HISTORYOFINDIANANDEASTERN ARCHITECTUREBY THE LATEJAMESFERGUSSONC.I.E., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,F.R.I.B.A.MemberoftheSocietyofDilettanti, etc.,etc.REVISED ANDEDITED,WITH ADDITIONSINDIAN ARCHITECTUREBYJAMESBURGESS, C.I.E., LL.D.,F.R.S.E.Hon.A.R.I.B.A.;Hon.MemberoftheImperialRussianArchaeologicalSociety; CorrespondingMemberBatavianSociety ;LateDirectoroftheArchaeologicalSurveyofIndia, etc.,etc.ANDEASTERN ARCHITECTUREBY R. PHENESPIERS, F.S.A.,F.R.I.B.A.HonoraryMemberof theAmericanInstituteofArchitects; Correspondentofthe InstituteofFranceWITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONSVOL. II.'LONDONJOHN MURRAY,ALBEMARLESTREET,W.1910,;,,(4965372CONTENTS.BOOK V.JAINAARCHITECTURE.CHAP.I. INTRODUCTORYPAGE3II.JAINACAVES Orissa CavesBadami^and Aihole Dhara-sinva Ankai Elura . .9III.JAINASTRUCTURAL TEMPLES-Lakkundi PalMna-Girnar Mount Abu Paras-nathRanpurGwaliarKhajurahoChitor . .23IV. MODERNJAINASTYLE Sona-garh Jaina TemplesatAhmadabad Delhi Con-vertedTemples... 62V.JAINASTYLE IN SOUTHERNINDIA Bettas Bastis . .70BOOK VI.NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE.I. INTRODUCTORY DravidianandIndo-Aryan TemplesatPattadakal ModernTempleatBenares ....84II. ORISSAHistory TemplesatBhuvanejwar, Kanarak, Purl,Jajpur,andKatak . .92III. WESTERN INDIA DharwarBrahmanical Rock-cutTemples,atElura, Badami,Elephanta,Dhamnar,andPoona 117IV. CENTRAL AND NORTHERNINDIA Chandravati andBaroli Kirtti-stambhasTemplesatGwaliar,Kha-juraho,Sinnar,Udayapur,Benares, Brindaban,Kanta-nagar,AmritsarV. CIVIL ARCHITECTURE Ceno-taphsPalaces atGwaliar,Chitor,Amber,DigGhats-Reservoirs Dams132164VlllCONTENTS.BOOK VII.INDIAN SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE.CHAP.I. INTRODUCTORY .II. GHAZN! Tomb of MahmudGates ofSomnath Minersonthe Plain ....III. PATHAN STYLEMosqueatOld DelhiQutbMh^rTomb of 'Alau-d-Din PathanTombs Ornamentation ofPathanTombsIV.JAUNPUR Jami' MasjidandLaiDarwazaV.GUJARAT Jami' MasjidandotherMosquesatAhmadabadTombs andMosquesatSarkhej and BatwaBuildingsintheProvinces .VI. MALWA Dhar The GreatMosqueat Mandu ThePalaces ....VII. BENGALBengali roofingQadam-i-Rasul Mosque,GaurSona,Adinah and EklakhiMosques,Maldi MinarGateways....PAGE1 86191196222229246253CHAP. PAGEVIII. KULBARGA TheMosqueatKulbargaMadrasa at BidarTombs ....262IX.BIJAPURTheJami' MasjidTombs of Ibrahim andMahmud TheAudienceHallMihtari Mahall GolkondaTombs Tomb of NawabAmirKhan,nearTatta ... 268X. MUGHAL ARCHITECTUREDynastiesTombofMuham-mad Ghaus,GwaliarMosqueatFathpur-Sikri Akbar'sTomb,Sikandara Palace atDelhi TheTajMahall TheMotiMasjid Mosqueat DelhiTheMartiniere, BegamKothi,and ImambaraatLuck-nowEnglish Tombsat SuratTombatJunagadh. .283XLWOODEN ARCHITECTUREMosqueof ShahHamadan,Srinagar. . .-333HISTORY OF EASTERN ARCHITECTURE.BOOK VIII.FURTHER INDIA.I. BURMAIntroductory TypesofReligious BuildingsCircularPagodas SquareTemples,etc. Ruins ofThat6n, Prome,andPaganMonasteries ....339II. CAMBODIAIntroductoryThevarious classes oftempleandtheirdisposition TemplesofAngkorVat, AngkorThorn,Beng Mealea,TaProhm,BanteaiKedei,Prah-khan,etc. PalacesandCivilArchi-tecture371III. SIAM Structuresin thetempleenclosuresTemplesat Su-khodaya, Phra Pathom,Sajjan-aiaya, Ayuthia, Lophaburi,SangkalokandBangkokHallof AudienceatBangkok 404IV.JAVA HistoryBoro-BudurTemplesat Mendut On theDiengPlateau AtJabangPrambanan Suku NearMelang,andat Panataran .414CONTENTS.BOOK IX.CHINA ANDJAPAN.IXI. INTRODUCTORY . . .446II. CHINA Theoriginand de-velopmentof the Chinesetempleandother structuresMaterialsemployedin theirbuildings. . . .451III.Templeofthe GreatDragonBuddhistTemplesTombsPagodasP'ai-lus DomesticArchitecture ....459IV.JAPAN Chronology OriginalSources,etc. ....486V.JAPANESETEMPLES At H6r-iuji,Nara,and Nikk6PagodasPalaces DomesticArchitecture ....492INDEX503LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSIN VOLUME II.No.PAGE264.YavanaGuard at Rani-ka-naurCave, Udayagiri...8265. Map:Udayagiriand Khanda-giriCavesin Orissa . . 10266. Gane-s-aCave Plan . . 12267.Pillarin Gane-yaCave,Udayagiri 13268.Upperstorey, Rani-gumpha.13269.Lowerstorey, Rani-gumpha.13270.SectionofRani-gumpha. .14271.Pilaster fromAnanta-gumpha,Khandagiri. . . .16272. TigerCave, Udayagiri. . 16273. RepresentationofaHall,fromBharautsculptures. .17274.Entrance to the Indra-SabhdCave,Elvira .... 20275.Monolithic Stambha in theCourt of the Indra-Sabha . 21276.LakkundiJaina TemplePlan24277.TheSacredHill of5atrunjaya,nearPalitana ,c..25278.Plan ofChaumukhTempleatSatrunjaya.... 28279.Plan of Nanduvara-dvipaTemple, Satrunjaya. .29280. Plan ofTempleofNeminath,Girnar32281. Plan ofTempleofVastupala,Girnar .....34282. PlanofTempleatSomnath .35283.Plan of^TempleofVimala,MountAbu ....37284.Portico inTempleofVimala,MountAbu ....39285.Plan ofTempleofTejahpala,MountAbu . . .-41286. Pendantin DomeofTejahpala'sTemple,Abu ...42287.PillarsatChandravati,Gujarat 43No. PAGE288. Plan ofTempleatR^npur,near Sadari ....45289.ViewintheTempleatRanpur 46290. Templeof Adindth at Kha-juraho.....5291.ChausathJogini Temple,Kha-juraho.,. . .51292.TheGhantai, Khajuraho.53293. TempleatGyaraspur. .54294.Porch of HinduTempleatAmwa .....56295. JainaToweratChitor . .58296.Tower ofVictoryof KumbhaRana,atChitor ... 60297.View ofJaina Temples,Sona-garh,in Bundelkhand . .63298.Plan of SethHathisingh'sTemple,Ahmadabad . .64299.View of theTempleof 5ethHathisinghat Ahmadabad .65300. Upperpartof PorchofaJainaTempleatDelhi ...67301.Colossal StatueatYenur. .73302. JainaBastisat5ravana-Belgola 75303. JainaTempleat Mudabidri .76304. JainaTempleat Mudabidri .77305.PillarinaTempleatMudabidri78306.PavilionatGuruvayankeri.79307.TombsofPriests,Mudabidri . 80308.StambhaatGuruvayankeri. 81309.Dravidian and Indo-AryanTemplesat Pattadakal .89310.ModernTempleatBenares .90311. DiagramPlanof HinduTemple 90312. TempleofParajuramejwar,Bhuvane^war . ..96313. TempleofMukteswar . .98314.Plan of GreatTempleatBhuvanejwar ...99Xll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME II.No.SIS-3i6.317.3i8.319.320.321.322.323-324.325-326.327.328.329-330.331-332-333-334-335-336.337-338.339-340.34i.342.343-344-345-346.347-Viewofthe GreatorLingarajaTemple,Bhuvane^war .Lowerpartof Great Tower atBhuvanejwarPlanofRajaraniTemple.DoorwayofRajariiniTemple.Plan ofTempleofJagannathatPuri . . . . .View ofTower ofTempleofJagannath....HinduPillar atJajpurHinduBridgeatJajpur.ViewofTempleofPapanathaatPattadakal ....Das Avatara CaveTempleatElviraPlan ofUpperFloor of DasAvatara CavePillar inLankejwar, Kailas,atElvira . .PlanofCaveNo.3,Badami .Sectionof CaveNo.3,BadamiPlanof Dhumar LenaCave atElviraPlanofElephantaCave .Pillarsandcornerofthe ShrineatElephantaRock-cutTempleatDhamnar.SaivaRockTemplenearPoonaPlan of Panchale-rvara Rock-TemplenearPoonaPlanofTempleatChandrvatiTempleat BaroliPlanofTempleat BaroliPillarat BaroliSas-BahuTempleatGwaliar .Teli-ka-MandirTemple,Gwa-liarKandaryaMahadevaTemple,Khajuraho....Plan ofKandaryaMahadeva,Khajuraho....Plan of Gonde-rvaraTempleatSinnar144Cross-section of Gonde^varaTempleat Sinnar .TempleatUdayapur,GwiliarTerritory....Diagram explanatoryof thePlan of Mira-Bai'sTemple,ChitorTempleofVriji,Chitor .\GELIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME II. xinNo.381.382.383.384.385.386.387.388.389.390.391.392.393.394.395.396.397.398.399.400.401.402.403.404.405.406.407.408.409.410.411.412413Tomb ofSherShahat SahsaramPendentive fromMosqueatOldDelhi ....Plan ofWesternhalfofCourt-yardofJami' Masjid,JaunpurView ofsouth lateralGatewayofJ&mi' Masjid,JaunpurLaiDarwazaMosque,JaunpurPlan ofJami' Masjid,Ahmad-ElevationoftheJami'Masjid.Plan of theQueen's Mosque,Mirzapur....Elevation of theQueen'sMosque....SectionofDiagramexplanatoryoftheMosquesatAhmadabadPlanofTombsandMosqueatSarkhej....Pavilion in front of Tomb atSarkhej.MosqueofMuhafizIbablycutwhentheimageofGane^awasalsoinserted.4Thestyleof the architecturemaybejudgedoffrom the annexedwoodcut,representingone of itspillars(WoodcutNo.267). Theyare of extremesimplicity, beingsquare piers, changingintooctagonsin the centreonly,andwith aslightbracket ofverywooden construction on eachface. The fourdoorways leadinginto the cells are adornedwith the usual horseshoe-formedcanopies copiedfrom the1It is to beregrettedthat when theBengalGovernment twice sentsurveypartiestoOrissa,andspentso muchonthepublicationof theirwork,noadequatedirectionsweregivenas to whatshouldbeobservedandillustrated.2This was calledPawan-gumph& byPrinsep probably bymistake. Thenames attached to the differentcaves,however,are much confused in thedifferentaccounts: thatcalledVaikuntha-puri byKittoe and R. Mitra seems tobe nowcalledSvargapuri;theAlakapuri,adouble-storeyed cave,isapparentlytheSvargapuriofRajendralal Mitra,whomixesuptheAlakapuriandChhotaHathi-gumpha;theJodevcaveofKittoehas been calledJayavijaya;the namesofPatalapftriandManchapurihavebeeninterchanged by Rajendralal;andsoon, makingit almostimpossibletoreconcilethevariousaccounts. 'OfficialReporttoBengalGovernment,byBabuManmohanChakravarti,'August1902.3Arecentattempthas been madeonthepartof Government to "restore"these caves. This wasill-advised,andthe restoredelephantsat the entrancestepsheredonotconformto theoriginalfigures,whilst the newpillarsdo littlecreditto the Executive.4'Journalof the AsiaticSocietyofBengal,'vol. vi.p. 1075.CHAP. II. ORISSA CAVES.fronts ofthechaitya halls,and which we are now so familiarwith from the Bharautsculptures,and from theopeningscommon to all woodenbuildingsof thatage.Thecompartmentsbetween the doors of the cellscontainfigure sculpturesone ofthemseeminglyalmostareplicaofascene on the frieze of theupperstoreyoftheRani-gumpha.Thecentrepanelisoccupied bya roofcarved in low relief with threepinnacles,and arail-patternfriezeoverit.The other cave isverymuchlarger,beingtwostoreysinheight,both of which wereoriginallyadornedbyverandahs: theupper63ft.long,openinginto fourcells,thelower43 ft, openingintothree(WoodcutsNo. 268and269).Allthe doorsleadinginto these cellshavejambsslopingslightlyinwards,whichisitself asufficientindicationthatthecaveislonganteriortothe27'Christian Era. Oftheninepillarsoftheupper verandahonly tworemainstanding,andthesemuch268.Upperstorey, Rani-gumpha.Seal269.Lowerstorey, Rani-gumpha.(FromPlansbyH.H.Locke.)lie50ft. to i in.mutilated,whileall thesixofthelowerstoreyhaveperished.1Itseemsasif frominexperiencetheexcavatorshadnotleftsufficient1Thepillarsin bothstoreyswererestored a fewyears ago byslendershafts,describedbythe Collectorof Purias"shoddyworkof the mostgim-crackdescription."'Reportto GovernmentofBengal,'i6thMay1902.JAINAARCHITECTURE. BOOKV.270.SectionofRanl-gumpha.Scale25ft. to i in.substance tosupportthe mass ofrockabove,andprobablyinconsequenceofsomeaccident,the mass above fellin,bearingeverythingbefore it. Eitherthen, oratsomesubsequentperiod,anattempthas beenmade to restore the lower verandah inwood,and for thispurposea chase has been cutthroughthesculpturesthat adorneditsbackwall,andtheyhavebeen other-wisesomutilatedthatitis almostimpossibleto make out theirmeaning.Theaccompanyingsection(No. 270)will illustratethepositionof this woodenadjunctand that of the twostoreysof this cave. Fortu-nately,thesculpturesof theupperverandah aretolerablyentire,thoughin someparts they,too,have beenvery badlytreated.Besidesthis,whichmaybe called the mainbodyof thebuilding,twowings projectforward;that on the left40 ft,that on theright20 ft; and,as these contained cells on bothstoreys,the whole afforded accommodation for a considerablenumber of inmates.Thegreatinterest of these twocaves,however,lies in theirsculptures.In the Gane^acave,asalready mentioned,thereare two bas-reliefs. The firstrepresentsa manasleepunderatree,and a womanwatchingover him. To them a womanisapproaching,leadinga manbythehand,as if to introducehim to thesleeper. Beyondthem a man and a woman arefightingwith swords and shields inveryclosecombat,andbehind them a man iscarryingoff a female in his arms.1The second bas-reliefcomprisesfifteenfiguresand twoelephants.Theremaybe in it two successivescenes,thoughmyimpression is,thatonlyone isintended,while I feel certainthis is the caseregardingthe first. In the Rani cave thesecond bas-relief isidentical,in all essentialrespects,withthefirst in theGane^a,but the reliefs thatprecedeandfollowitrepresentdifferent scenesaltogether.Itis, perhaps,in vaintospeculatewhatepisodethisrapescenerepresents,probablysome tradition notyetidentified;itsgreatestinterest for our1There is averyfaithfuldrawingofthisbas-reliefbyKittoe in the'Journalof the AsiaticSocietyofBengal,'vol.vii.plate 44.But casts of all thesesculptureswere taken in1871-1872 byMr.Locke,of theSchoolofArt,Calcutta,andphotographs,some of which werepublishedonplate100 of 'Tree andSerpentWorship,'2nded., 1873 ;'CaveTemples,' plateI;and inRajendralalMitra's'AntiquitiesofOrissa,'vol. ii.plates 6-14.CHAP. II.ORISSA CAVES.15present purposesis that the first named issingularlyclassicalindesignandexecution,the latterwilder,and both in actionand costume far morepurelyIndian. Before thediscoveryofthe Bharautsculptures,it ishardlydoubtful that we wouldhavepronouncedthose in the Gane^acave theoldest,asbeingthe mostperfect.The Bharautsculptures,however, havingshownus howperfectthe native art was at averyearlydate,haveconsiderablymodified ouropinionson thissubject ;andthose in the Rantcave,beingsoessentiallyIndian in theirstyle,nowappearto me the oldest. Those in the Gane^a-gumpha,as moreclassical,mayhave been executed at asubsequentdate,but still bothlonganterior to the ChristianEra. The other bas-reliefs in theRaj-Ranicaverepresentscenesofhunting,fighting, dancing, drinking,andlove-makinganything,infact,butreligionorprayinginanyshapeorform.From thesculpturesat Sanchi andBharaut,we werepreparedtoexpectthatweshould not findanydirect evidenceofMahayanaBuddhism insculpturesanterior to the ChristianEra;but those at thisplaceare not Buddhist butJaina,andtill we are betteracquaintedwith theJaina legendsthan weareatpresent, wecannothopetodetermine whatsuchsculpturesreallyrepresent.Besides thesebassi-rilievi,there is intheRantcave afigure,inhighrelief,of a female(?) ridingon a lion.Behind him orher,a soldier in akilt,or rather the dressofaRomansoldier,with laced bootsreachingto the calfoftheleg(WoodcutNo.264) verysimilar,infact,to thoserepresentedonplate28, fig.I,of'Tree andSerpentWorship,'asstrangerspayingtheir addresses to athree.-storeyed stupaand behindthis, again,a female offoreign aspect.InanothercaveofthesamegrouptheJayavijaya,calledbyKittoetheJodev-Garbhaandof about the sameage,betweenthe twodoorways leadingto thecells,a sacred tree isbeingworshippedbytwo men and two womenwithofferings.It issurroundedbythe usualrail,and devotees and others arebringing offerings.1The verandah hasamalefigureoutsideattheleftend,andafemaleattheright.Inyetanothercave,in theKhandagirihill,similar inplanto the Gane.racave,andprobablyolder than either ofthe twolast-mentioned,calledAnanta-garbha,are bassi-rilievi over thedoorways: one ontherightisdevoted,like thelast,toTreeworship,the othertothehonourof Sn(videante,vol.i.p. 50).Sheisstandingonherlotus,andtwoelephants,standinglikewiseonlotuses,arepouringwater over her.2Thesamerepresentationoccursonce,atleast,atBharaut,and ten times atSanchi,and,1'Journalof the AsiaticSocietyof I2'Tree andSerpent Worship,' plateBengal,'vol. vii.plate 42. | 100,p. 105;'Cave^Temples,'platei,i6JAINAARCHITECTURE. BOOKV.sofaras Iknow,is theearliestinstanceof honourpaidtogodormanin Indiansculptures.Thethirdtotheleft ispartlybrokenawaybythefall of the wall between the next two doors;butenoughis left toshowthat itrepresented Surya,thesun-god,inhischariot drawnbyfourhorses,withhis twowives,muchas inthesmallearlyviharaatBhaja ;landthefourthhadbeen filledbyalarge elephant facing outwards,with one on each sideholdingupflowers. The arches over thesesculpturesand thefriezeconnectingthem are also carved withfiguresinquaintpositionsorflying,and each arch is coveredbytwotriple-headedserpentswhose hoods are raised at the sides of thearches.Thepilasters bythe sidesofthedoorwaysare ofacurious,if notexceptional class,and more like some of those foundinearlycaves in the West thananyothers onthis sideofIndia(WoodcutNo271). Theyareevidently copiedfrom some form of woodenpostsstuck into stonebases,as is usual atKarle, Nasik,and other Western caves.Here,however,thesurface is carved to an extentnotfoundelsewhere,andbetraysa woodenoriginindicativeof theearlyagetowhichtheexcava-tionofthis cavemustbeassigned.Theanimalfiguresonthecapitalsand on other caves hereis alsoafeaturegenerallymarkinganearlydate,271.PilasterfronAnanta-gumpha.272. TigerCave,Udayagiri.as is also the inwardslopeofthe doorjambs.Thepillarsofthe verandah aregone,and a newsupporthas beeninsertedbythe Public Worksengineers.1Asketch of thissculpturewaspub-lished inFergusson's'ArchaeologyinIndia'(1884), p. 34.The smallfigurein front of the chariot with ajarisperhapsmeantforRahucarryingoff theAmrita.CHAP, II. ORISSA CAVES.One other cave here theBagh-gumphadeserves to bementioned. It is agreatboulder,carved into the semblanceofatiger'shead,with hisjaws open,and histhroat,as it shouldbe,is adoorwayleadingto asinglecell about6 ft.4in.deep,by7to9ft. wide(WoodcutNo.272).It is acaprice,butonethat shows thatthosewhoconceived it hadsomeexperienceintheplasticarts beforetheyundertook it. Thedoorjambsslopeinwardsslightly,and thepilasterson each side havewingedelephantson thecapitalsandvase-shapedbases. From theform of the characters also which areengraved upon it,it isundoubtedlyanteriortotheChristianEra,buthowmuchearlierit is difficult tosay.Alittle lowerdowntheKhandagirihill than theAnantaare273- Representationof aHallfromBharautsculptures.twocavescalledTatva-gumpha, theupperconsistingof one room16^ft. to 1 8 ft.longby 17ft.deepand5ft.9in.high,havingthree entrances.1The doors are flankedby pilasterswith1Cunningham's'ArchseologicalSurveyReports,'vol. xiii.(byMr.Beglar),pp.8 if.Likeseveralothers,it isnotmentionedinRajendralalMitra's'AntiquitiesofOrissa.'VOL. II. Bi8JAINAARCHITECTURE. BOOKV.capitalsofthePersepolitan type,and the facade over these issculpturedasalongridgedroofwithpointedspikes,comparablewithrepresentationsfound at Bharaut(WoodcutNo.273).Underthis is afriezeoffive-barredrailingwithelephantscarvedateachend,andthetympanaare flankedby birds,apeacock,andahare,andwithinare filled withcarvedornaments. But itis ofspecialinterestthatthewallshaveonce been coveredwithacoatingof fineplaster.On the middleof the back wall aresculpturesof the sun andmoon,on each sideofwhichalonginscriptiononceextended of whichremains still exist writtenontheplasterwitharedpigment1Spaceforbids more detail of theseinteresting caves,anduntil we have a scientificsurveyof the whole inclusive ofmanythatonlyawaitclearingof the earth in whichtheyareburied made in the fulllightof all theknowledgewe nowpossess,it isimpossibleto do themjusticefromarchaeologicalandhistoricalaspects.Greatlightwas thrown on thehistoryofJainaexcavationsbythediscoveryof aJainacave atBadami, 64miles southofBijapur,with afairlyascertained date.2There is noinscrip-tion on the caveitself,but there are three other Brahmanicalcaves in the sameplace,one of which has aninscriptionwith an undoubteddate,vSaka500or A.D.579;and all fourcaves are so like one another instylethattheymust havebeen excavated within the samecentury.TheJainacave isprobablythe most modern;but if we take theyearA.D.650as a mediumdate,wemay probablyconsider it as certainwithin an error oftwenty yearseitherway.Thecave itself issmall,only31ft. across and about 16 ft.deep,and it ishardlydoubtful that thegroupsoffiguresateither end of the verandah areintegral.The innergroups,however,arecertainlyof theageof thecave,and the archi-tecture isunaltered,and thus becomes a fixedstanding-pointforcomparisonwith otherexamples;and when we come tocompareit with thegroupsknown as the Indra Sabha andJagannathSabha atElura,wecannot hesitate to ascribethemto more than acenturylater.With these wemayhere mention that atAihole,besidesaBrahmanicalcave,there is also aJainaoneofsomewhatlargerdimensionsthanthatatBadami. Theverandahhasfourpillarsinfront,is32ft. inlengthand7ft.3in.wide,andhasacare-fullycarvedroof. The hall is17ft. 8 in. wideby 15ft.deep,1Nosatisfactory tracingof this hasbeen made;and the verandah of thecave has now beensupported bytwopiersofPublicWorksconstruction.3Burgess, 'Archaeological SurveyofWesternIndia',vol. i.(1875), P-25plates36and37.CHAP.II. ELURAJAINACAVES.hasroomychapelsat eachside,and at the back is the shrine8Jft.square,containingaseatedfigureofMahavira. Thefrontof the shrine issupported bytwo carvedpillars,and at eachsideof the entrance is aDwarapalacarved on the wall as inBrahmantcalandlater Buddhist caves. Thestyleofthepillarsandthewhole executionpointto about the7thcenturyastheprobabledateoftheexcavation.1NearDharasinva,in the Haidarabad districtsabout37milesnorth fromSholapur,are severalJaina caves,ofwhichtwoareofconsiderablesize,the hall ofthe second in thegroupbeingquite80 ft.deepand from79to85ft.across,witheightcellsineachof thesidewallsandsix in thebackbesidestheshrine.Theroofissupported,as atBagh,byadoublesquareofpillars,theouteroftwentyandtheinneroftwelvepiers.Buttherockis aconglomerateofunequal texture,and hasgreatlydecayedinparts.Much of the front wall and all thepillarsof theverandah have fallenaway,whilst thegreatfrieze over thefacade,oncecoveredwithboldJainasculptures,is soabradedasto benowunintelligible.CaveIII.,nexttothis,has atwentypillaredhallmeasuringabout59ft.square,with five cells oneach side and in the back the shrine and four cells. Theverandah still retains its sixpillarsinfront,and five doorslead from it into the hall. The next cave is about half thedimensionsofthis,and in all three thepillars, doorways,andfriezesshowremainsofagooddealofornatecarvingsomewhatsimilartowhatis found atAurangabad,andonthelaterAjantacaves.2AtKanhar,nearPitalkhora,are twoJaina caves,andthereareothers atChamar Lena nearNasik,and seven at AnkaiinKhandesh which are overlaid withsculpture.But these andothersbelongtothelatest ofrockexcavationsprobablyofthenthandI2thcenturies andhavebeendescribedandillustratedelsewhere.3JAINACAVES.TheJaina groupat Elura has been consideredas the mostmodern there: animpression arising partlyfrom the characterof thesculpturesthemselves,which are of laterJaina stylemore,however,from the extremedifficultyofcomparingrock-1 'Archaeological Surveyof WesternIndia/vol. i.p. 37andplates 47, 48 ;'CaveTemples,' pp. 503-505,andplate93-2Drawingsandplanswithanaccountof these caves aregivenin'Archaeo-logicalSurveyof WesternIndia,'vol. iii.pp. 4-8,andplates1-8.3 'CaveTemples,' pp. 492, 493,and505-508,withplates 94, 95 ;'Archaeo-logical SurveyofWesternIndia,'vol. v.PP- 57-59>andplates 12,and47-50.AfewotherJainacaves existatJunagadh,andscattered over the Dekhan. 'CaveTemples,'p. 490.20JAINAARCHITECTURE. BOOKV.cutexampleswith structural ones. Ourknowledgeof thearchitectureoftemplesis,in ninecasesoutoften,derived fromtheirexternalforms,towhichtheinteriorsarequitesubordinate.Cave-temples,however,havepracticallynoexteriors,and attheutmostfagadesmodified to admit morelightthan is usualin structuraledifices,and thenstrengthenedand modified soastosuitrock-cutarchitecture. As no ancientJainatempleexceptthatofMegutiatAihole hasadatedinscriptionuponit,noratolerablyauthenticatedhistory,it isnowonderthatguesses274.EntrancetotheIndraSabhaCaveatElvira,(FromaPhotograph.)mightbe wide of the truth!Now, however,that we knowpositivelytheageofoneexample,all thiscanberectified,andthereseemsnodoubtthattheIndraSabhagroupwasexcavatedsaynot before A.D.850.Whenwith this newlightwe come to examine with carethe architecture of thesefacades,we find the Eluragroupexhibitsanextraordinaryaffinitywith the southernstyle.Thelittle detached shrine in thecourtyardof the IndraSabha,and thegatewayshown in the above woodcut(No. 274),areasessentiallyDravidian instyleasthe Kailasitself, and,likemanyof the details of thesecaves,sonearlyidentical thatCHAP. II. ELURAJAINACAVES. 21theycannotpossiblybeverydistant in date.Maywe,therefore,assume from this that theChalukyan kingdomofBadami,in the7th centuryof ourera,and theRashtrakutaofMalkhed,whichfollow in the8thto lothcentury,extendedfromElura on the north to theTungabhadraand Krishna on thesouth,and that all these rock-cutexamples,with thetempleatAihole(WoodcutNo.181),were excavated or erected undertheauspicesof these twodynasties!Both the caves named above are of twostoreyswith anumber of smaller hallsattached,andbelongedto theDigambaradivision. Fromthis circumstance and theappearanceofGommataalongwith Parcwanath in anumber of the shrines aswefind these atBadami andthattheonlyinscriptionsareinKanarese,we are led to infer that theexcavatorswerefromthesouthandbroughtthe Dravidianstylewith them. In therightof the court is alargestatue of anelephant,and on the leftwasa fine mono-lithic stambha31ft. 6 in. inheightin-cludingthe Chaumukhfigure crowningit.(WoodcutNo.275).It fell over aboutthirty-two years ago.Near theridgeabove these caves is acolossalimageofPanrwanath,inscribed ashavingbeen carved so late as A.D.1235.And to the east of the other caves is acuriousunfinishedtempleanimitationonasmall scaleoftheBrahmanicalKailas. The.rikhara is low andunfinished,and thework wasprobably suddenlyleft in thisstate.1Duringapartialexcavationthirty275>years agosome looseimageswere founddated in1247.Revertingto the remark as to theoriginofthesecaves,itmaybeassumedthatthetheoryrepresentsthefacts ofthe casemorenearlythananyhithertobroughtforward. TheChalukyasand Rashtrakutas were situated on theborder-line, half-waybetween the north and thesouth,andthey,or theirsubjects,seemed to havepractisedthestylesof architecturebelongingtothosetwodivisionsindiscriminatelyitmightalmostbesaidalternatelyandweconsequentlyfind themmixeduphereandatDhamnarin amannerthat is mostpuzzling.indraSabM.Scale10ft. toz in.CaveTemples,'pp. 495*".andplates86-92.22JAINAARCHITECTURE. BOOKV.The lastkingof theearly Chalukyas,KirtivarmanII.,ascended the throne A.D.746,1and wasdeprivedof all hisdominionsby Dantidurga,the Rashtrakuta ofMalkhed, by757.It wasprobably, therefore,after that date that theseDravidiantemple-formswere introducedbytheJainsat Elura.TheKailas and othergreat5aivatempleswere excavatedbythese Rashtrakutas themselvesaDravidianrace who carriedtheirpoweruptotheNarbada.Beforeleavingthis branch ofthesubjectthere is one otherrock-cutexamplewhichdeserves to bequoted,noteitherfor itssize orantiquity,but from theeleganceof its details. It issituated at aplacecalledKalugumalaiin theTinnevellydistrict,227miles south from5rivilliputtur,andconsequently75miles north fromCapeComorin. Like theexamplesatMamallapuram,this one never wasfinished,probablybecausethepersonwhocommenced it did not live tocompleteit,andit wasnobody'sbusiness to finish what was of nouse,andintendedonlytoglorifyhim who made it. It is not cutout of aseparate boulder,but out of aridge,as Ifancythose atMamallapuramto havebeen,and ifsuccessful,anynumber of others ofanydimensionsmighthave followed.The other side of theKalugumalaihill had beenoccupiedbytheJains,and numerousimagesof their Tirthankars arecarveduponit,withinscriptionsthatsupplythe names ofthevillages bywhich the differentfigureswere carved. Thislittletempleis nowdedicatedtoSubrahmanya,but is said tobeoriginallyJaina ;it isprobablyofthe lothor Iithcentury,andif it had beencompletedit would have been oneof themostperfectgemsofthestyle.Forsomereasonunexplainedit wasonlyblockedout,and theupper part onlycarved,whenit wasabandoned,and is nowentirelyforsaken.3Fromitsdetails,itcertainlyis moremodernthantheKailas howmuch wecannotyetsaywithcertainty.1 *Bombay Gazetteer,'vol. i.ptii.P- 376.aSeveralphotographsof it are in theIndiaoffice collection.8Inthesamerockis excavatedacavetemplededicated to Gane^a orPillayarwith apradakshina passageround theshrine.'CaveTemplesofIndia,'p. 159;'IndianAntiquary,'vol. ii.p.202.CHAP. III.JAINASTRUCTURAL TEMPLES.CHAPTER III.JAINASTRUCTURAL TEMPLES.CONTENTS.Lakkundi Palitana Girnar MountAbu ParasnathRanpur-GwaliarKhajurahoChitor.THEtemples distinctively Jainain the Dharwar districts arenotnownumerous,yetthere are sufficient remainsatBelgaum,Pattadakal, Aihole,1and atAnnigeri,Dambal, Lakkundi,andotherplaces,toprovethatJainismwas at one timeveryinfluential. Those at Pattadakal and Aiholehavebeenbrieflynoticedabove(vol.i.,pp. 319, 356).It has beensupposedthatit wasprobablyowingto asuccession of ableDigambaraJainateachers,in this Kanaresecountry, duringthe 8th and9thcenturies,and who were favouredbythe RashtrakutakingsofMalkhed,thatBuddhismwaned in thesedistricts,andfinallydisappeared. Respectingthetemples,we learn that those atAnnigeri probablyerected in the lothcenturywith othersinMysore,wereburntbyRajendradevaCholaaboutthe middleofthenthcentury,andwererestoredbyalocalgovernorabout10/0.OneofthemostentireoftheJainaTemplesis atLakkundi,avillageabout7miles east-south-east fromGadag,in Dharwardistrict2Fromtheplan,WoodcutNo.276,it willbeseen thatit is notlarge. Thoughsomewhat severe for aChalukyantemple,it isexceedinglywellproportioned.The.rikhara,asseen in thephotograph,PlateXIX.,is entire andpresentstheappearanceof a Dravidianwork,and the head of the1 'Archaeological Surveyof WesternIndia:BelgaumandKaladgi,' pp. 1-5,12-13, 25-26, 35and37,wheredescrip-tions andplansof thetemplesat theseplacesaregiven.2In1885it was noted that all thetemples herewerebeingrapidlydestroyedbytrees on theirroofs,andbythematerialsbeingcarried off forbuildingpurposes;and in the end of1897thestatement wasrepeatedin the 'RevisedListsofAntiquarianRemainsinBombayPresidency.'TheJainatemplehas sincebeenre-occupied;the others are nowbeinglookedafterbytheArchaeologicalSurvey.JAINAARCHITECTURE. BOOKV.walls is treated in away suggestingdirectdescent from theMamallapurampagodas.Toprovideanupper shrine,which is afeature in mostof thelargerJaina temples, thefirststorey of the towerhad to be made a distinctfeature,andwithaprojectingfrontor entrance. Thistemplehas anouteropenhallormandapa,havingextensions on eachside,withaninnerhallabout2oJft.squareinside,anda door on the south side as well asthe entrance from theopen mandap.It is difficult from aphotographaloneto fix itsage,butprobablyitbelongsto the earlier half or middle of thelothcentury.PALITANA.Thegrouping togetherof theirtemplesintowhatmaybecalled"CitiesofTemples"is apeculiaritywhich theJainshavepractisedto agreaterextentthan the followersofanyotherreligionin India. TheBuddhistsgroupedtheirstupasand viharas near and around276.LakkundiJainaTemple,sacredspots,as atSanchi,Manikyala,(Froml,atbySMrH^ousen,)orinPeshawar, andelsewhere;buttheywerescattered, andeachwassupposedtohave aspecial meaning,or to mark some sacredspot.TheHindus alsogroupedtheirtemples,as at Bhuvane^war orBenares,ingreatnumberstogether ;but in allcases,so farasweknow,because thesewere the centres of apopulationwhobelieved in thegodsto whomthetempleswerededicated,and wanted them for thepurposesof theirworship.Neitherofthesereligions,however, possesssuch agroupoftemples,forinstance,asthatat5atrunjaya,or Palitana as it isusuallycalled from theneighbouringtown,inGujarat,about35milesfromGoghaandBhaunagar,on its eastern coast(WoodcutNo.277).It is sacred toRishabhanath,the first of thetwenty-fourJainaTirthankaras,and covers the two summitsofthe5atrun-jayahill,each about360 yards long,with thedepressionbetweenthem.TheyaregroupedinseparateenclosurescalledTuks,surroundedby highbattlementedwalls,eachhavingatleastoneprincipaltemplewithvaryingnumbersofsmalleronesCHAP. III. PALITANA.25around it.Nominallythere are nineTuks,butmorecorrectlyeleven,and the number oftemplesand small shrines number26JAINAARCHITECTURE. BOOKV.over five hundred.1The number ofimagesof the Tirthan-karas in thesetemplesisvery great,and isconstantly beingaugmented;in 1889thenumberofseparateimagescountedwas6,449exclusiveofsmalleronesonslabs. Afewwatchmenonlyremainduringthenight,at thegatewaysof the Tuks. Thepriestscomeupeverymorningandperformthedailyservices,andafewattendantskeeptheplaceclean,whichtheydowiththemostassiduousattention,or feed the sacredpigeonswhichare the sole denizens of thespot;but there are no humanhabitations,properlysocalled,within the walls. Thepilgrimor thestrangerascends in themorning,and returns when hehasperformedhis devotions or satisfied hiscuriosity.Hemustnoteat ordrink,or at least mustnot cookfood,on the sacredhill,and he must notsleepthere. It is acityof thegods,and meant for themonly,and not intended for the use ofmortals.Jaina templesand shrinesare,ofcourse,to be found incities,and where there are a sufficient number ofvotaries tosupportatemple,as in otherreligions ; but, beyondthis,theJainsseem,almost more thananysect,to have realised theidea that to build atemple,and toplace imagesinit,wasin itself ahighlymeritoriousact,whilsttheyalso sharein themerits of its usebytheirco-religionists. Buildingatempleiswiththemaprayerinstone,whichtheyconceivetobeeminentlyduteousandlikelyto secure them benefits both hereandhere-after.It is inconsequenceof theJains believingto agreaterextent than the other Indian sects in theefficacyoftemple-buildingas a means ofsalvation,that their architecturalper-formances bear so muchlargeraproportionto their numbersthan those of otherreligions.Itmayalso beowingto thefact that nine out often,orninety-ninein ahundred,oftheJainatemplesare thegiftsofsingle wealthyindividuals ofthemiddleclasses,that thesebuildings generallyare small anddeficient in thatgrandeurofproportionthat marks the build-ingsundertakenby royalcommandorbelongingtoimportantorganisedcommunities. Itmay,however,be alsoowingtothis that theirbuildingsaremoreelaboratelyfinishedthanthoseof more nationalimportance.When awealthyindividual ofthe classwho build thesetemplesdesires tospendhismoneyon such anobject,he is much morelikelyto feelpleasure1The officialinventory, keptin theBhandar ortreasury, gavethe numberof shrines in 1868 as five hundred andthirteen. Atranslationofthis documentwasgivenin the'Lists ofAntiquarianRemainsin theBombayPresidency,'etc.(1885), pp. 188, 193-213 ;butinthe2ndedition(1897)its editor hasemployedadifferentarrangementofthetemples.CHAP. III. PALITANA.27in elaborate detail andexquisitefinish than ongreat purityorgrandeurofconception.All thesepeculiaritiesare found in a more markeddegreeat Palitanathan at almostanyother knownplace,and,fortun-atelyforthestudentofthestyle,extendingoveraconsiderableperiodoftime. Someofthetemplesmaybeasold asthe Iithcentury,but the Moslim invaders ofI4thandi$thcenturiesmade sad havoc of all the oldershrines,and we haveonlyfragmentsof a few of them.1In the latter half ofthe i6thcentury,however,theJainsobtained tolerance andsecurity,and forthwithbeganto rebuild their old fanes. From1500theyarespread pretty evenlyover all theintervening perioddownto thepresentdate. But thelargestnumber and someof the mostimportantwere erected within the lastseventyyears,or within thememoryoflivingmen.Fortunately,too,thesemodernexamples byno meansdisgracetheagein whichtheyare built. Theirsculpturesareinferior,and someoftheirdetails are deficient inmeaningandexpression ; but,on thewhole,theyareequal,ornearlyso,to theaverage examplesof earlierages.It is this that makesSatrunjayaone of themostinterestingplacesthatcan benamed forthephilosophicalstudent of architecturalart,inasmuch as he can there see thevariousprocesses bywhich cathedrals wereproducedin theMiddleAges,carried onon alargerscalethanalmostanywhereelse,and in a more natural manner. It isby watchingthemethods still followed indesigning buildingsin that remotelocalitythatwe become aware how it is that the uncultivatedHindu can rise in architecture to adegreeoforiginalityandperfectionwhich has not been attained inEuropesince theMiddleAges,butwhichmight easilybe recoveredbyfollowingthesameprocesses.AmongtheSatrunjaya templesthere isevery varietyofform andstructure,and amonographon thisgroup, fullyillustrated,would be ofgreat architectural, antiquarian,andmythologicalinterest.2The chieftempleis that dedicated toMulanayakSri Adi^war orRishabhanath,near the west endof the Tukoccupyingthe southernridge.It is describedin aninscriptionat the entrance as"the seventh restoration'of thetemple,carried out in1530 byKarmasimha,ministertoRatnasimhaofChitor. This"restoration"apparentlyconsisted1TheDhundiyaorLumpakasect(foundedin1451),refuse toworshipimages,nor allow them orpicturesintheirUpa^rayasorplacesofworship,thoughtheyreveretheJinas.'OrientalChristianSpectator,' 1835, p. 295. TheyareblamedforcausingdestructionamongtheiSatrunjayatemplesinafeudbetweenthemandtheTapagachhaJains.2The5atrunjaya templeswere sur-veyed byMr. Cousens someyearsago ;buttheresultsarenotyetpublished.28JAINAARCHITECTURE. BOOKV.in therebuildingof an oldtemple datingfrom aboutA.D.960,anewcolossalimage,andthebuildingof thegatewayinwhichis theshrine of Pundarika.1Thegreat templeis animposingtwostoreyed buildingwith alofty spire,and with its basesurroundedbymanysmall shrines.Within,besides thegreatmarbleimageofRishabha,thereareliterallyhundredsofothersof all sizes;2and,as atRanpurandelsewhere,there areminiatureMuhammadanqiblassetupoutside as aprotectionagainstMoslimiconoclasts. Theareain frontofthis is flankedbytwoconsiderabletemplesoneachside thatonthe north-eastbeinganeleganttwo-storeyed templeofthepeculiarJainaformknownasa Chaumukhorfour-facedtemple.Thisonehas,inthecentralhall,aquadruple imageof Santinath the i6thJinaorTirthankara: theimagesareplacedsoas toappearasoneblock,a similarfigure facingthe four entrances.Round thegreat templeare others ofmanysorts : somecontainingsamosaranas3orChaumukhs,astheyare termed;others"paduka"orfootprintsofAdmvar,andoneofthelattershrines,erected in marblebyKarmajahorKarmasimhain1530,is underaRayanatree,4thescionofthatunderwhichRishabhais said to have attained moksha ordeliverance.Thelargest templein theKharatara-vasiTuk,whichoccupiesmuch of thenorthridge,is a ChaumukhtempleofAdinath,erected in1618,bySetthiDevaraj,abankerofAhmadabadandhisfamilyof whom his sonsSomajiandDupaji wereSanghapatisorleadersofthegreat pilgrimageat its consecration. Itis of twostoreys,and has awell-pro-portionedjikhara,96ft. inheight,and asshown in theplan (WoodcutNo.278)consists ofamandapon the east31ft.2 m-squarewith twelvepillars formingan innersquareon whichreststhedome21 ft. 6in.across,and the shrinebeyondit,is23ft.squarewithentries onall sides.Inthe centre ofthis is thegreat quadruple imageofAdinath,278.Plan of ChaumukhTempleatSatrunjaya.1 'Epigraphia Indica,'vol. ii.p. 35.Pundarika was the chief of Rishabha'sdisciples,andhasa shrine attheentranceofthisTirthankar'stemples.2Amongthose in the shrine on theupperfloor areimagesof the favouriteSi\ orMahalakshmi,and of Gautama-svami;and "in othertemplesareimagesalsoofGaneja,Sarasvati andother Hindudivinities.3Gujarat!Samosan;p. 34note.4TheMimusopshexandria of Rox-burgh ;HemachandraandothersspecifytheVataorBanyanasRishabha's Bo-tree.CHAP. III. PALITANA.29placedonamarblethroneabout 1 1 ft.squarewithpillarsatthecorners. The westhalf of theshrineissurroundedbyaverandah,thepillarsof which arevery richly carved,havingon theircapitalsmusicians anddancing figures.Theupper storeyhaselegant projecting balconywindows,and is reachedbya stairon the north side of thetemple.At theprincipalentranceare twoverysmall shrines on therightofGaumukhYaksha,and on the left of Chakre^vari Yakshini the twospiritssupposedto attend this Tirthankara.Atypeoftemple,uniquein itsarrangement,of whichthereare twoexamples here,maybe noted. Inthesmallenclosurecalled theNandfovara-dvipaTuk,on the southsideofthenorthernridgeis the first ofthese. ItwaserectedbytheNagar Sethof Ahmadabadin1840, andastheplan(Wood-cut No.279) shows,it is asquareof about32ft. withverandahs about5ft. wideattached to each side. Thefloorisdividedby twelvepiersintoninesmallersquares, andthe domes of the roof aresupported byarches betweenthesepiers.Thewallsoftheverandahs and innersquareare ofperforated stonework,andit has entrances from allfour sides theprincipal being279.PlanofNandfovara-dvipaTempleatSatrunjaya.Scale25ft. to i in.on the west. Of the ninesmallersquaresintowhichtheinteriorisdivided,thefive innerformingacrossareoccupied bypyramidal^ikharas with recesses on theirfoursidesfor marbleimagesoftheTirthankaras. Hencetheygounder thegeneralname of Chaumukhs. In the centralsquareis thelargestof thesespires,and.in the centre of each of the four armsof the cross is one ofsecondary size,with smaller ones oneach side of it andpairsin contact in the corners. Thustheynumberfifty-threein all. The fivelargerChaumukhsrepresentmythologicalmounts: thelargecentralonerepresentsSatrunjayaitself. OntheAwestofit,towardsthemainentrance,isAshtapada,on which AdLrwar or Rishabha is said to haveobtainedmokshaorcompleteemancipation;inthenorthsquareis Meru-jikhara;in the south one 5ameta-^ikhara;andin theeast is a Samosan or Samosarana a term weshall meetwithJAINAARCHITECTURE. BOOKV.again.Thetempleis thus a shrine of"HighPlaces." Theothertemplealmost acopyofit waserectedin the VimalavasiTuk,somethirty-fiveyearslater.The MotLfahTuk,whichoccupiesthe east end of thedepressionbetween theridgesof thesummit,measures about230ft.by224ft. surroundedbyaloftywall with roundtowersatthecorners. Itappearson thefrontpartofthephotograph,in Woodcut No.277.AThisgreat square,besides the centraltemple,dedicated toAdinath,andmeasuringover all 81 ft.by67ft. 6in.,contains also some fifteen othertemplessomeofrespectabledimensions. Thewhole is surroundedbyabhamtior cloister ofmore than a hundred small shrinesalongtheenclosingwalls. ThisgreatTukwasconstructed in1836,attheexpenseof Setthi MotionAmichand,awealthybanker andmerchant ofBombay,and of hisfamilyrelations.1In suchexamplesas these we see thework that native craftsmen stillexecutewhen left tothemselves.Unfortunatelytheexteriorofthetemplehas beenpainted,in lateyears,in anexceedinglyvulgarstyle.2GIRNAR,Thehill ofGirnar,in the south of the KathiawarpeninsulaofGujarat,notfarfromJunagadh,is another tirtha oftheJains,assacred,but somehownot so fashionable in modern times asthat at Palitana. Itwants,consequently,thatbewilderingmagnificencearisingfrom the number andvarietyofbuildingsof allagesthat crowd thattemple city.Besidesthis,thetemplesthemselves at Girnar lose much of theirapparentsizefrombeingperchedonthebrowofa hillrising3,500ft. abovethelevel of thesea, composedofgraniterocks strewn about inpicturesqueconfusion. The hill isregarded bytheJainsassacred toNeminath,the 22nd of theirTirthankaras,and whoisrepresentedasthecousinoftheHinduKrishna.Althoughwehavea'GirriarMahatmyam'asaportionof theSatrunjayaMahatmyam,3to retail fables andfalsify dates,wehave at Girnarinscriptionswhichprovethat in ancient timesit must have been aplaceofgreat importance.On a rockoutsidethetownat itsfoot,calledparexcellenceJunagadhthe1 'TheTemplesofSatrunjaya,'pp. 22,23,andphotographplates 15,and25-28.2For a more detailed account ofSatrunjaya,the readermayrefer to'TheTemplesofJ>atrunjaya' (Bombay,1869),introduction of which the textwaspartly reprintedatAhmadabad,1878;andpartlyin'IndianAntiquary,'vol. ii.pp. 354-357.Theearly historyandthe tenetsof theJainswillbefoundin Buhler's'Indian Sect of theJainas'(Englishtranslation), London, 1903.3Anabridgedversion of the'6at-runjayaMahatmyam,'isgivenin 'IndianAntiquary,'vol. xxx.pp. 239-251and288-308.TheGirnar or RaivataMaha-tmyamformssections 10 to 12(pp.288-302)ofthatwork.CHAP. III. GIRNAR.Old FortA^oka,B.C.250,carved acopyof his celebratededicts.1On the same rock about A.D.150, Rudradaman,theKshatrapakingofSaurashtra,carved aninscription,in whichhe boasted of his victories over the5atakarni, kingof theDekhan,and recorded hishaving repairedthebridgebuiltbytheMauryaA^oka and restored the Sudanrana lake.2Theembankmentof thelakeagainburstandcarriedawaythebridge,but wasagain repaired by Skandagupta,the last of thegreatGuptas,intheyearA.D.457,andaninscriptiononthesamerockalsorecordsthisevent.3Aplacewhere three suchkings thoughtit worthwhile torecordtheirdeedsorproclaimtheirlawsmust,onewouldthink,have been animportant cityorplaceat that time;but whatis so characteristic of India occurs here as elsewhere. Fewmaterial remains are found totestifyto the fact. Full fourcenturiesofMoslimrule have obliterated most ofthe tracesofantiquity.Still in theeastofthetownis agroupofveryearlycaves,butthequarryopenedclose behind them hasprobablydestroyednumbersof them. None ofthem arelarge,buttheyareofprimitiveforms and thecarving quite archaic,whilst afragmentofaKshatrapa inscriptionof about A.D.185foundamongthemin1874,indicates thattheybelongedto theJains.4Thereis alsoanexcavated hall and cell nearthe northwall ofthetown,withtwopillarsinfront, andothertwoinsidethathavehadrichlycarved bases andcapitals.And in the(Jparkotorold citadelacomplicatedandveryinterestingrock-excavationwas discovered aboutthirty-five years ago,the moststrikingfeatureof whichwas theextraordinaryrichness of thecarvingon the bases andcapitalsof thepillarsin the lowerstorey ;nothingcouldexceedtheelaborationofthecarvingonthebasesofthese. Thereis notraceofdistinctivelyBuddhistsymbolismhere,andliketheothers,theywereprobablyofJainaorigin.5At the foot of Mount Girnar astupawas excavated in1889,but noinscriptionwas found with the relics to indicatewhetherit wasJainaorearlyBuddhist.6When HiuenTsiangvisited theprovince,about A.D.640,hesaysthere werefiftymonasterieshere,mostly belongingto the Sthavira school oftheMahayanateaching;and onemonasteryhesayswason thetopof Girnar with cells andgalleriesexcavated in1Seeante,vol. i.p. 56note.2 'IndianAntiquary,'vol. vii.pp.257ff.;'ArchaeologicalSurveyof WesternIndia,'vol. ii.pp. 128-130.3Fleet,'Gupta Inscriptions/ pp.5^-65 ; 'JournalBombayB.Asiat,Soc.,'vol. xviii.pp. 47-55.4 'Archseological Surveyof WesternIndia,'vol. ii.pp. 139-141,andplates16-20.5Ibid.pp. 141-144,andplates21-24.6'Journalof the AsiaticSocietyofBengal,'vol. Ix.p.18.32 JAINAARCHITECTURE. BOOK V.the rock.1It is doubtful ifanytrace of these is now knownto exist.Theprincipal groupoftemplesatGirnar,some sixteen innumber,is situatedonaledgeabout 600 ft. belowthesummit,andstillconsequentlynearly 3,000ft. abovethelevelofthesea.280.TempleofNeminath,Girnar.(FromaPlanbyJ. Burgess.)Scale50ft. to i in.Thelargest,possiblyalsotheoldestofthese,is thatof Neminath(WoodcutNo.280).Aninscriptionuponit recordsthat itwasrepairedin A.D.1278,andunfortunatelyasubsequentrestorerhas laid hisheavyhandupon it,so that it is difficult nowtorealise what itsoriginal appearance mayhave been. Thisunfortunatelyisonlytoo often the casewithJainatemples.IfaHindutempleorMuhammadanmosqueisoncedesecratedand1Beal,'BuddhistRecords,'vol. ii.p. 269.CHAP. III. GIRNAR.33goestodecay,noone ever afterrepairs it,butits materialsareruthlesslyemployedtobuildanewtempleormosqueaccordingtothelatestfashionof theday.WiththeJainsit is otherwise.If amanis notrichenoughto build anewfane,hemayat leastbe able to restore an oldone,and the act with them seemsequallymeritorious,as itusuallyis considered to be with us;butthewaytheysetabout itgenerallyconsists incovering upthewholeof theoutsidewith a thickcoatingofchunam,fillingupandhidingall thedetails,andleavingonlytheoutline. Theinterior isgenerallyadorned withrepeatedcoats of whitewash,asdestructivetoartisticeffect,butnotquitesoirreparable.Theplanandtheoutlinearegenerally,however,left astheywereoriginallyerected,and that isprobablythe casewith thetempleofNeminatb. It stands inacourtyardmeasuring195ft.by130ft. overallexternally.Aroundthecourtyardarearrangedsomeseventycellswitha covered and enclosedpassagein front ofthem,and eachofthese contains across-leggedseatedfigureof one of theTirthankaras, andgenerallywithabas-relief orpicturerepresent-ingYakshasorspiritattendants. But for the fall of the rockthere would have been nine or ten morecells,and indeedthisrepetitionof theimagesofsaints,like themultiplicationoftemples,seems to have been thegreataim of theJainaarchitects. Aswemaysee in a Hindutempleat PrambananinJava,there were236smalltemplesor cellssurroundingthegreatone,andthere,ashere,each ofthemwas intendedtocontainasimilarimageof oneoftheobjectsofworship.Nearertheentrancethanthetempleof Neminathis atripleoneerectedbythebrothersTejahpalaandVastupala,1whoalsoerectedoneoftheprincipaltemplesonAbu. Frominscriptionsuponits walls itseemstohavebeen erected in A.D1230.Theplanis that ofthreeshrinesjoinedtoonehall,anarrangementnotunfrequentlyfoundin thesouth,butoccasionallyalso inthenorth,and which iscapableofgreat varietyofeffect,andoflightand shadetoagreaterextent thanplainerforms. Inthisinstancethereisanimageof Mallinath,theiQthTirthankara,in thecentralcell,but the lateralroomseachcontainaremark-able solidpileofmasonrycalled a Samosarana that on thenorthsidenamed Meru or Sumeru a fabled mountain oftheJainsandHindushavingasquarebase(WoodcutNo.281);thaton thesouth,called SametSikharaParasnath,inBengalwith anearlycircular base. Each rises in four tiers ofdiminishing width,nearlyto theroof,and is surmountedby1Theinscriptionsascribe thetempletoVastupala only,as "the elder brotherofTejahpala."VOL. II. C34 JAINAARCHITECTURE. BOOKV.a smallsquare canopyover theimages.1From this it wouldappearthatwiththeJains,theMountsGirnar,Satrunjaya,Abu,r1281. PlanofTempleofVastupala. (FromaPlanbyJ. Burgess.)Scale50ft. to i in.etc.,werenotonly holy places,butholythings,and that withthem as with theSyrianstheworshipofhigh placeswasreallyapartoftheirreligion.Some of the othertemplesat Girnar areinterestingfromtheirhistory,and remarkable fromfragmentsof an ancientdate that have survived the too constantrepairs;butwithoutillustratingthem it wouldonlybe tedious torecapitulatetheirnames,or toattemptto describebywordsobjectswhichonlythepractisedeyeof the Indianantiquarycanappreciate. Fortymiles south from thehill, however,on thesea-shore,standsthe .SaivatempleofSomnath, historically perhapsthe mostcelebrated inIndia,from thecampaignwhich Mahmud ofGhazniundertookfor its destructionin1025,andthe momentousresultsthatcampaignhadeventuallyonthefateofIndia.Aswill beseen from the annexedplan (WoodcutNo.282)thetempleitself never could have been remarkable for its1These are the forms inwhichstupasare nowrepresented bytheJains.*ArchaeologicalSurveyof WesternIndia,'vol. ii.p. 170,andplates 33, 34.TheGujarat!Samosan and Prakrit Samo-sarana,Professor Barnett informsme,arerepresentedin SanskritbySama-vasarana"session "or"assize,"andinpopular languageindicates a' 'meetingplace." Cunningham,'ArchaeologicalReports,'vol. xi.pp. 170-171.TheSamayasarana proper,commemoratesthe Tirthankara's firstsermon,and isthusanalogoustoBuddha's"turningthewheelof thelaw,"in theDeer Park atBenares.CHAP. III.GIRNAR.35dimensions,probablyit never exceeded about130ft. overall,butthedome of itsmandapa,which measures33ft.across,isaslargeasanywe know of itsage.From theaccounts,however,which we have of thesiege,it is evident that itwas enclosed like thetempleofNeminath(WoodcutNo.280)in acourtyard,and thatmayhave beenofsurpassingmagnificence. Thoughverysimilarinplan,it isnearly twicethe dimensionsofthatofNeminath,andif its courtwasproportionatelylarge,itmayreallyhavejustifiedallthat has been saidregardingitssplendour.From whatfragmentsofsculptureddecorationsremain,they, too,must have been ofgreatbeauty,quite equaltoanythingweknow of thisclass,or of theirage.It has beenquestioned,however,whether what we now see arefragmentsof thetempleattackedbyMahmud,andconsequentlywhetherthey belongto the loth282.oreven the9th century,orwhetherthey maybe due to a restorationwhichwaseffected in the 12th. Thetemplewas dedicatedtoSome^vara the moon-lord a nameofSiva,who,as Ibn Asirstates,wasrepresented byalingam.1As thestoryis nowtold,after Mahmud'sdepartureit was restoredbyBhimadevaof AnhilwaraPattan,whoreigned 1021-1073,and adornedbySiddharaja, 1093-1143,andlastly completed,if notrebuilt,by Kumarapalain 1168.Generallyit isthought,and almostcertainly quite correctly,that what we now seebelongstothelast-namedking,whois creditedwithacompleterestorationofit,and a state visit to celebrate its consecration.ThoughaBrahmanicaltemple,it illustrates thestyle employedbytheJainsinGujaratinthe I2thcentury.Theinteriorofthewalls,too,show thattheyarelargelyconstructed of materials froman earlier fane.PlanofTempleatSomnath.(FromaPlanbyJ. Burgess.)Scale50ft. to i in.1SomeoftheMubammadanhistoriansrepresentthe idol ashavingaheadwitheyes, arms,and abelly.And afterdescribingthe destruction of thegreatidol,Ferishtagoeson tosay,"Therewerein thetemplesome thousands ofsmallimages, wroughtingoldandsilver,of variousshapesand dimensions."Brigg's 'Ferishta,'vol. i.pp. 72, 74.We mustremember, however,thatFerishta lived five and a half centuriesafter the sack of Somnath. Ibn Asir'saccount is the best. Sir H. Elliot's'HistoryofIndia,'vol. ii.pp. 4708".JAINAARCHITECTURE. BOOKV.MOUNTAstr.It ishardlyto be wonderedat that MountAbu,ancientlyArbuda,wasearlyfixedupon bythe Hindus andJainsasoneof their sacredspots. Risingfrom the desert asabruptlyasan island from theocean,itpresentson almosteverysidesteepandrugged scarpssome4,000ft.high,and the summitcan best beapproached byravines cut into its sides. Whenthe summit isreached,itopensout into one of the loveliestvalleys imaginable,about 6 mileslong by2 or3miles atthewidest,cutup everywhere by graniterocks of the mostfantasticshapes,and thespacesbetween them covered withtrees and luxuriantvegetation.The little NakhiTalao,orPearlLake,is one of the loveliestgemsof its class in allIndia,andamile andahalf fromit,atDilwara,theJainsselectedasite for theirTirtha,orsacredplaceofrendezvous. Itcannot,however,be said that it has been a favouriteplaceofworshipin recenttimes. Its distance andinaccessibilitywereprobablythe causes ofthis,and itconsequentlycannot rival eitherSatrunjayaorGirnarin theextentof itsbuildings ;butduringtheageofJainasupremacyitwasadornedwithseveraltemples,twoofwhichare unrivalled for certainqualities byanytemplesin India.Theyare builtwhollyof whitemarble,thoughnoquarriesofthatmaterial,exceptofinferiorquality,areknowntoexist within 20 or30miles of thespot,and totransportandcarryitupthe hill tothe site ofthesetemplesmusthaveaddedimmenselytotheexpenseoftheundertaking.1The more modern of the two isusuallyascribed to thesamebrothers, TejahpalaandVastupala,whose names areassociatedwith thetriple templeatGirnar(WoodcutNo.281):theinscriptions,however,ascribe the erection and endowmenttoTejahpalaalone,inmemoryofhis brother from whomit isalsoknownasLuniga'sVasati ortemple.This,welearnfromtheinscription,was consecrated in1230 A.D.,and for minutedelicacy of carvingandbeautyof detailstandsalmostunrivalledevenin the land ofpatientand lavish labour. It is dedicatedtoNeminath,the 22nd Tirthankara.Theother,builtby Vimala,a minister orgovernorunderBhimadeva,in theyearA.D.1031,2issimplerandbolder,1It issupposedthe material must allhave beenbroughtfromJiriwavinAtheBhakardistrict tothesouth-eastofAbu,neartheshrineof AmbaBhawani. Howso much material and in suchlargeblocks could have been carriedupthemountainis difficulttoconceive.2In aninscriptionrecordingarepairof thetemplesin Samvat1378,after"theyhadbeendamagedbyMlechchhas"(Moslims),itisstatedthatVimala,bytheblessingofAmba,built thetempleofAdinathainSamvat,1088(A.D. 1031).'AsiaticResearches,'vol. xvi.p. 312;'EpigraphiaIndica,'vol. ix.pp. I48f.CHAP. III.MOUNT ABU.37thoughstill as elaborate asgoodtaste would allow inanypurelyarchitecturalobject. Beingoneofthe oldest as well asoneof the mostcompleteexamplesofaJainatemple,itspeculi-aritiesformaconvenientintroductiontothestyle,andamongotherthingsserve to illustrate howcompleteandperfectithadalreadybecomewhenwefirst meetwithit in India.The annexedplan(WoodcutNo.283)willexplainthegeneralarrangementsof thetempleofVimala, which,as will beobserved,aresimilartosomewehavealreadymet, thoughofcoursevaryingconsider-ablyin extentanddetail.Theentranceisthrougha domedportico, facingwhichis asquarebuild-ing supported bysixpillars,andcontainingtenstatuesofelephants,each asingleblock ofwhitemarble, about4ft.high.Oneachof themwas seated afigureonarichhauda behind thedriver.1Theserepre-sented Vimala and hisfamilyinprocessiontothetemple;but thefigureshave been de-stroyed byMoslimf283. TempleofVimala,MountAbft.(FromaPlanbyMr. H.Cousens.)Scale50ft. to i in.zealots,and anequestrianstatue of Vimala has beenplacedin thedoorway,made ofstucco andpaintedin astylenotdeservingnotice. Behindit,in thecentre,is a Samosaran ofthreetiers as usual.Theprincipal objecthere,aselsewhere,is a celllighted1Thenamesof nineof theridersarecarvedontheir seats,sixdatedin A.D.1149andthreein 1180,JAINAARCHITECTURE. BOOKV.onlyfrom thedoor, containingacross-leggedseatedfigureof theJinatowhom thetempleisdedicated,in this instanceRishabhanath orAdinath. Thecell,as in all otherexamples,terminates^upwardsin ajikhara,orpyramidal roof,1whichin these Abutemples,however,are too low to beproperlydesignated spires.Tothis,as in almost allinstances,isattached amandapaor closedhall,and in front of this aportico,generallyofconsiderableextent,and in mostexamplessurmountedbya domerestingoneight pillars,which formsindeed thedistinguishingcharacteristic of thestyle,as wellas its most beautiful feature. In thisexampletheporticoiscomposedofforty-eight free-standing pillars,which isbynomeans an unusual number;and the whole is enclosed in anoblong courtyard,128 ft.by 75ft.inside,surroundedbyadouble colonnade of smallerpillars, forming porticosto arangeofcells,as usualfifty-twoinnumber,2with some extrachapelsat the south-west corner;these enclose it on allsides,exactlyastheydo in Buddhistviharas. In thiscase,however,eachcell,insteadofbeingtheresidence of amonk,isoccupiedbyone of thosecross-legged imagesofJinaswhichbelongaliketoBuddhismandJainism,andbetweenwhichtheuntaughtfind it difficult todistinguish.Inthe south-westcorner ofthecourt,on aslightly higherlevel,is a smallearly templeofAmba3which is somewhat out ofalignmentwiththerest,andhasapparentlyfixed the limit of the enclosure;there is alsoasuspicionthat the centralshrine,built ofstone not marblemaybe of earlier date than the nthcentury.4In otherreligionstheremaybe agreatnumberofseparatesimilarchapelsattached to onebuilding,but in nootherwouldfifty-twobefound,as in thisexample,or thatsurroundingthetempleof Neminath at Girnar(WoodcutNo.280),eachcontaininganimageofaTirthankara,andall sonearlyidenticalas tobealmostundistinguishable.WiththeJainsit seems tobethoughtthe mostimportant pointthat theJinasor saintsare honouredbythe number of theirimages,and that eachprincipalimageshould beprovidedwithaseparateabode. Inotherexamples,however,it isonlyaseparateniche. OnsomeJainamonuments theimagesofthe Tirthankaras arerepeated1Seeante,vol. i.p. 322.2 'Archaeological Surveyof WesternIndia,'vol. ix.pp. 99,100.3Ambais a nameofDurga,andalsooftheYakshiniorfamiliardeviofNemi-n&tha,the 22ndTirthankara,to whomTejahpala's templeis dedicated. Alargeblackimageof Neminath in anadjoiningshrinemight suggestthatthistemplewas first dedicated to thatJina.Ambafigures largelyinJainamythology;and her HindutempleatAmbaji, 15miles north-eastfromDanta,is visitedbycrowdsofJainapilgrims.4Manyof the shortinscriptionsonthecell doorsandtheimagesinthemaredated acenturylater than the erectionbyVimala,CHAP. III. MOUNT ABU.39hundreds,itmayalmost be said a thousand timesover,all theimagesalike,andthenichesarrangedin rows besideandaboveeachother,likepigeon-holesin adovecote.Externallythetempleisperfectlyplain,andthereisnothingto indicate themagnificencewithin,exceptthespireof thecellpeepingover theplainwall,thougheven this is the mostinsignificant partof the erection. The externalporch,too,isinsignificant,so that one istotally unpreparedfor thesplendourofthe interior.JAINAARCHITECTURE. BOOKV.Thewoodcut(No. 284)willgivesomeidea ofthearrange-ment of theporch,but it wouldrequirea far more extensiveand elaboratedrawingtoconveya correctimpressionof itsextremebeautyofdetail anddiversityofdesign.Thegreatpillars,as will beseen,are of the sameheightas those ofthe smaller externalporticos ;and like themtheyfinish withthe usualbracket-capitalof the East; uponthis anupperdwarf column orattic,if itmaybe socalled,isplacedtogivethem additionalheight,and on theseuppercolumns restthegreatbeams or architraves whichsupportthedome,thespringingofwhich is shown in woodcut No.284(ante,p. 39) ;as, however,thebearingislong,theweightisrelieved,atleast inappearance, bythe curiousangularstrut or truss ofwhitemarble,mentioned above(vol.i.p. 315),which,springingfromthelowercapital,seemstosupportthemiddleof thebeam.That this last feature is derived from some wooden orcarpentryoriginal,canscarcelybedoubted;butinwhatmannerit was first introduced intomasonryconstruction is unknown:probablyitmightbe discoveredbya careful examination ofthebuildingsin thisneighbourhood.1It continues as anarchitectural feature down to thepresent day,butgraduallybecomingmoreand moreattenuated,till atlast,exceptin oneexampleatDelhi,to be mentionedhereafter,it loses all itsconstructivesignificanceas asupportingmember,anddwindlesintoamereornament.Themarbledome in thistempleis ofgreatbeautyfrom itsveryrichcarving,whichmaybejudgedofto someextentfromthephotograph,Plate XX. It differs in minor details fromthat inTejahpala's temple (WoodcutNo.286), thoughthegeneral designis thesame,and thedescriptionof thelatter,givenbelow,willapplyto this. In the roofsofthecorridorsofthistemplealsothere is aseriesofcarvingsof mostcomplicatedornamentaldesignsthatarequiteunrivalledanywhereelse.InTejahpala's temple,which stands to the north-east ofthepreceding,theprocessionofthefounder'sfamilyoccupiestheplaceofthe cells in the east end ofthe enclosure behind theshrine.2This corridor isseparatedfromthecourtbyapiercedscreen ofopen tracery: a little rude andheavy,it must beconfessed,but still a fine work of its kind. Behindit,inthecentre,is anelaboratelycarvedChaumukh,with five1In thetempleofVadipura-Pamva-nfith,atAnahilawada,built in1594,wehaveanexampleofatempleof whichthewholeinterior(illustratedin'Archaeo-logical Surveyof WesternIndia,'vol. ix.p. 49andplates4,20and21)is carvedinwood.Jainatempleswith carved woodfacades and interiors aregenerallymetwith in thelargercities.2'ArchitectureandSceneryinGujaratandRaj putana,'p.16,CHAP. III. MOUNT ABU.elephantson each side ofveryexcellentworkmanship,andwithrichtrappingssculpturedwiththemostexquisiteprecision.TheMoslimhas,however,carriedoffordestroyedtheir riders.1Thetempleis entered on thesouth-west,from the courtbetweenit andVimala'sbyastair atthesouthoftheenclosure.Theplanis in imita-tion of the oldertemple,from whichitdiffers butlittleinsize,measuringover allabout155ft.by92ft.(WoodcutNo.285).Thepillars support-ingtheporcharesomewhat taller andofeightdifferenttypes,asmaybenoted in thephoto-graph (Plate XX).On the otherhand,in Vimala's thegeneral styleof thenthcenturyis ad-hered tothrough-out;the dome oftheporticoisslightlyless indiameter thanin theformer,butquite rivallingit inelaboration of detailandbeautyofdesign.On theoctagonformedbythemassivearchitravesacrosstheheadsofthepillarsreststhe dome(WoodcutNo.286).In bothtemplesasingleblock in theanglesoftheoctagonsuffices tointroducethecircle. Abovethesecond row of ornaments sixteen bracketpedestalsare intro-ducedsupportingstatues,and in the centre is apendantof themostexquisite beauty;the whole is in whitemarble,andfinished with adelicacyof detail andappropriatenessoforna-ment which isprobably unsurpassed by anysimilarexampleto be foundanywhereelse. Those introducedbythe GothicarchitectsinHenryVII.'schapelatWestminster,oratOxford,are coarse andclumsyincomparison.It isdifficult, by any1'PicturesqueIllustrations of IndianArchitecture,' p. 40;Tod's 'TravelsinWesternIndia,'pp. 106-109,lllBadami.headedNaga,2resembles Vishnu onAnanta in the nextwoodcut,andthoughthereligionischanged,the art hashardlyaltered tosuch an extent asmightbeexpected,consideringthat three328.Sectionof CaveNo.3,Badami.(FromaDrawingbyJ. Burgess.Scale25ft. to i in.centuries at least hadprobablyelapsedbetween the executionof these two bas-reliefs. Thechangeofreligion, however,iscomplete.Sometimes the Hindussuccessfully conqueredone of themain difficulties of cave architectureby excavatingthem onthespurofahill,as in the DhumarLena atElura,andbysurroundingthemby courts,as there and atElephantaandatJoge^war;so thatlightwas introduced on three sides in-stead ofonlyone,aswastoooften the caseboth withBuddhistand Hindu excavations.These,though probably amongthelast,arecertainlythe finest Hindu excavationsexisting,iflooked at from an architecturalpointof view. The Eluraexampleis thelargerandfiner,measuring 149ftby 148(WoodcutNo.329).That atElephanta, thoughextremelysimilar ingeneral arrangement (No. 330),is lessregularin1Burgess,'ReportonBelgamandKaladgi,' plates24-35.2'TreeandSerpent Worship,'plate76 ;and'CaveTemplesofIndia,'plate39.128 NORTHERN ORINDO-ARYANSTYLE. BOOKVI.329-DhumarLenaCaveat Elura.(FromDaniell's'ViewsinHindostan.')Scale 100ft. to i in.plan,and also somewhatsmaller,measuring only 130ft.by129ft. It iseasyto see that if thesetemplesstood in theopen theywouldonlybeporches,likethat atBelur(WoodcutNo.257),andnumberlessotherexamples,whicharefoundeverywhere;but the necessities ofrock-cut architecturerequiredgenerallythatthe cella should beplacedinsidetheman-dapa,orporch,insteadofexternallytoit,aswasalwaysthe casein structuralexamples.This,perhaps,washardlytoberegretted;but it shows how little thepracticeofcutting templesin therock was suitedto thetemple-forms of theHindus,and weneednot,there-fore, feelsurprisedhowreadily theyabandoned itwhenanyideaofrivallingtheBuddhists hadceasedtoprompttheir efforts inthis direction.In thecapitalsof thepillarsinthesecaves,asrepresentedin theaccompanyingwoodcut(No. 331)from theElephantacave,we find theperfectedform of those ribbedcushion-capitalsthatare foundatBadamiandin somanyothercaves,datingfrom at least asearlyas the 6thcentury;but inthese excavations it seems to have reached its fullestdevelop-ment andbeautyof form. From itsfrequentrecurrence of1Daniell'splanis notquiteaccurate,butsufficientlyso for ourpurpose.See'CaveTemplesofIndia,' plate 79,and'Archaeological Surveyof WesternIndia,'vol. v.plate 37.330- ElephantaCave.(FromaPlanbyJ. Burgess.)Scale 100ft. to i in.CHAP. III. BRAHMANICAL ROCK-CUTTEMPLES.129earlier and later date it hascometo be considered thetypicalcapitalofearlyIndianarchitecture. ItmaybecomparedtotheDoricorderofclassicalartas,inthesameway,thevase withfoliage fallingoverit,asexemplifiedinthe Rame^wara cave andelsewhere, mayberegardedas an Orientaltypeof theIonic order. This ribbedcushionformofcapitalalsoremindsusoftheamala^ilacrown to Hindunkharas1thoughwemaybe unabletosayfrom what it hasbeenderived, we canhardlyescapethe conviction thatin theirorigin theyareakin.Sofar as Iknow,thereisonlyoneexamplewheretheIndo-Aryanarchitectsattemptedto rival theDravidian inproducingamonolithic exterior. It isataplacecalledDhamnar,-o , i331.Pillarsandcornerofthe ShrineatElephanta.inRajputana,where,as*(FromaPhotograph.)alreadymentioned(ante>vol.i., pp. 165and200),there is anextensiveseries ofBuddhistexcavations. In order to mark theirtriumphover that fallenfaith,theHindus, apparentlylate in the 8thcentury,droveanopen cuttinginto the side ofthehill,tilltheycame to aparthighenoughfortheirpurpose.Heretheyenlargedthiscuttingintoapitgj\ft.by67ft,leavingaVaishnavatempleofelegantarchitecturestandingin thecentre,with seven small cellssurroundingit, preciselyas was done in the case ofthe Kailasat Elura. Theeffect, however,canhardlybe said to bepleasing (WoodcutNo.332).Atemple standingin apitisalwaysananomaly,but in this instance it is valuable as anunalteredexampleofthestyle,and asshowinghowthe smallshrines ofSivalayas2which have too oftendisappearedwereoriginallygroupedroundthegreaterSaiva shrines. Thevalueofthis characteristicweshall bebetter abletoappreciatewhenwecometodescribe thetemplesatPrambananandother1Ante,vol. i.p. 323.VOL. II.2Ante,vol. i.p. 336.I3NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE. BOOKVI.placesinJava.The Buddhists had their cells forpriestsandascetics;theJainsrilled their residential cells withimages332.Rock-cutTempleatDhamnar.(FromaPlanbyGen.Cunningham.)Scale50ft. to i in.andmadethem littletemples;andthe Hindus in theirshrinesmadesmallercellae fortheattendantsorfamilyofthegod.333-SaivaTemplenearPoona.(FromaSketchbyDaniell.)One more illustration must conclude what we have atpresenttosayof Hindu rock-cuttemples.It is thetempleof Panchale^vara at Bhamburde nearPoona,and is but littleknown,thoughmuch moreappropriatetocave architectureCHAP. III. BRAHMANICAL ROCK-CUT TEMPLES.thanmostexamplesof its class. Thetempleitself is asimplepillaredhall,witheight pillarsinfront,andpossiblyhadoriginallya structural.rikharabuiltontheupperplateautomarkthepositionof thesanctuary (WoodcutNo.334).The mostoriginal partofit,however,is the Nandipavilion,whichstands in thecourtyardin front of thetemple(WoodcutNo.333).1It is circularinplan,andits roof whichis agreatslabofrock wassupportedbysixteensquarepillars ofvery simpleform fourwithinandtwelveinthecircumference,ofwhichfourhave nowcrumbledandfallen.Altogetherit is asappropriatea bit ofdesignas is tobe found in Hindu cave architecture. Ithas, however,thedefectonlytoo commonin those Hindu excavationsthat, being334- Templeof Panchai-,. . , ,&e-yvaranearPoona.in apit,it can be looked downupon ;which is a testveryfewbuildingscanstand,arid to which noneoughtto beexposed.2Scale100ft. to i in.1There is a similartempleat AmbanearMominabad,in the HaidarabadState.'Archaeological Surveyof WesternIndia,'vol. iii.p. 50,andplates 33, 34.2'CaveTemplesofIndia,'p. 426andplate69.I32 NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE. BOOKVI.CHAPTER IV.CENTRALAND NORTHERN INDIA.CONTENTS.ChandravatiandBaroli Kirtti-stambhasTemplesatGwaliar, Khajuraho,Sinnar, Udayapur,Benares,Bindraban,Kantanagar,Amritsar.THEREarecertainlymorethanonehundredtemplesin CentralandNorthern Indiawhicharewellworthyofbeingdescribed indetail, and,ifdescribedandillustrated, wouldconveyawonderfulimpressionofthefertilityin inventionof the Hindu mindandoftheelegancewith which it wascapableofexpressingitself.Noneofthesetemplescanmakethesmallestpretensionto rivalthegreatsouthernexamplesin scale;theyareall, indeed,smallereven than thegreaterofOrissanexamples;and whilesomeof themsurpassthe Orissantemplesineleganceofform,manyrival them in theprofuseelaboration of minute orna-mental details.None of thesetemples none,atleast,that are nowcompleteseem to be ofany great antiquity.AtEran,intheSagardistrict,aresomefragmentsofcolumns,and severalsculpturesthat seem tobelongto theflourishing ageof theGuptas, sayaboutA.D.450 ;and in the Mukandwara Pass inKota,there are the remains of a chaultri thatmaybe asold,but it is a merefragment,1and has noinscription uponit.Amongthe morecomplete examples,the oldest I knowof,andconsequentlythe mostbeautiful,is theporchortempleofSitale^vara atChandravati,nearJhalrapathan,inRajputana.2Assumingthat itbelongstotheearlyyearsoftheQth century,with the chawadi in the MukandwaraPass,and thepillarsat1Aview of this waspublishedinmy 'PicturesqueIllustrations ofIndianArchitecture,' plate 5.2In itsneighbourhoodColonel Todfound aninscription,dated746ofanera,notnamed,which atonetime Ithoughtmighthavebeentaken from thistemple,andconsequently might giveits dateaboutA.D.689,whichwouldfairlyagreewiththestyle,judgedfrom thatof someofthecavesatElura,whichitverymuchresembles.'PicturesqueIllustrationsofAncient ArchitectureinHindostan,'plate6,withdescription.Tod's'Annals ofRajasthan,'vol. ii.p. 734.His trans-lation, however,wasworthless;thedateis moreprobablyofA.D.824.'IndianAntiquary,'vol. v.pp.i8of.CHAP. IV.CHANDRAVATI.Eran,thisChandravatifragment completesthe list ofwhatweatpresentcanfeel sureofhavingbeenerectedbeforethemiddleof the9th century.There are doubtlessothers,suchasthetemplesat PathariandTigowa,thatmaybe of even an earlierage,and it would be welltheywereexamined,for this is one of the mostelegant specimensof architecture of itsperiod (WoodcutNo.335).It has notthepoetryofarrangementof theJainaoctagonaldomes,but itapproaches verynearlyto thembythelarge square spacein thecentre,which was coveredbyoneof the mostelegantly designedand most**,exquisitelycarved roofs known to existB-anywhere.Itsarrangementisevidently jg1borrowed from that of Buddhistviharas,and it differs from them instylebecausetheirinteriors wereplasteredandpainted ,here,on thecontrary,everythingis carved335-in stone.1It is a Saiva shrine.Leavingthesefragments, oneoftheoldest,andcertainlyoneof the mostperfect,in Central India is the desecratedtempleatBaroli,situated in awildand romanticspotnot far fromthefalls oftheChambal,whosedistant roar in thestillnightis theonlysound thatbreaksthe silenceof the solitudearoundthemTheprincipaltemple,representedintheWoodcutNo.336,mayprobably, pendinga moreprecisedetermination,beascribed tothe9thor lothcentury,andis oneof the fewofthatagenowknown;it wasoriginallydedicated to Siva. Itsgeneralout-line is identicalwiththat ofthecontemporaryOrissantemples.But instead of theastylarenclosedporch,ormandapa,it hasapillared porticoofgreat elegance,whose roofreacheshalf-wayupthetemple,and issculpturedwitharichnessandcomplexityofdesignalmostunrivalled,even in thosedaysofpatientprodigalityoflabour. It will be observed in theplan (Wood-cut No.337)that the dimensions areremarkablysmall,andthetempleisonly 58ft.high,so that its meritconsistsentirelyin itsshapeandproportions,and in theeleganceandprofusionoftheornamentthatcovers it.1Tod(vol.ii.pp. 733ff.), givesseveralplatesof the details of theporch byanative artistfairlywell drawn but want-ingshadow to render themintelligible.Unfortunatelywe now learn that thismonumenthadbeenrepaired twoorthreeyears ago,withugly masonry, plasterandwhitewash. Suchis whathastobeexpectedwhereveranancientmonumentisrepairedbyHindusorentrustedtotheordinaryengineertoclean.i$4NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE. BOOKVI.infrontofthetempleis adetachedporch,calledaChawadiornuptialhall,similartothatin frontofthetempleatMudhera336. Templeat Baroli.(FromaDrawingbytheAuthor.)1020 30337.PlanofTempleatBaroli.(FromDrawingsbytheAuthor.)inGujarat;in this tradition records themarriageofa Huna(Hun)princeto aRajputnibride,forwhichpurposeit is fabledCHAP. IV. BAROLI.135to have been erected;lbut whether this is so ornot,it isone of the finestexamplesof such detached halls known inthenorth. We miss here theoctagonaldome of theJains,whichwouldhavegiveneleganceandreliefto itsceiling,thoughthevarietyin thespacingof thecolumns has been attainedbyadifferentprocess.Whenthedomewasfirstemployedin Hinduarchi-tecture,theyseem to have at-temptedtogainsufficient reliefto their otherwise monotonousarrangementofcolumnsbybreak-ing upthe externaloutlineoftheplanof themandapa,andbyrangingtheaisles,as itwere,diagonallyacross thebuilding,instead ofplacingthemparallelto the sides.Othertwotempleshere,tothesouthofthepreceding,are smallerbutessentiallyof the samestyle,thoughmorepointedin theirform,and areconsequentlyeither moremodern indate,or if of the sameagewhichmaydoubtless be thecase wouldbringthe dateof thewholegroupdown to the lothcentury, which,afterall, maybetheir true date.Thelargerofthetwois knownas thetempleofParvati,and infront ofit,a littlewayfromthegreat temple,were twopillars,one of which(still standingin1873)is hererepresented2(WoodcutNo.338). They evidently supportedone ofthosetorans,orarchways,which succeeded thegatewaysof theBuddhisttopes,and formfrequentlyavery pleasing adjunctto Hindutemples.From the architraves of certain ofthese,thegodwasswungatcertain festivals.Theyare,however,frailedifices atbest,andeasily overthrown,wherever thebigotryof the Moslims came intoplay.338.Pillar at Baroli.(FromaPlateinTod's'AnnalsofRajasthan.')1Tod's'AnnalsofRajasthan,'vol. ii.p.712.^ForthelegendofRajaHuna andPingala Rani,seevol. ii.p. 215.IndianAntiquary,'2For aphotographof thisand of thetwoneighbouring temples,see'Archi-tecture andSceneryinGujaratandRajputana,' plate22.136NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE. BOOKVI.KlRTTI-STAMBHA GATEWAYS.TorangatewaysorKirtti-stambhas,asaboveremarked,werecommonadjunctsto Hindutemplesas well as to Buddhiststupas.Thegatewaysat Sanchi and Bharautare the earliestwe can nowpointto;but of similarpurpose,thoughofverydifferentconstruction,were suchgatewaysas those at Baroliand the fouralreadymentioned atWorangal (vol. i., p. 435),whichmaybelongto the I2thcentury.But there are othersof the same character thatmaybe here mentioned. Theonlyoneyetknown in the Dekhan is at the ruinedtempleofGalaganath,outsideAihole,which still retains the lintelsupported bytwo massivesquarecarvedpillars,and fromthestyleandcarving maydate from about A.D.900;but ifthere ever was apedimentover the lintel it hastotallydisappeared.Of more ornatestyleis one atPathari,in the Gwaliarterritory,about 1 1 miles south-east fromEran,where arealsomanyremains ofgreat antiquityand interest. It stands infront of an oldtemplecalled Gadarmar. The shafts of thepillarsare sixteen sided withGuptabases andcapitalsofthesamepatternas thepillarfrom the Erantemple (WoodcutNo. 166).The brackets thatsupportthe toran arch nowlost also bore female and animalfigureson foursides,butthese aremostlynow lost. Above these brackets thepillarsarecircular,andsupportalargeabacusontheinnerprojectionsofwhich rests therichly-carvedlintel,which carries over itscentre a circular stone oramalajila,with lions on each ofthe end blocks.1It has had nopediment,and mustbelongtotheageoftheGuptaremainsatEran.Infrontof thegreat Surya templeat Mudhera inGujaratthere stood a fine Kirtti-stambhagateway,but the whole ofthepedimenthasfallen,andonlythepillars, 24ft. 6 in.high,remainstandingof the structure erected in A.D. 1026.But,besidesthearchatthe RudraMahalayaatSiddhapur,about32ft.inheight,but nowconsiderablyinjured,there areatVadnagar,theancientAnandapur,two fineexamplesalmostentire,about35Jft. inheight.Thephotographicview(Plate XXIV.),willenablethereader to form an ideaof thestyleof theseGujaratKtrtti-stambhas.Theymust havebelongedto somelargetemplein this once notable sacredcity.Anothersmallerbutsimilargateway,ofnearly 23ft. totalheight,stands above a1 'AncientMonuments,Temples,etc.,ofIndia,'plate222;'JournalAsiat. Soc.ofBengal,'vol. xvii.pp. 3O7ff.PLATE XVIII.TEMPLE OF PA.RSVVANATH ATKHAJURAHO. (Seepage50,Vol.//.){Frontispiece.PLATE XXIV.KIRTTI-STAMBHA AT VADXAGAR.\ Toface page 136,Vol. II.CHAP. IV. GWALIAR.kund or sacred tank atKapadvanj,about 60 miles south-south-east from the last.1AtRewa,thecapitalofBaghelkhand,about30miles eastfrom Satnarailway station,is the mostrichly sculpturedofall thesegateways.It wasbroughtfrom the ruins ofGurgi-Masaun,anolddesertedcity,12 miles east fromRewa,andsetupin frontofthepalace.It is about n ft. wideand17ft. tothe underside of thelintel,which is of threesuperimposedblocks of aheightofabout 6 ft.9in.very richlycarved,themiddlecoursebeingperforated right throughandshowingthefiguresin full relief. Theuppercorner blocksandpedimentifevertheyexisted arewanting.Like most of the others itis Brahmanicalandis coveredwithfigure sculpturesofallsizes,largely female,with devatas andgriffons.2Itmay probablybelongto the end of the I2thcentury.Thereis still anothergatewayatGyaraspur;3andthelatest areperhapsthoseonthedamatRajasamudra.GwALlAR.The oldesttempleat Gwaliaris, doubtless,the small oneon the roadupto thefort,excavated in the solid rock anddedicated toChaturbhujor Vishnu. It bears twoinscriptionsstatingthat itwasmadebythegovernorofthefort in A.D.875.It isonly12 ft.square,with aporticoin front 10 ft.by9 ft.,supportedon two advancedpillars.The roof is a truncatedpyramiddivided into smallsteps, resemblingthat on theDhamnarrock-temple,and in details like the Teli Mandir.This is crownedbya small modern dome.4Thereare, however,in the fortresshere,twoveryremark-abletemples:one,knownas theSas-Bahu,has been mistakenfor aJaina erection,but it isdesignatedand dedicated toPadmanabha or Vishnu.5The firsttemplewas finishedapparentlyin A.D.IO93,6and,though dreadfullyruined,is stilla mostpicturesque fragment.What remains is the cruciformporchofatemplewhich,whencomplete,measured 100 ft. fromfront torear,and63ft. across the arms of theporch.Ofthesanctuary,with its^ikhara, nothingis left butthe foundation;1 'Archaeological Surveyof WesternIndia,'vol.ix.,pp. 67, 79? 84,andplates 44, 49, 57,and59;vol. viii.p. 94andplate82.2L. Griffin's'Famous MonumentsofCentralIndia,' plates 87-89 ;Cunning-ham's'Reports,'vol. xix.p.80 andplate 19.3Cunningham,'Reports,'vol. x.p. 33.4 *EpigraphiaIndica,'vol. i.pp.154f.;Cunningham,'Archaeological Reports,'vol. ii.pp. 335, 355;and Sir L.Griffin,*FamousMonumentsofCentralIndia,'plate 39.5RajendralalMitrawhotranslatedtheinscriptionread'Padmanatha'andtriedtoidentifythe name withPadmapra-bhanathathe6thTirthankara.Cunning-ham, 'Archaeological Reports,'vol. ii.P- 357-6 'IndianAntiquary,'vol. xv.p. 36.138NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE. BOOKVI.CHAP. IV. GWALIAR.139340- Teh'-ka-Mandir,Gwaliar.(FromaPhotograph.)140NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE. BOOKVI.but theporch,whichis threestoreysinheight,isconstructivelyentire,thoughits details andprincipallythose ofits roof areverymuch shattered(WoodcutNo.339).Anoldertempleis describedbyGeneralCunningham,1but,as it was used as amosque,there is too little oftheoriginalstructureleft to showthe characterofthedesign.Amutilatedinscriptionwas dated in A.D. 1108,and severalJaina imageswere found in the substructure.At the sameplacethere isanother,bearingthe notverydignifiedname of theTeli-ka-Mandir,or Oilman'sTemple(WoodcutNo.340).It is asquareof 60 ft. eachway,withaporticoon the eastprojectingabout 1 1 ft. Unlike the othertempleswehavebeendescribing,it doesnotterminateupwardsin apyramid,nor is it crownedbyanamalaka,but in aridgeof about30ft. inextent,whichmay originallyhavehad three amalakasuponit. I cannothelp believingthatthis form oftemplewas once more common than we nowfind it. There are severalexamplesof it atMamallapuram(WoodcutNos.185, 193, 194), evidently copiedfrom a formcommonamongtheBuddhists,andoneverybeautifulexampleisfoundatBhuvane^war,2therecalledKapilaDevi,anddedicatedto 5iva. The Teli-ka-Mandir wasoriginallydedicated toVishnu,but there is noinscriptionoranytradition fromwhichits datecan begathered ;on thewhole,however,wemayplaceit aboutthe loth or nthcentury.3KHAJURAHO.Asmentionedabove,thefinest and mostextensivegroupoftemples belongingto the Northern orIndo-Aryan styleofarchitecture is thatgatheredround thegreat templeatBhuvane^war.Theyarealso the mostinteresting historically,inasmuch as their dates extendthroughfour or fivecenturies,andtheyaloneconsequentlyenable ustobridgeover the darkagesof Indian art. Fromits remotesituation,Orissa seemstohaveescaped,to some extent atleast,from the troubles thatagitatednorthernandwestern Indiaduringthe MiddleAges;andthoughfrom this cause we have asyetfew remains inCentral IndiaexcepttheChaturbhuj rock-templeatGwaliar,to fillupthegapbetween Chandravati andGwaliar,in Orissatheseries iscomplete,and,ifproperlyexamined anddescribed,wouldafford aconsecutivehistoryofthestylefromsay800 toiiooor 1 200A.D.1Cunningham,utsupra, plate 90andpp. 362, 363.2Aviewofthistemplewill be foundinmy'PicturesqueIllustrationsofIndianArchitecture,'plate 4.3SirL.Griffin,'FamousMonuments,1utsupra, pp. 62-69,andplate40.CHAP. IV.KHAJURAHO. 141Next in interest and extent to the Bhuvane^wargroupisthat atKhajuraho,the oldcapitalof theChandellas,inBundelkhand,as before mentioned1(p. 49).At thisplace,about150miles south-east fromGwaliar,there arenow to befound somethirty important temples,all ofwhich,with theexceptionof the ChausathJogintand theGanthai,describedwhentreatingofJainaarchitecture,areofnearlythesameage.Noris itdifficult,fromtheirstyleand fromtheinscriptions,toseewhatthatagewas. TheinscriptionsrangefromA.D.954toA.D. 1 002;2andthoughit is notalwaysclear towhatparticulartemplethey apply,weshall notprobablyerr muchif weassignthe wholetwenty-eight templesenumerated to thecenturybeginning950andending 1050,with amarginofa fewyearseitherway.What renders thisgroupmorethanusuallyinter-esting is,that theKhajuraho templesare dividedbetweenthethreegreatIndianreligions: about one-thirdbeing Jaina,one-thirdVaishnava,andtheremaindervSaiva;and allbeingnearlycontemporary,itconveysanimpressionof toleration thatpre-vailed at thatperiod.In eachgroupthere is one or morelargertempleswithsmallerones scattered about. Inthe5aivaclass it is theKhandarya Mahadeva,and in the Vaishnavaseries it is theChaturbhujaorRamachandra.Acuriousresult ofthis toleration orcommunityoffeeling is,that the architecture of all the threegroupsis sosimilarthat,lookingto italone,no one couldsayto which of the threereligions anyparticulartemplebelonged.It isonlywhen theirsculpturesareexaminedthattheiroriginaldestination becomesapparent,andeventhenthereareanomalieswhich it is difficulttoexplain.Aportion,forinstance,of thesculpturesof theprincipalSaivatempletheKandaryaMahadeva are of agrosslyindecent character;3which is understood to be com-parativelyrarein 5aivatemples,but not unusual onVaishnavashrines. But here the factmaybe added tomanyothers toprovehowmixedtogetherthe various sects were even at thattime,andhowlittleantagonistictheythenweretoeachother.Thegeneralcharacter of thesetemples maybegatheredfrom the annexedrepresentation (WoodcutNo.341)of thegreatSaivatemple,theKandaryaMahadeva. Aswill beseenfromtheplan(WoodcutNo.342),it is109ft. inlength,by60ft.1We are indebted to Gen.Cunning-ham for most of our information aboutthisplace,and it is from his'Reports'andfromphotographsthat thefollowingaccount has beenchiefly compiled.'ArchaeologicalReports,'vol. ii.pp.412-438;vol. vii.pp. 41, 42, 55-58 ;vol. x.pp. 16-213an plates1-8.2Cunningham saysit is ascribed toMubarak KMn Pathan;MrFanshaweassignsit to MuhammadShahIV.,whodied1443,butto whomSayyidAhmadascribes anotheroctagonaltomb to thenorth-east of themosque. Cunning-ham's'Archaeological Reports,'vol. xx.pp. 158, 159;andFanshawe's'TVlhi.'p.244,Delhi,'CHAP. III. LATER PATHAN STYLE.217OldDelhi. It stands at thevillageofKhairpur,about3milessouthfromtheAjmirgateofDelhi,andonthe south-westofthe379-TombatKhairpur,OldDelhi.(FromaSketchbytheAuthor.)mosque.It consists of anoctagonal apartment, 31ft. 10 in.insidediameter,surroundedbya verandahfollowingthesameform thebasebeing 72ft. 2 in. in diameter eachfacebeingornamentedbythreearchesofthe stiltedpointedformgenerallyadoptedbythePathans,or ratherSayyids,and it issupportedby rectangular pillars,which are almost as universal withthem as this form of arch. It is a formevidentlyborrowedfrom thesquare pierof theJains,but so altered and sosimplified,that itrequiressomeingenuitytorecogniseitsoriginin its new combination.Anotheroctagonaltomb,to the north-east ofthemosque,is built in the samestyleand of almostexactlythe samedimensions;and the tomb of Mubarak Shah II.(murderedin1434)at KotilaorMubarakpur,aboutamileandahalfsouthofKhairpur,is alsoofthesamepatternandsize. It is theearliestofthoseinthelaterPathanstyle.1This series oftombs closes with that of Sher Shah(1539-1AplanisgiveninCunningham's'Archaeological Reports,vol. xx.plate35.2l8 INDIAN SARACENICARCHITECTURE. BOOKVII.!545) (WoodcutNo.380),the most illustrious of his race. Itis situated on a terrace30ft.highandabout300ft.square,in the middle ofalarge tank,nearSahsaram,in Shah-abad, and,from itslocalityand itsdesign,is now asingularly picturesqueobject(WoodcutNo.381).Its dimen-sionstoo are considerable.1Its baseisanoctagon,56ft. oneachsideexternally,or135ft. in diameter. Agallery,10ft. 2 in.wide,surrounds the centralapartment,which is surmountedbyalargedome71ft. indiameter,be-neath which stands the tomb of thefounder and ofsome of his favouritecompanionsin arms.380.TombofSher SMhatSahsaram.Scale 100ft. to i in.381.Tombof SherShahatSahsaram.(FromaPhotograph.)Ontheexterior,theterraceonwhichit stands isornamented1Cunningham's'Archaeological Reports,'vol. xi.p. 135.CHAP. III. LATER PATHAN STYLE.219byboldoctagonalpavilionsin theangles,whichsupportappro-priatelythe centraldome,and the little bracketed kiosksbetween them breakpleasinglythe outline. In the samemanner theoctagonalkiosks that cluster round the drum ofthedome,and the domeitself,relieve themonotonyof thecompositionwithoutdetractingfrom itssolidityorapparentsolemnity. Altogether,as aroyaltomb of the secondclass,there are few thatsurpassit inIndia,either forbeautyofoutline orappropriatenessof detail.Originallyit was con-nected with the mainlandbyabridge,whichfortunatelywasbroken down before thegrandtrunk roadpassednear. Butforthis,it wouldprobablyhave been utilisedlong ago.1Themosquesof these Sultans bore the sameaspectastheirtombs. Theso-called Kalaor KalanMasjidin thepresentcityofDelhi,andfinished,accordingto aninscriptionon itswalls,inA.D.1387,isin astylenotunlikethe tomb (WoodcutNo.379),but moremassive,and even less ornamented. This severesimplicityseems to have been the characteristic of the latterpartof theI4th century,andmayhave been aprotestofthemorepuritanicalMoslimspirit againstthe Hindu exuberancewhich characterised both theI3thand theI5thcenturies. Areaction,however,tookplace,and the laterstyleof Delhiwashardlylessrich,andcertainlyfar moreappropriatefor thepurposesto which it was devoted than the firststyle,asexhibited in thebuildingsat theQutb.This, however,wasprincipally owingto theexceptionalsplendourof thereignof SherShah,who,however,is so mixedupboth in date and in association with the earlierMughals,that it is difficult todiscriminatebetweenthem.ThoughBabarconqueredIndia in A.D.1526,hissuccessor,Humayun,wasdefeatedanddrivenfrom the thronebySherShahin A.D.1540,and it wasonlyin A.D.1555that theMughal dynastywasfinallyandsecurelyestablished at Delhi. Thestyleconse-quentlyofthe first half of the i6thcenturymaybeconsideredas the lastexpiringeffort of thePathans,or the first dawnofthatofthegreatMughals,andit waswellworthyofeither.Atthisagethefagadesof thesemosquesbecame far moreornamental,and morefrequentlyencrusted withmarbles,andalwaysadornedwithsculptureofarich andbeautifulcharacter;theanglesofthebuildingswere also relievedbylittlekiosks,supported byfourrichlybracketedpillars,but never with1In the'Journalof Indian Art an