous regions, most of the rest of India has a uniformly tropical climate; Seasonal variations, resulting from the south-western and north-eastern monsoons,

profoundly influence temperature, humidity, and precipitation throughout thesubcontinent;

The seasons of India may be classified as rainy and dry.

III. Geological (Material) Influences:1. Stone

- Fine red and cream sandstone in Agra used mainly as facing for rubble walling- Stone of carpentry works using white marble of Rajasthan in the north- Granite of Deccan and volcanic potstone (soapstone - metamorphic rock of talc schist)

of Halebid, center and southern part2. Lack of building stone and the availability of timber along the Indus and Ganges valley

- Teakwood - Burma



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- Softwood deodar - Northern mountain ranges- Shisham (Indian Rosewood) - hardwood found in the river valleys of the north

3. Bricks and Terra Cotta - Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab

IV. Religious Influences:Religion plays an important role in the everyday life than in the West

• Very basis of social structure• Bound up with human behavior and conduct of public affairs.

1. Vedism and Brahmanism Polytheistic religion brought around 1500 B.C.E. by invading Aryan tribes who

gradually conquered the earlier Indus Civilization (already in its decline). The Veda (knowledge) - scripture with a collection of hymns composed between

1500 and 900 B.C.E. Life and earth-affirming, positive faith appropriate to battle-loving tribes whose

chieftains and gods/goddesses and heroes resemble divinities and characters. Brahmanism

o Theory of Bhakti “trusting worship”o Asceticism (yoga)o Spiritual Knowledge (Jñana )o Period of great epics:

1. Ramayana

2. Mahabharata which contains mystical poems, the Bhagavad Gita or‘Song of the Blessed’

2. Hinduism Hindu is derived from the river Sindhu or Indus, Santana Dharma (immemorial

tradition) – Sanskrit term Sanskrit is the sacred language Complex mixture of:

o Vedic philosophies,o dogmatic Brahmanical rituals,o yogic mysticism,o tantric occultism,o fertility cults,o monastic orders,o pagan customs and the

o belief in God who manifests as innumerable divine beings. Hindu tradition acknowledges that there are many parts by which people may seek

and experience religious understanding and direction. Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated from Hinduism which also shares the

concept of dharma. Dharma - moral order, duty and right action Brahma is the chief god, the omnipresent one who is father of the Brahman Trinity.

Has 4 heads, 3 of which (representing their Trinity) can be seen from anypoint of view

Three major groupings of deities worshipped by Hindus,o Saktas - worship a Mother Goddesso Saivites - worship the god Sivao Vaishnavites - worship the god Vishnu.

Believes in reincarnation - rebirth, kharma - person’s misfortune are the result of his orher own misdeeds in a previous life and ahimsa - nonviolence and respect for all living

things. Hindus treat the cow with great respect and is considered the mother to the Indian

people. Caste System – a social group, based partly on occupation which grew up with

HinduismA. Brahmins – priestsB. Kshatriyas – kings and warriorsC. Vaisyas – merchants and farmersD. Sudras – workersE. Untouchables – outcasts



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3. Jainism Established in the 6th c. BCE by Vardhamana, called Mahavira “the Great Hero” or

Jina, the “Victorious One”. Based on asceticism and ahimsa , theory and practice of non-violence (non-injury to

all living things) Without a belief in God, though there are a number of lesser deities for various

aspects of life. Recognizes the fundamental natural phenomenon of symbiosis or mutual

dependence which forms the basis of modern day science of ecology. A religionbased also on cosmic principles.

4. Buddhism Religion and philosophy founded in northeastern India in the 5th c. B.C.E., and based

on the teaching of Siddhartha Gautama, a Sakya prince known as Buddha theenlightened one.

Adopted some ideas from Hinduism, doctrine of karma but rejected caste systemand all of its gods.

Divided into two branches – Theravada (Way of the Elders) and Mahayana (TheGreat Vehicle)

V. Historical and Political Influences

A. Indus Valley Civilization (around 2500 BC) Civilization began to develop around the Indus River in what is now Pakistan and

western India. Ruins of ancient cities such as Harappa (Punjab) and Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh). Writing and counting, built drainage systems that ran into brick-lined sewers and dug

canals to irrigate their farms were developed systems Civilization developed by the Dravidians equaled and possibly surpassed in splendor

the civilizations of ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. Civilization is founded upon three basic concepts: the sacred, universal and ritualistic

B Vedic Period Civilization emerged during the early centuries after the intermingling of Indo-Aryan

and Dravidian cultures on the subcontinent was notable in several respects.

The Indo-Aryans had advanced skills in various arts and sciences, including livestock-raising, metal handicrafts, carpentry, boatbuilding, and military science. Most important state was Kosala, a kingdom situated in the region occupied by modern

Oudh. Other important kingdoms were Avanti, Vamsas, and Magadha. The last-named kingdom occupied the territory of modern Bihar, and in about the

middle of the 6th century BC., it became the dominant state of India. During the reign of its first great King Bimbisara (reigned about 543-491 bc), Buddha

and Vardhamana Jnatiputra or Nataputta Mahavira, the respective founders ofBuddhism and Jainism, preached and taught in Magadha.

In 326 B.C., Alexander the Great led an expedition across the Hindu Kush intonorthern India. He won several victories during his march into India, climaxing in theBattle of Hydaspes which ended in the defeat of King Poros near the River Hydaspes(now the Jhelum).

C Maurya Dynasty In 321 B.C. Chandragupta, founder of the Maurya dynasty of Indian kings known to the

Greeks as Sandrocottos, seized control of Magadha and extended his sovereignty overmost of the subcontinent.

Set the empire at Pataliputra, probably the largest and most sophisticated city andcenter of culture in the world.

The military power of the Indian Empire caused Seleucus I, one of Alexander’sgenerals and the founder of the Seleucid Empire, to arrange an alliance with theMaurya ruler. Concluded in 305 BC, the treaty was consolidated by a marriagearrangement between Chandragupta and a daughter of the Seleucid ruler.

The Maurya dynasty endured until about 185 BC.



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During the reign (273-232 BC) of Ashoka (Asoka), the greatest Maurya sovereign,Buddhism became the dominant religion of the empire. India was a great centre oflearning with universities such as those at Nalanda, and Takshasila attracting scholarsfrom China and South East Asia.

The chief event of this period (184-72 BC) was the persecution and decline ofBuddhism in India and the triumph of Brahmanism.

Caste system became deeply ingrained in the Indian social structure, creating greatobstacles to national unification.

D Sunga and Kuskan Dynasty Sunga endured longest, and lasting more than a century. An extensive section of western India was occupied in about 100 BC by invading

Shakas (Scythians), then in retreat before the Yueh-chi of central Asia, one of theirkings, founder of the Kushan dynasty in about 40 AD.

One of the early Kushan monarchs established diplomatic and commercial relationswith the Roman Empire.

Buddhism thrived under the Kushans, and especially under the rule of EmperorKanishka, patron of learning and the arts.

Mathematics and science flourished and the medical texts of Charaka were written atthis time.

Rulers of the indigenous Andhra dynasty, which came to control the former Sungadominions in about 27 BC and endured for about 460 years, made repeated attempts

to expel the Shakas and in about 236 AD. The Shakas attained complete sovereigntyover western India. Southern cultures and states although divided into rival groups were fully as rich and

sophisticated as those of the Aryan influenced north.o Three largest political states of the south:

1. Chola2. Pandya – largest and best preserved3. Pallava

E. Gupta Empire, (400 AD) During the 4

thc, Gupta dynasty emerged and united much of northern India.

Hinduism became a more coherent and codified religion because of the efforts of theGupta kings, who fused elements of Buddhism with Hinduism and emphasized thetheistic nature of the religion, particularly the role of the god Vishnu

In 320 AD, Magadha raja named Chandragupta I (320-330), who had conquered theneighboring territories, founded a new imperial regime and the Gupta dynasty. Hisgrandson Chandragupta II (reigned 375-413) vastly expanded, subjugating thesubcontinent north of the River Narmada.

Lasted for 160 years, and Indian culture reached new heights. The period was one ofsustained peace, steady economic advance, and intellectual accomplishment,particularly in art, music, and literature. .

Towards the close of the 5th c, Hunnish invaders (White Huns), pushed into India fromcentral Asia. The Gupta Empire broke up under the attacks of these invaders, whosesupremacy went unchallenged for nearly a century. Among the contemporarydescendants of the Huns who remained in India are certain tribal groups of Rajasthanstate.

Another powerful kingdom was founded in northern India in 606 by Harsha, the lastBuddhist monarch of consequence in Indian history. Harsha’s reign emulated theGupta period in its patronage of the arts, and the cultural achievements of this period

can be seen in the chronicles of the great Chinese pilgrim, Xuangzang (Hsuan-tsang orTripitaka). During his reign, Harsha secured control of almost the entire mainland andattempted, without success, to conquer the Deccan.

F Muslim and Mongol Invasions The prolonged period of internal strife drew to a close as a new power, solidly united

under Islam, arose in western Asia. This new power was Khurasan, previously aSamanid province which had been transformed into an independent kingdom byMahmud of Ghazn ī (reigned 999-1030). A capable warrior whose sovereignty overKhurasan had been recognized by the caliph of Baghdad, Mahmud in 1000 launchedthe first of 17 consecutive expeditions across the Afghan frontier into India. These



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incursions were marked by victories over the disunited Indians. By 1025 Mahmud hadsacked many western Indian cities, including the fabulously wealthy port of Somnath,and had annexed the region of Punjab to his empire.

The most successful of the Muslim rulers after Mahmud was Muhammad of Ghur,whose reign began in 1173.

Another capable Muslim, Ala-ud-Din (reigned 1296-1316), was the second ruler of thesucceeding Khalji dynasty.

In 1398, when the Mongol conqueror Tamerlane led his armies into India, he met little

organized resistance. Tamerlane completed his victorious invasion by sacking anddestroying Delhi, and massacring its inhabitants. He withdrew from India shortly afterthe sack of Delhi, leaving the remnants of the empire to Mahmud (reigned 1399-1413),the last of the Tughluqs. Mahmud was succeeded in 1414 by the first of the Sayyids, adynasty that was later driven from power by Bahlol (reigned 1451-1489), founder of theLodi line of kings.

In that year Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane and the founder of the great Mughaldynasty, carried out a series of raids into India which ended with the defeat of the Lodiarmy. Babur occupied Agra, the Lodi capital, and proclaimed himself emperor of theMuslim dominions. Within four years of his initial victory, Babur controlled a large partof the Indian mainland.

G Mughal Empire (1700) Ruled much of India in the 16th and 17th c; its rulers developed a stable, centralized

form of government that served as a model for later Indian rulers. The empire reached its greatest extent in the latter half of the 17th c under Aurangzeb

(ruled 1656-1707), who extended the borders south beyond the Deccan. Akbar, Babur’s grandson, was the greatest Mughal sovereign. During his reign (1556-

1605), he subdued rebellious princes in various regions, including the Punjab,Rajputana (modern Rajasthan State), and Gujarat. He added Bengal to his realm in1576, conquered Kashmir between 1586 and 1592, and annexed Sind in 1592. TheMughal Empire reached its cultural peak under Shah Jahan, Akbar’s grandson.

Shah Jahan’s reign (1628-1658) coincided with the golden age of Indian Saracenicarchitecture, best exemplified by the Taj Mahal. He was driven from the throne in 1658by his son, Aurangzeb, who took the title of Alamgir (“Conqueror of the World”).

The Mughal regime suffered a disastrous blow in 1739 when the Persian king NadirShah led an army into India and plundered Delhi.

In 1764, the Mughal Emperor regained his throne. With the defeat of the Marathas and

the Sikhs, the possibility of the reunification of India into a strong, single state hadvanished—and the country fell increasingly under British domination.

B. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER Monolithic Monumental Free standing construction Rock-cut buildings

Laid down by Brahmanism (Barabar) and by Jainism (Udayagiri and Khandagiri).Buddhist - magnificent development and artistic character

1. INDUS CIVILIZATION• Began to develop around the Indus River in what is now Pakistan and western India.•

Two principal cities planned systematically:1. Harappa, Punjab – elevated citadel (urban center)2. Mohenjo-Daro, Sindh - town proper consisting of houses and market palaces

• Dholavira – another significant site, which has some of the best preserved stonearchitecture.

- Had several large reservoirs, and an elaborate system of drains to collect waterfrom the city walls and house tops to fill these water tanks.



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System of Construction:• Cities were well planned with wide streets, public and private wells, drains, bathing

platforms and reservoirs.• Houses of the city were constructed of bricks and consisted of apartments built around an

open courtyardo Alternating a course of headers (also known as English bond)- method of brick

constructiono Corbelled arch obtained by schematic arrangement of bricks so as to leave an empty

space resembling the shape of an arch.

2. BUDDHIST ART AND ARCHITECTURE:• Designed for congregational use• Monumental and sophisticated

A. Stambhas or Laths Monumental pillars standing free without any structural

function, with circular or octagonal shafts. Inscriptions carved on the shaft. Polished sandstone or metal some as high as 60 or 70

ft. Pillar symbolizes the world axis Columns crowned with bell-shaped capitals based on

Persepolis and decorated with one or more animals joined together.

Hellenistic Iran influence Symbolic forms:

1. Lotus – divinity/ man’s salvation2. Wheel – cycle of life, death and rebirth/ teaching of

Buddha3. Four animals – 4 quarters of the compass4. Lion – Sakyamuni Buddha known as the Lion of the Sakya

Clan.

B. Rock-Cut Sanctuaries/Cave Temples• First rock cut technique was initiated by Asoka• The Barabar and Nagarjuni caves excavated were hewn out of the granite rock

• Other names given to the structure:1. Chaityagrihas/Chaitya – place worship, assembly hallsChaitya hall consists of:a. Ornamental façadeb. Central hall divided by means of pillars into a nave and aislesc. Rock-cut stupa at the rear end of the hall with enough space around it for

performing the rite of circumambulation (pradakshina patha )2. Vihara – monasteries

Consisted of cell and one or more small chapels• Plan of a rock-cut chamber - facilitate religious services around the principal symbol

of worship - stupa

Examples:1. Chaitya Hall, Karli, 100 AD

•

Nave of 59 ft. (17.7 m.) high, 121 .5 ft. (36.45 m.) long and 43 ft. (12.9 m.) wide.Leads to a monolithic stupa in the apse• Aisle formed by a series of massive columns crowned with male and female

riders on elephants

Lion Capital, Columnerected by Emperor Asoka(272-232 BC)



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2. Ajanta Caves• Contains 29 caves• Most magnificent examples of rock cut architecture and cave paintings which

dates back to the 5th c.• The paintings and sculptures of major events in the life Buddha are considered

masterpieces of Buddhist religious art.

3. Ellora Caves

• Excavated from the solid rock and symbolizes the three faiths of Hinduism,Buddhism and Jainism.

• 350 AD to 700 AD, finest examples of rock cut cave - temple architecture houses,detailed facades and exceptionally carved interiors.

• 34 caves:o 12 caves to the south are Buddhist,o 17 in the centre are Hinduism,o 5 caves to the north are Jainism.

C. Stupa• Beginnings were traced back to the funerary customs of the Vedic age• Dome-shaped mound that mimics the funerary mounds used to mark the graves of

great kings

• Contain holy relics to indicate the sacred character of the place or commemorate animportant event associated with Buddha

• Spatial characteristics:o Stupa plans develops symmetrically about a central point - centralityo Stupa volume develops symmetrically about an axis that rises vertically from

the central point- axialityo Stupa mass is oriented in accordance with the directions of space.-

orientation

STUPA



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• Free standing architecture built out of stone and bricks

• Hemispherical mound consisting of 3 main parts:

(D) Medhi – first part in the circular base(B) Anda – base supports a hemispherical dome(C) Harmika – pedestal crowned by an apex

Other parts:(A) Vedika- railing composed of a framework consisting of vertical posts and cross

bar(E) Sopana – staircases going to the terrace

Pradakshina-patha (circumambulatio n) - the faithful would use this to circle the stupa to payhomage to the Buddha. Motion was always clockwise, since this kept one's right side(considered better) toward the relics.

Axis Mundi, Umbilicus Mundi, Sun

S

W

N

E

Northern Stupa at Sanchi



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• The perimeter wall has a gatewayat each cardinal direction, and thecarvings on these illustrate eventsfrom the Buddha's life and pastlives.

Torana (Gateway) – circularstone gateways around the wholestructure (on all four sides)• 34 ft. (10.2 m.) in height with

2 pillars and architraves(Sanchi)

• Symbols:a) Lotus or Elephant (Birth):

• Lotus - Indian symbol of spiritual growth, since the lotus seed germinates in the muckat the bottom of a pond, then the stem grows as long as is necessary (2, 4 to 10 ft) sothat the flower can blossom above the surface of the water (symbolizing

transcendence of earthly circumstances).• Elephant - connected with the story of the Buddha's conception, in which his mother

became pregnant when a white elephant appeared in a dream and tapped her on theabdomen with the lotus it was holding in its trunk. The traditional account of his birthhighlights the miraculous elements: the Future Buddha emerged from his mother'sside, rather than a normal delivery; upon hitting the ground he took seven stepstoward the east and announced that he would be enlightened in that lifetime, andthere were various celestial signs--rain and flowers falling from a clear sky, a coolbreeze, melodious sounds, disabled people regaining their faculties, and many, manyothers.

b) Tree (Enlightenment): most important of the four events, since this is what made him theBuddha ("Enlightened One").

• According to tradition, the Buddha renounced his home after seeing the Four Signs:an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and a wandering monk.

• Old age, illness, and death are inevitable parts of life--and for the Buddha seemed tohave been a shorthand for all of life's unsatisfactory elements--whereas the fourth wasa hint that these could be transcended.

• He then sat down underneath a ficus tree in Bodh Gaya (modern Bihar), and began tomeditate on the question of birth-and-death with a focused mind.

• His analysis eventually revealed the causal chain that leads to rebirth, known aspratityasamutpada (Interdependent Origination), in which each element provides thecause for the one that follows.

c) Wheel (Preaching the First Sermon) - symbolizes the 3rd great event in the historicalBuddha's life, in which he "turned the wheel of dharma" by preaching his first sermon (TheFour Noble Truths) at Sarnath, near modern Benares. It represents his career as ateacher.

d) Stupa (Parinirvana): Even though after he became enlightened the Buddha passedbeyond being subject to birth and death (or rather ensured that he would not be reborn

after his present life), his body was like any other human body. At the age of 80, he ate abad meal (either pork or mushrooms), got dysentery, and died of dehydration.

Examples:1. Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh- best specimen of stupa art.2. Amaravathi, Andhra Pradesh – finest Buddhist stupa in South India3. Stupas in Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayapetta and Ghantasala in South India.

Buddhist Ornaments• Restrained both in character and extent.



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• Painted wall decoration was widely used and ranged from purely architectural formsto very elaborate genre paintings - cave walls at Ajanta.

• Provide invaluable social and architectural records of the period.• Female form in its most voluptuous - common motif used in architectural sculpture.

3. HINDU ART AND ARCHITECTURE

• Architecture (sthapatya) is classified as one of the crafts (silpa) - first passed down to

mankind by Visvakarman, the famous demigod builder of the universe.• Foreign invaders including Greeks, Bactrians, Parthians, Kushans and Sakas have

influenced Indian architecture.

A. Temples• Residence for the god and not a hall for congregational worship.• Symbol of the purusha or primordial man.• Mandala - generic name for any plan or chart which symbolically represents the

cosmos (magic diagram of the cosmos). An expression of sacred geometry.• Vastu Purusha Mandala

• An indispensable part of vastu shastra and constitutes the mathematicaland diagrammatic basis for generating design.

• Metaphysical plan of a building that incorporates the course of theheavenly bodies and supernatural forces.

• Purusha refers to energy, power, soul or cosmic man.• Associated with the Earth and its movable and immovable basic elements

of nature, such as the earth, water, fire, air and space; just as a humanbeing does.

• Visualized in the basic plan of a Hindu temple, house and even in the cityplanning.

• Accurate laying out of the temple ground plan in relation to the cardinaldirections and the heavens. Meeting ground of heaven and earth.

• Consists of intersection of:1. Square shape – symbol of earth, signifying the four directions which

bind and define it. (four castes; the four Vedas etc.).2. Circle - metaphor for heaven without beginning or end, signifying

timelessness. eternity and perfection.

Earth is a living organism, with lifeand energy. That living energy issymbolized as a person; he is theVastu Purusha. The site for the proposedconstruction is his field; Vastu Purusha Mandala. The site plan, ishis body; and it is treated assuch. His height extends from theSouth West corner (pitrah) to theNorth East corner (Agni ).

The Vastu Purusha Mandala alsodepicts the origin of the effects onthe human body.



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The center of the mandala is called the station of Brahma, the first of beings

and the engineer of universal order. Surrounding Brahma are the places oftwelve other entities known as the sons of Aditi, who assist in the affairs ofuniversal management. The remaining empty squares represent the akasha

The temple itself should always face east as that is considered the mostauspicious direction-the place of origin of the sun. From the east appears therising sun, the destroyer of darkness. The sun is the giver of life. It brings joyand happiness and is the watchful eye of the "Cosmic Being.

Temple are made of hard crystalline rock with carvings on it or soft stonecovered with countless figures.

– Granite– Sandstone

•

PARTS OF A HINDU TEMPLE:1. Dome and Steeple• Steeple of the dome is called ‘shikhara ’ or sikhara (summit), represents

the mythological ‘Meru’ or the highest mountain peak.• Shape of the dome varies from region to region and the steeple is often in

the form of the trident of Shiva.2. Inner Chamber ‘Garbhagriha ’ or ‘womb-chamber’ - where the image or idol of

the deity ‘ murti ’ is placed.• Small unlit shrine for the cult image or symbol crowned with spire-shaped

sikhara roof.• Only the temple priests are allowed inside.• Thick walls and heavy ceiling to protect the deity.• Doorway for the devotee to enter – the only architectural necessity.

3. Temple Hall•

Most large temples have a hall for audience to sit, called ‘nata-mandira’ (hall for temple-dancing) where women dancers or ‘devadasis’ used toperform dance rituals.

• Devotees use the hall to sit, meditate, pray, chant or watch the priestsperform the rituals.

• Usually decorated with paintings of gods and goddesses.5. Reservoir:

• If the temple is not in the vicinity of a natural water body, a reservoir offresh water is built on the temple premises.

• Water is used for rituals as well as to keep the temple floor clean or evenfor a ritual bath before entering the holy abode.



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6. Walkway Most temples have a walkway around the walls of the inner chamber for

circumambulation by devotees around the deity as a mark of respect to thetemples god or goddess.

Three Styles:1. DRAVIDIAN (southern) style

• Found between the Krishna river and Cape Comorin.

• South-Indian Hindu temples are often like miniature towns. A broad open courtyard(prakaram ) surrounds the temple and mandapa (porch) on all sides.

• The roof contains a vaulted octagonal or domical structure.• Complex is composed of:

1. Vimana • Sanctuary, the actual temple, square in plan, and surmounted by a

pyramidal roof of one or more stories; and contains the cell in which theimage of the god or his emblem is placed.

2. Mantapams/Mandapas (porches) - which always cover and precede the doorleading to the cell.

3., Gopurams (Gate-pyramids/sculptured gateway)• Principal features in the quadrangular enclosures that surround the more

notable temples.4. Chaultris/Chawadis (Pillared halls) - used for various purposes, and which are

the invariable accompaniments of these temples.

Vertically represents the god’s body with the sikhara as the head and the garbhagriha asthe neck, mandapa as the body and gopura as the feet.

• Seven kingdoms and empires stamped their influence on architecture duringdifferent times:

1. PALLAVA• Ruled from 600-900 AD• Greatest constructed works are the single rock temples in

Mahabalipuram and their capital Kanchipuram located in Tamilnadu.• Pioneers of south Indian architecture. .

2. CHOLA• Ruled from 900 -1150 AD• Reached apex of South Indian Architecture



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• Temples:o Brihadeshvara templeo Siva temple of Thaniavur – largest and tallesto Gangaikondacholapuram – one of the two great temples

• Remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes.3. BADAMI CHALUKYAS

• Ruled from 543-753 A.D.• Most enduring legacy – art and architecture.

• Rock-cut temples of Pattadakal a UNESCO World Heritage Site,Badami and Aihole- most celebrated monuments.

• Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation ofthe Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are attributed to them -beginning of Chalukya style of architecture and a consolidation ofSouth Indian style.

4. RASHTRAKUTA• Ruled the Deccan in the period 753-973 AD.• Rock-cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta, situated in present day

Maharashtrao 34 rock-cut shrines, but most extensive is the Kailasanatha

temple at Ellora.• The architectural style used was dravidian - does not contain the

Sikharas common to the Nagara style and built on the same lines as

the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal, 5. WESTERN CHALUKYA

• Ruled from 973-1180 AD.• Art of Western Chalukyas is called the “GADAG style" after the

number of ornate temples.• Well known for ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni) - served as ritual

bathing places, found in Lakkundi. Their stepped well designs werelater incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire.

• Over 50 temples existso Kasi Vishveshvara, Lakkundi, Mallikarjuna, Kuruvatii,

Kalleshwara temple, Bagali and Mahadeva, Itagi - finestexamples

6. HOYSALA• The finest examples of their architecture are the

o Chennakesava temple, Belur,o Hoysaleswara temple,o Halebidu and Kesava temple, Somanathapura.

• The Hoysala architecture style is described as Karnata Dravida asdistinguished from the traditional Dravida and considered anindependent architectural tradition with many unique features.

7. VIJAYANAGAR• Ruled from 1343- 1565 AD• Combination of the styles developed in South India in the previous

centuries.• Yali columns (pillar with charging horse), balustrades (parapets) and

ornate pillared manatapa are their unique contribution.• Ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa

(open pillared halls) and the Rayagopura (tower).•

Used of hard granite - durable since the kingdom was under constantthreat of invasion.• Vijayanagara open air theatre of monuments – UNESCO World

Heritage Site.

2. Vesara or mixed style• Found between the Krishna and Vindhyas is circular in plan.• In its later evolution, adopted the square for the sanctum, circular or stellar plan

was retained for the vimana .



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• The vesara , which came to prevail mostly in western Deccan and south Karnatakawas a derivation from the apsidal chapels of the early Buddhist period which theBrahmanical faith adopted and vastly improved.

3. Nagara (northern) style• Found between the Vindhyas and Himalayas.• Use of a square or cruciform plan but the walls are sometimes so broken up that

the tower often gives the impression of being circular.

• Prasada or vimana rises vertically from its base in a curvilinear form.• Characterized by a beehive shaped tower made up of layer upon layer of

architectural elements such as:o kapotas and gavaksas,o topped by a large round cushion-like element called an amalaka .

AMALAKA• Flattened fluted melon shaped massive stone member

crowning the top of sikhara • Distinctive circular piece of stone which is shaped like a

clogged wheel, with bead-like mouldings along theperiphery.

Examples:1. Temples at Khajuraho2. Surya temple at Modhera - exquisitely carved3. Orissa - most outstanding examples of nagara architecture

• Region of Orissa is an important landmark in the temple building activity inIndia.

• Parasuramesvara temple at Bhubaneswar in Orissa - consisting only of ashrine and a hall

• Composed of two portions:1. Central shrine2. Porch in front, raised on a square ground-plan.

• Orissan builders tried to symbolize the human body in the composition of the

vertical sections of the body.• Temple is made to look like a tabernacle of the Godhead

Parts of an Orissan Temple (after the Lingaraja Temple at Bhuvaneswar) The temple is made to look like a tabernacle of the Godhead.

1. Bada – foot, the lower portion of the human body. It is composed ofhorizontal mouldings ensuring stability of the structure.



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2. Gandi – trunk, main body of the human being. The trunk is decoratedwith the motifs of miniature

3. Mastaka – apex which corresponds to the head portion of the humanbody.The crown is decorated by a beautiful fluted disc (Amalaka ).

4. JAIN ART AND ARCHITECTURE• Concept of `mountains of immortality’ – building of temple-cities on hills.• Temples - militant aura around them, surrounded by embattled walls• Divided into wards similar to fortified cities with parapets and niches to repel armed

aggression.• Considered richest temples in the world, surpassing even Mughal buildings in grandeur

and material wealth.• Temples - Jina idols along with demigods and goddesses are kept on stone or marble

made altar under aesthetic beauty.• Richness of sculptural detail and material, especially

Solank i temple style of Gujarat in Dilwara Temples, Mt. AbuAnanthanatha Swami Temple, Puliyarmala, outside Kalpetta

• Temples sometimes have a stupa (tope)Hastinapur, Mathura etc.

• Free standing pillars called vanity-subduing pillars• Examples:

1. Dilwara Temples, Rajasthan (11th - 13th c. AD)2. Kharatara Vsahi ( Parshvanatha Temple) of different style

5. ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE (To be discussed in detail later)• Impact of Islam in the 8th c.

o Arabs, Turks, Afghans, and Mughals• Great builders• Excellence in paintings, miniatures, music, dance, poetry• Art took place during the reign of Shah Jehan between 1628-1659• Capitals of Agra, Delhi and Lahore - display great buildings and structures.• Use of white marble and the red sandstone.• Great Islamic gardens – Shalimar Garden in Lahore, one of the finest surviving

ensembles

• Taj Mahal (Palace of the Crown) of Agra also known as the pearl of India representsabsolute perfection .

o Erected by Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved queen, Arjumand Banu Begum,called Mumtaz Mahal (Mausoleum)

o Year after her death in 1631, 22 years to complete,o 20,000 workers, costing 32 million rupeeso Combines elements of Persian, Central Asian, and Islamic architectureo Complex is comprised of five main elements:

1. Darwaza (main gateway)

NAGARA STYLE• Square in their plan• Sikhara curvilinear, or

beehive tower

DRAVIDIAN STYLE• Octagon in plan

• Vimanam (Sikhara) - in the

form of truncated pyramids

VESARA STYLE• Apse or circle in plan• Sikhara - combines both

styles




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2. Bageecha (garden) - fascinating feature with its water channels, lotuspools and colourful flowerbeds and trees

3. Masjid (mosque)4. Naqqar Khana (rest house)5. Rauza (Taj Mahal mausoleum)




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Indian style Hindu and Buddhist temples were constructed abroad in ancient times,o Cambodia's Angkor Wato Java's Prambanan.

World Heritage List:

Sites must be of outstanding universal value and meet at least one out of ten selection criteria.

1. to represent a masterpiece of human creative genius;2. to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a cultural

area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design;

3. to bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilizationwhich is living or which has disappeared;

4. to be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or technological ensemble orlandscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history;

5. to be an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use, or sea-use which is

representative of a culture (or cultures), or human interaction with the environment especiallywhen it has become vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change;

6. to be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs,with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance. (The Committeeconsiders that this criterion should preferably be used in conjunction with other criteria);

7. to contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty andaesthetic importance;

8. to be outstanding examples representing major stages of earth's history, including the recordof life, significant on-going geological processes in the development of landforms, orsignificant geomorphic or physiographic features;

9. to be outstanding examples representing significant on-going ecological and biologicalprocesses in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marineecosystems and communities of plants and animals;

10. to contain the most important and significant natural habitats for in-situ conservation of

biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of outstanding universalvalue from the point of view of science or conservation.

Cultural 1. Agra Fort (1983)2. Ajanta Caves(1983)3. Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi (1989)4. Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park(2004)5. Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus) (2004)6. Churches and Convents of Goa (1986)7. Elephanta Caves (1987)8. Ellora Caves (1983)9. Fatehpur Sikri (1986)10. Great Living Chola Temples (1987)

11. Group of Monuments at Hampi (1986)12. Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (1984)13. Group of Monuments at Pattadakal (1987)14. Humayun's Tomb, Delhi (1993)15. Khajuraho Group of Monuments (1986)16. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya (2002)17. Mountain Railways of India (1999)18. Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Deli (1993)19. Red Fort Complex (2007)20. Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (2003)21. Sun Temple, Konârak (1984)




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22. Taj Mahal (1983)

Natural 1. Kaziranga National Park (1985)2. Keoladeo National Park (1985)3. Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (1985)4. Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Park (1988)5. Sundarbans National Park (1987)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books:

Auboyer, Jeannie. Landmarks of the World Art: The Oriental World. India and South-East Asia.Mc. Graw-Hill Book Company, New York, Toronto. 1967.

De la Croix, Horst and Richard Tansey. Gardner;s Art Through the Ages. Ancient, Medieval andNon-European Art. 7

thed. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. USA. 1976.

Harris, Cyrill M. Historic Architecture Sourcebook. Von Hoffman Press, Inc. 1977

Palmes, J.C. Sir Banister Fletcher’s A History of Architecture. 18th

ed.The Athlone Press,University of London. London

Snodgrass, Adrian. The Symbolism of the Stupa. Studies on Southeast Asia. Cornell University, Ithaca,

New York. 1985

Tadgell, Christopher… History of Architecture - India and Southeast Asia, The Buddhist and Hindu Tradition.

Ellipsis, London. 1988

Westwell, Ian. Timeless India. Chartwell Books, Inc., New Jersey, USA. 2007

DVD Sources courtesy of Archt. Nick Ramos:

What the Ancient Did for Us: The Indians BBC, UK.

Mysteries of Asia: Lost Temples of India, Discovery Channel

Temple of Kama Sutra, Discovery Channel

Other Sources:

Lecture notes of Archt. Nick Ramos

Internet sources

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 31

stSemester AY 2010-2011, 2012-2013

Prepared by:

Archt. Clarissa L. AvendañoAssociate Professor

history of architecture: indian architecture

Documents