39

3

Historical and Iconographic Aspects ofSakta Tantrism

M. C. Joshi

The Sanskrit term tantra derives from the verb tan meaning to expand, and thus, itliterally denotes anything that can be stretched or extended like threads on aloom.1 In its developed form, Tantra refers to a complex of cultic practices, rituals,mysticism, and secret rites that are based on a philosophy and deep spiritualdevotion centering on the concept of Supreme Power. That power, called Sakti,has diverse manifestations. According to traditional beliefs, the Tantras, whetherassociated with Saktism or other sectarian orders of Indian origin, evolved inremote antiquity and were interwoven with an intricate mythology. Assessment ofthe available data, both literary and archaeological, provides information on theorigin and growth of Sakta Tantrism and other similar systems. Sakta Tantrism hasits roots in prehistoric concepts of a fertile mother goddess and ancient systems forher worship. Scores of her representations dating to the Upper Paleolithic, if notearlier, attest to her primary importance in India’s most ancient culture.

The earliest example of an Indian mother goddess figurine dates to theUpper Paleolithic. Found in the Belan Valley near Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh bythe late G. R. Sharma, the image is made of bone and is carved in the round; inshape it resembles a harpoon. On the basis of carbon 14 determinations, it hasbeen dated between 23,840 (plus or minus 830 years) B.C. E. and 17,765 (plus orminus 340 years).2 Also dating to the Upper Paleolithic are colorful stones markedwith natural triangles. Sharma found the first of these stones resting on an area ofraised ground at Baghor in Son Valley, near Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh. Accordingto Sharma, several similar stones now have been found in that same area; theypresently are under worship as Argarimai or Mother-Fire.3 These stones withtriangles, Sharma claims, are related to a primitive mother goddess. They also maydemonstrate connections to the later Tantric use of yantras in which trianglesmanifest a vital symbolism connected with fertility. While we have no specificcomments to offer on Sharma’s hypothesis, it should be noted that it is difficult totrace a direct link between the archaeological evidence from Belan and Baghor andthose goddess figurines that have been found in later Neolithic and Chalcolithicexcavations.

3

Historical and Iconographic Aspects ofalcta Tantrism

M C. loshi

The Sanskrit term tantra derives from the verb tan meaning to expand, and thus, itliterally denotes anything that can be stretched or extended like threads on aloom.1 I n i ts d ev el op ed form, Tantra refers to a complex of cultic practices, rituals,

mysticism, and secret rites that are based on a philosophy and deep spiritualdevotion centering on the concept of Supreme Power. That power, called al(ti,has diverse manifestations. According to traditional beliefs, the Tantras, whetherassociated with al(tism or other sectarian orders of Indian origin, evolved inremote antiquity and were interwoven with an intricate mythology. Assessment ofthe available data, both literary and archaeological, provides information on theorigin and growth of al(ta Tantrism and other similar systems. a.kta Tantrism hasits roots in prehistoric concepts of a fertile mother goddess and ancient systems forher worship. Scores of her representations dating to the Upper Paleolithic, if notearlier, attest to her primary importance in India's most ancient culture.

The earliest example of an Indian mother goddess figurine dates to theUpper Paleolithic. Found in the Belan Valley near Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh bythe late G. R. Sharma, the image is made of bone and is carved in the round; inshape it resembles a harpoon. On the basis of carbon 14 determinations, it hasbeen dated between 23,840 (plus or minus 830 years) B.C. E. and 17,765 (plus orminus 340 years).2 A l s o d a t i n g t o t h e U p pe r P a l eo l i th i c are c ol or fu l s to ne s marked

with natural triangles. Sharma found the first of these stones resting on an area ofraised ground at Baghor in Son Valley, near Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh. Accordingto Sharma, several similar stones now have been found in that same area; theypresently are under worship as Argarimai or Mother-Fire.3 T h e s e s t o n e s w i t htriangles, Sharma claims, are related to a primitive mother goddess. They also maydemonstrate connections to the later Tantric use of yantras in which trianglesmanifest a vital symbolism connected with fertility. While we have no specificcomments to offer on Sharma's hypothesis, it should be noted that it is difficult totrace a direct link between the archaeological evidence from Belan and Baghor andthose goddess figurines that have been found in later Neolithic and Chalcolithicexcavations.

39

40 M. C. Joshi

Of the interesting Mother Goddess figurines brought to light in recenttimes in Pakistan mention should be made of specimens found at Sheri KhanTarakai in the Bannu District and Mehargarh-Nausharo. The former site, datedbetween 4500 and 3000 !.".#. by the excavators, has yielded several femalefigurines, both plain and painted; the various examples can be placed into threebroad classes: (1) examples with a pinched nose and wearing a headdress withcurled horns; (2) examples with a black spot showing affiliations with a snakegoddess; (3) examples showing exaggerated genitalia. Of the three groups, themost significant is the third, in which figurines with one enlarged female organhave traces of a male genital above. Excavators have identified this rare type asbeing hermaphroditic.4 Related to this group is a protohistoric female fertilityfigure from Periano Ghundai, Pakistan, in which only the lower half is markedwith a yoni.

Most of the protohistoric Mother Goddess figurines are executed in a primi-tive style with conventionalized features; those found at Harappa and Nausharo inPakistan, however, are somewhat more refined.5 Mother Goddess figures fromHarappa and Mohenjo Daro demonstrate a variety of styles; the diversity mayindicate the existence of different craft or religious traditions in Harappan culture.Two Harappan sites in India, Lothal in Gujarat and Banawali in Haryana, haveyielded Goddess images that may indicate religious diversity in the Harappanpopulation of the subcontinent as well. Representation of female deities on theIndus seals and sealings include indications of rituals involving animal sacrifice.Cultic forms of a fertility goddess appear on seals showing a female figure standingin the branches of the pipal tree. It is likely that the Mother Goddesses representedin terra-cotta and the female deities carved on seals represented two types of beliefspertaining to worship of goddesses in at least two levels of the society that werelocated in the same settlement; in other words, an authoritarian class and acommon class may have had two distinct modes of worship. Given our currentknowledge, we are unable to understand fully the position of a Mother Goddess asa fertility deity or, for that matter, the role of other female divinities in the religiousfabric of the protohistoric societies of India. It is uncertain if the Harappanpopulation had any idea of a single supreme Goddess with or without a malecounterpart or if they were governed by magician-priests or even if they had ahighly developed religion.6

From the later Chalcolithic culture, a tiny clay figurine of a headless goddessis worthy of mention. Found in a small container at Ingamgaon in Maharashtra,the image was buried under the floor of a house (1300 !.".#. to 1000 !.".#.).7 Theheadless figures has a parallel in the medieval form of the Tantric Devi known asChinnamasta.

The oldest literary works in India, the Vedas, preserve some interestingelements of Sakta Tantrism. Of the Vedic female divinities, the most significant forthe historical development of Saktism are Aditi (Universal Mother), Usa (Dawn),Ratrı (Night), Sarasvatı (Supreme Mother and the River), Vac (Speech), and

40 M . C Joshi

Of the interesting Mother Goddess figurines brought to light in recenttimes in Pakistan mention should be made of specimens found at Sheri KhanTarakai in the Bannu District and Mehargarh-Nausharo. The former site, datedbetween 4500 and 3000 B.C.E. by the excavators, has yielded several femalefigurines, both plain and painted; the various examples can be placed into threebroad classes: (1) examples with a pinched nose and wearing a headdress withcurled horns; (2) examples with a black spot showing affiliations with a snakegoddess; (3) examples showing exaggerated genitalia. Of the three groups, themost significant is the third, in which figurines with one enlarged female organhave traces of a male genital above. Excavators have identified this rare type asbeing hermaphroditic.4 R e l a t e d t o t h i s g r o up i s a p r o t oh i s t or i c f em al e f e rt i li t y

figure from Periano Ghundai, Pakistan, in which only the lower half is markedwith a yoni.

Most of the protohistoric Mother Goddess figurines are executed in a primi-tive style with conventionalized features; those found at Harappa and Nausharo inPakistan, however, are somewhat more refined.5 M o t h e r G o d d e s s fi g u r e s f r o m

Harappa and Mohenjo Daro demonstrate a variety of styles; the diversity mayindicate the existence of different craft or religious traditions in Harappan culture.Two Harappan sites in India, Lothal in Gujarat and Banawali in Haryana, haveyielded Goddess images that may indicate religious diversity in the Harappanpopulation of the subcontinent as well. Representation of female deities on theIndus seals and sealings include indications of rituals involving animal sacrifice.Cultic forms of a fertility goddess appear on seals showing a female figure standingin the branches of the pipal tree. It is likely that the Mother Goddesses representedin terra-cotta and the female deities carved on seals represented two types of beliefspertaining to worship of goddesses in at least two levels of the society that werelocated in the same settlement; in other words, an authoritarian class and acommon class may have had two distinct modes of worship. Given our currentknowledge, we are unable to understand fully the position of a Mother Goddess asa fertility deity or, for that matter, the role of other female divinities in the religiousfabric of the protohistoric societies of India. I t is uncertain i f the Harappanpopulation had any idea of a single supreme Goddess with or without a malecounterpart or if they were governed by magician-priests or even if they had ahighly developed religion.6 From the later Chalcolithic culture, a tiny clay figurine of a headless goddessis worthy of mention. Found in a small container at Ingamgaon in Maharashtra,the image was buried under the floor of a house (1300 B.C.E. to 1000 13.C.E.).7 T h eheadless figures has a parallel in the medieval form of the Tantric Devi known asChinnamasta.

The oldest literary works in India, the Vedas, preserve some interestingelements of a•l(ta Tantrism. Of the Vedic female divinities, the most significant forthe historical development of al(tism are Aditi (Universal Mother), Up. (Dawn),Rata (Night), Sarasvati (Supreme Mother and the River), Vac (Speech), and

41Historical and Iconographic Aspects of Sakta Tantrism

Prthivı (Earth) who together with Dyaus (Sky) represented the elements of univer-sal parenthood as did Sakti and Siva of later times. Sarasvatı also is called Bharatı, aname that later became a synonym for language and speech.

Important to the growth of Saktism was the Vedic Vac who represented thefirst perception of infinite, incomprehensible and invisible Energy in the form ofsound. In fact, Vac had four stages—the subtle state called Para Vac, the internalvibrant stage called Pasyantı, the more developed vibrant form called MadhyamaVac, and the externally audible sound called Vaikharı. Para and Pasyantı repre-sented the higher stages of perception; but, according to tradition, the realizationof mantras as divine words was possible only in the state of Madhyama Vac. Thus,in the Atharva Veda (19–71–1), Vac was called Veda Mata or the Mother of theVedas (Stutamaya sahita Vedamata). Similarly, the later Tantras call the GoddessSabdanam Jananı, that is, Creator of Words.8 In our search for the roots ofSaktism, we cite the important Vedic hymn called the Vagambhrni Sukta from theRg Veda (10.125). The hymn, was composed by Vac, the daughter of the sageAmbhrna. In the hymn, Vac refers to herself as the female energy that is SupremePower, the upholder of sovereignty and the controller of various deities such asVasu, Soma, Tvasta, the Rudras, and the Adityas. She also is called a source oftreasures, sustainer of nature’s forces, and bestower of favors. Without doubt, thehymn preserves a strong elements of monotheistic thought that forms the verybasis of historical Saktism.

Important among the later Vedic female deities is Srı Laksmı or Srıma whois mentioned for the first time in the Srı Sukta, a supplementary hymn in the RgVeda. As the goddess of prosperity, wealth, fortune, and vegetation, she is identi-fied as a golden doe (hiranyavarnam harinım) decked with gold and silver threads,as a column of pleasant golden light-bearing lotus garlands; she is a royal divinityseated within a golden enclosure who derives joy from the presence of trumpetingelephants (hastinada pramodinım). Subsequently, a common symbolic formamong Buddhists, Jains, and Hindus represented Laksmı flanked by elephants.She also was incorporated into the Tantric pantheon as one of the ten Mahavidyas.Even now, the Srı Sukta is recited in Sakta Tantric rituals, especially during theceremonial bath of the Goddess. The Srı Sukta, addressed to Jatavedas or Fire,9

demonstrates that the Goddess originally was invoked for the performance of theyajna (fire sacrifice). One verse of the Srı Sukta refers to Jyestha or Alakasmı, thegoddess of poverty and misfortune, who is identical to the Mahavidya Dhumavatıof later Tantric tradition. In the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad 7.4, there is an impor-tant reference associating Vac with such ritualistic terminology that formed theelementary components of the mantras of Sakta Tantrism.

By the middle of the first millennium !.".#., certain names and forms of thegoddess, such as Uma-Haimavatı, Ambika, Durga, Varocanı, Sarvanı, Bhavanı,were known. In connection with the construction of forts, the Arthasastra ofKautilya referred to the worship of the goddesses Aparajita and Madira, both ofwhom were recognized later in the medieval Tantric tradition. Aparajita (Invinc-

Historical and Iconographic Aspects of Sakta Tantrism 4 1

Pt-thivi (Earth) who together with Dyaus (Sky) represented the elements of univer-sal parenthood as did al(ti and iva of later times. Sarasvati also is called Bhdrati, aname that later became a synonym for language and speech.

Important to the growth of aktism was the Vedic Vat who represented thefirst perception of infinite, incomprehensible and invisible Energy in the form ofsound. In fact, Vdc had four stages—the subtle state called Para Vac, the internalvibrant stage called Pas'yanti, the more developed vibrant form called MadhyamaVac, and the externally audible sound called Vaikhari. Para and Pas'yanti repre-sented the higher stages of perception; but, according to tradition, the realizationof mantras as divine words was possible only in the state of Madhyama Vac. Thus,in the Atharva Veda (19-71-1), Vat was called Veda Mad or the Mother of theVedas (Stutamaya sahita Vedamata). Similarly, the later Tantras call the GoddessSabdanam lanani, that is, Creator of Words.8 I n o u r s e a r c h f o r t h e r o o t s o f

d,l(tism, we cite the important Vedic hymn called the Vagambhrni Saleta from the/.?g Veda (10.125). The hymn, was composed by Vat, the daughter of the sage

Ambht-na. In the hymn, Vat refers to herself as the female energy that is SupremePower, the upholder of sovereignty and the controller of various deities such asVasu, Soma, Tvastd, the Rudras, and the Adityas. She also is called a source oftreasures, sustainer of nature's forces, and bestower of favors. Without doubt, thehymn preserves a strong elements of monotheistic thought that forms the verybasis of historical aktism.

Important among the later Vedic female deities is r i Lakmi or rimã whois mentioned for the first time in the Sri Saleta, a supplementary hymn in the /.? gVeda. As the goddess of prosperity, wealth, fortune, and vegetation, she is identi-fied as a golden doe (hirayavaniam harhillp) decked with gold and silver threads,as a column of pleasant golden light-bearing lotus garlands; she is a royal divinityseated within a golden enclosure who derives joy from the presence of trumpetingelephants (hastinada pramodiniip). Subsequently, a common symbolic formamong Buddhists, Jams, and Hindus represented Lakgni flanked by elephants.She also was incorporated into the Tantric pantheon as one of the ten Mandvidyds.Even now, the Sri Saleta is recited in akta Tantric rituals, especially during theceremonial bath of the Goddess. The Sri Saleta, addressed to latavedas or Fire,9demonstrates that the Goddess originally was invoked for the performance of theyajna (fire sacrifice). One verse of the Sri Saleta refers to lyqthd or Alakami, thegoddess of poverty and misfortune, who is identical to the Mahavidyd Dhumdvatiof later Tantric tradition. In the Brhadaralgaka Upani,cad 7.4, there is an impor-tant reference associating Vat with such ritualistic terminology that formed theelementary components of the mantras of dkta. Tantrism.

By the middle of the first millennium 13.C.E., certain names and forms of thegoddess, such as Umd-Haimavati, Ambikd, Durgd, Varocani, Sarvar.ii, B h a v a n i ,were known. In connection with the construction of forts, the Arthas'astra ofKautilya referred to the worship of the goddesses Aparajita and Madird, both ofwhom were recognized later in the medieval Tantric tradition. Aparajitd (Invinc-

42 M. C. Joshi

ible) might have been an Indianized representation of the Greek Goddess Nike.Madira (the Goddess of Wine) also was known as Sudha or Suradevı in Tantricrituals. In Tantric texts, she is described as a lustful young damsel of sixteen yearswith three eyes, wearing ornaments and red clothing.10 According to the Puranictradition, Madira or Sudhadevı, like Laksmı, had her birth in the churning of theocean. What is more interesting in Kautilya’s Arthasastra (14.117.1), there is asacrificial chant (mantra) invoking Aditi and Sarasvatı and other gods for thepreservation of a fort. Kautilya also identifies the diverse types of fires used insacrifices, that is, the kilns of potters or smiths, funeral pyres, houses of fallen anddevoted wives, or candalas (outcastes). He also mentions offerings of animal fatand flesh as being part of the magical, religious practices. He indicates too thatcertain mantras with non-Sanskritic expressions should be used for the sacrifices.11

Certainly some of the components of the magical religious rituals and practicesderived from the Sabara or other aboriginal tradition of the Tantras.

The growth of the cult of the Goddess between the third century !.".#. andthe first century !.".#. is verified by a number of beautifully carved ring stones thathave been found in various urban sites ranging from Taxila to Patna, by a stonetablet from Rajgir and by terra-cotta and metal images recovered from varioushistorical sites. The ring stones have minute carvings of various geometric designs,scrolls, animals, birds, vegetation motifs, and palm trees in conjunction withimages of goddesses (Figure 2).12 Some of the goddesses are fixed on the points of atriangle. One ring-stone from Ropar in the Punjab is carved with the image of thegoddess, a devotee, a hut-shaped temple, a priest, and perhaps another devotee(Figure 3).

While most ring stones were fashioned with a hole in the center, a few wereformed as a flat disk. V. S. Agrawala called these carved stones srıyantras13 (mysti-cal diagram of the Goddess) and they, in fact, seem to be the earliest knownyantras. It is possible that they may have been used by a specific group of Saktadevotees. The existence of a cult of the Mother Goddess around the third century!.".#. is suggested also by a plaque from Rajgir that depicts a Mother Goddess invarious poses and a priest or devotee who holds a wine cup (Figure 4). Also, theexistence of a fertility cult is confirmed in part by pots that are decorated withhuman figures displaying conspicuous genitalia; these were found in Sunga andKushan excavations at Mathura, Purana Qila in New Delhi, and Bhita nearAllahabad.

Sakta Tantrism entered a more conspicuous phase of development after thebeginning of the Common Era, perhaps as the result of the increasing interactionbetween India and West Asia, the rise of Mahayana Buddhism and the growth ofPasupata Saivism and other Brahmanical sects. Some non-Indian goddesses suchas Cybele, Ardoxsho, and Nana gradually were incorporated into Brahmanism asBhadrakalı (then Dhuma?), Mahalaksmı and Durga Simhavahinı. Possibly theGreek Goddess Artemis was modified into Vana Durga who subsequently wasidentified with Bhilli or Kiratı in the Indian aboriginal tradition. The infiltration

42 M . C Joshi

ible) might have been an Indianized representation of the Greek Goddess Nike.Madird (the Goddess of Wine) also was known as Sudha or Suradevi in Tantricrituals. In Tantric texts, she is described as a lustful young damsel of sixteen yearswith three eyes, wearing ornaments and red clothing.10 A c c o r d i n g t o t h e P u r d r.fi c

tradition, Madird or Sudhadevi, like Lakgni, had her birth in the churning of theocean. What is more interesting in Kautilya's Arthajastra (14.117.1), there is asacrificial chant (mantra) invoking Aditi and Sarasvati and other gods for thepreservation of a fort. Kautilya also identifies the diverse types of fires used insacrifices, that is, the kilns of potters or smiths, funeral pyres, houses of fallen anddevoted wives, or can(latas (outcastes). He also mentions offerings of animal fatand flesh as being part of the magical, religious practices. He indicates too thatcertain mantras with non-Sanskritic expressions should be used for the sacrifices.11Certainly some of the components of the magical religious rituals and practicesderived from the Thara or other aboriginal tradition of the Tantras.

The growth of the cult of the Goddess between the third century B.C.E. andthe first century B.C.E. is verified by a number of beautifully carved ring stones thathave been found in various urban sites ranging from Taxila to Patna, by a stonetablet from Rajgir and by terra-cotta and metal images recovered from varioushistorical sites. The ring stones have minute carvings of various geometric designs,scrolls, animals, birds, vegetation motifs, and palm trees in conjunction withimages of goddesses (Figure 2).12 S o m e o f t h e g o d d e s s es a r e fi x ed o n t he p o i nt s of a

triangle. One ring-stone from Ropar in the Punjab is carved with the image of thegoddess, a devotee, a hut-shaped temple, a priest, and perhaps another devotee(Figure 3).

While most ring stones were fashioned with a hole in the center, a few wereformed as a flat disk. V. S. Agrawala called these carved stones s'riyantras" (mysti-cal diagram of the Goddess) and they, in fact, seem to be the earliest knownyantras. It is possible that they may have been used by a specific group of aktadevotees. The existence of a cult of the Mother Goddess around the third centuryB.C.E. is suggested also by a plaque from Rajgir that depicts a Mother Goddess invarious poses and a priest or devotee who holds a wine cup (Figure 4). Also, theexistence of a fertility cult is confirmed in part by pots that are decorated withhuman figures displaying conspicuous genitalia; these were found in u r.i g a a n dKushan excavations at Mathura, Purana Qla in New Delhi, and Bhita nearAllahabad.

d,l(ta Tantrism entered a more conspicuous phase of development after thebeginning of the Common Era, perhaps as the result of the increasing interactionbetween India and West Asia, the rise of Mahayana Buddhism and the growth ofPdgupata aivism and other Brahmanical sects. Some non-Indian goddesses suchas Cybele, Ardoxsho, and Nana gradually were incorporated into Brahmanism asBhadrakdli (then Dhumd?), Mandlakmi and Durga Sirfihavdhini. Possibly theGreek Goddess Artemis was modified into Vana Durgd who subsequently wasidentified with Bhilli or Kirati in the Indian aboriginal tradition. The infiltration

Figure 2 Stone disk with Mother Goddesses. Patna, Bihar. Third century !.".#. (Courtesy of the

Archaeological Survey of India)Figure 2 Stone disk with Mother Goddesses. Patna, Bihar. Third century B.C.E. (Courtesy of the

Archaeological Survey of India)

Figure 3 Ring Stone with relief of a Mother Goddess. Ropar, Punjab. Third century !.".#. (Courtesy

of the Archaeological Survey of India)Figure 3 Ring Stone with relief of a Mother Goddess. Ropar, Punjab. Third century B.C.E. (Courtesy

of the Archaeological Survey of India)

Figure 4 Steatite stone tablet. Rajgir, Punjab. Third

century !.".#. (Courtesy of the Archaeological

Survey of India)

V :, w• IP

M JC : •bp rPF'r rwrin.7;rir r

• • -4,t k

-s i-- ,. yr rrwevvve ry ,

r•e • OPP totoPeo seozeonnt

• ,

,;: ?Il k ".f ,,t, 'low!

, : ea : ?,

%

:

wyro-rwrinr.71rP777VVYTIPr

w•romorrY FP? •••fer erryrwririmpgro

% • • I 's• '

Figure 4 Steatite stone tablet. Rajgir, Punjab. Thirdcentury B.C.E. (Courtesy of the ArchaeologicalSurvey of India)

46 M. C. Joshi

of non-Indian goddesses into south Asia is verified by a sliver plaque excavatedfrom Ai-Khanoum in Afghanistan depicting Cybele on a chariot drawn by lionsand accompanied by Nike and priests crossing hilly terrain. In conjunction withthis, we cite the Chhoti Sadari epigraph dated 491 !.". describing an angry Devıwho rides on a chariot drawn by fierce lions.14

During the Kushan Period, Durga became known as Mahisamardinı andKatyayanı; she was depicted as being seated on a lion and was associated withKrsna at Mathura. In the popular tradition, she was regarded as the daughter ofNanda and Yasoda, the foster parents of Krsn.15 It is possible that followers ofSaktism, during the early centuries of the Christian era, borrowed certain ideasfrom the Pasupatas, particularly the concept of pasu or animal (equated in Tantricterminology with an uninitiated human beings) and pasa (bondage to materialattachments and existence). Having incorporated such ideological notions, Sak-tism required a long line of gurus with pedigrees relating back to the first master-teacher Siva or Adinatha himself. An inscription by Candragupta II found atMathura gives evidence that a tradition of gurus already existed among theLakulısa-Pasupatas cult at Mathura. The Saktas also adopted the idea of un-bounded compassion (as if emanating from the Mother Eternal) and the termsunya from the philosophy of the Mahayana Buddhism. Images of the Matrkas,Sasthı and Durga Mahisamardinı produced at Mathura may indicate that the sitewas a center for followers of Neo-Saktism. One notable sculpture from this periodfrom Mathura is of Sarasvatı as a Jain deity; apparently the Jains regarded her asthe personification of the teachings of Jina. The image is dated to c.132 !.". In hertwo hands, she carries a manuscript and the aksamala (rosary) that symbolizesrecorded and unrecorded knowledge. Although the image is Jaina, it is carved inaccordance with iconographic prescriptions of Sakta thought. The aksamala heldby this image is the earliest known sculpted example; it signifies the Sanskritalphabet from the first letter A to the last letter ksa.16 The string of letters A to ksahas profound meaning in the Tantric tradition. The aksamala held by this repre-sentation of Sarasvatı signifies sound/speech or Vac, the first and ancient form ofSakta conceptions. The Jain Sarasvatı from Mathura, thus, embodies the person-ified form of the teachings of the Jaina or Tirthankara as stated by Vappabhatti (c.eighth century !.".) in his Saradastotra.17

The growth of Tantracara (practice of the Tantra) is evidenced by certainreferences in the Divyavadanam, a collection of Buddhist stories datable to thesecond or third century !.". Particularly relevant is the story of Ananda, a closeassociate of the historical Buddha. While roaming near Sravastı, Prakrti thedaughter of a Candala (Matanga), fell in love with Ananda at first glance. Realiz-ing that the fulfillment of her desire to have him was not possible, she enlisted helpfrom her mother, a mahavidhyadharı (an expert in magical and religious for-mulas). The mother prepared a sacrificial altar and offered oblations of 108 arflowers and recited a mantra to the Goddess Amala Vımala.18 The mantra appearsto be part of the aboriginal Sabara Matanga tradition; it is composed in a mixture

46 M . C Joshi

of non-Indian goddesses into south Asia is verified by a sliver plaque excavatedfrom Ai-Khanoum in Afghanistan depicting Cybele on a chariot drawn by lionsand accompanied by Nike and priests crossing hilly terrain. In conjunction withthis, we cite the Chhoti Sadari epigraph dated 491 C.E. describing an angry Deviwho rides on a chariot drawn by fierce lions."

During the Kushan Period, Durga became known as Mahiamardini andKatyayani; she was depicted as being seated on a lion and was associated withKt-Fp at Mathura. In the popular tradition, she was regarded as the daughter ofNanda and Yaoda, the foster parents of Km1.15 I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t f o l l o w e r s o f

aktism, during the early centuries of the Christian era, borrowed certain ideasfrom the Paupatas, particularly the concept ofpas'u or animal (equated in Tantricterminology with an uninitiated human beings) and pas'a (bondage to materialattachments and existence). Having incorporated such ideological notions, ak-tism required a long line of gurus with pedigrees relating back to the first master-teacher iva• or Adinatha himself. An inscription by Candragupta II found atMathura gives evidence that a tradition of gurus already existed among theLakulTha-Pagupatas cult at Mathura. The aktas also adopted the idea of un-bounded compassion (as if emanating from the Mother Eternal) and the terms'unya from the philosophy of the Mahayana Buddhism. Images of the Matt-kas,Sathi and Durga Mahipmardini produced at Mathura may indicate that the sitewas a center for followers of Neo-aktism. One notable sculpture from this periodfrom Mathura is of Sarasvati as a Jain deity; apparently the Jams regarded her asthe personification of the teachings of Tina. The image is dated to c.132 C.E. In hertwo hands, she carries a manuscript and the ales'amala (rosary) that symbolizesrecorded and unrecorded knowledge. Although the image is Jaina, it is carved inaccordance with iconographic prescriptions of dl(ta thought. The akmmala heldby this image is the earliest known sculpted example; it signifies the Sanskritalphabet from the first letter A to the last letter les'a.16 T h e s t r i n g o f l e t t e r s A t o k c a

has profound meaning in the Tantric tradition. The alqamala held by this repre-sentation of Sarasvati signifies sound/speech or Vac, the first and ancient form ofdl(ta conceptions. The Jain Sarasvati from Mathura, thus, embodies the person-

ified form of the teachings of the Jaina or Tirthankara as stated by Vappabhatti (c.eighth century c.E.) in his Saradastotra.17 The growth of Tantracara (practice of the Tantra) is evidenced by certainreferences in the Divyavadantag, a collection of Buddhist stories datable to thesecond or third century C.E. Particularly relevant is the story of Ananda, a closeassociate of the historical Buddha. While roaming near i-avasti, Prakt-ti thedaughter of a Canclala (Matanga), fell in love with Ananda at first glance. Realiz-ing that the fulfillment of her desire to have him was not possible, she enlisted helpfrom her mother, a mandvidhyddharT (an expert in magical and religious for-mulas). The mother prepared a sacrificial altar and offered oblations of 108 arflowers and recited a mantra to the Goddess Arnala Vimala.18 T h e m a n t r a a p p e a r sto be part of the aboriginal abara Matanga tradition; it is composed in a mixture

47Historical and Iconographic Aspects of Sakta Tantrism

of Prakrit and Sanskrit. Under the spell of this mantra, according to the text,Ananda lost control of himself and became highly disturbed. Thereupon, theBuddha gave him a mantra called Sadaksarı Vidya to counteract the Goddess’smagic. Afterward, the Buddha explained to Ananda the importance of the mantra;furthermore, he related that the mantra should be used in conjunction with anamuletic cord that is tied to the arm for protection. The language of the hymn isvery primitive and cannot be understood fully today. It can be determined, at least,that the mantra is the product of a pre-Buddhist tradition and that such practiceswere incorporated by early Sarvastivada teachers in order to popularize Buddhism.Because the mantras invoke only female deities such as Amala, Vımala, andKunkuma, they seem to have specific relevance to Saktism.

Certainly one important milestone in the development of Tantrism was theemergence of the iconographic form of Kalı, the pre-eminent form of Sakti,sometime between the Kushan and Gupta periods. The earliest reference to her isas one of the seven flames of Agni in the Mundaka Upanisad (2.4). ButAsvaghosha, the Buddhist author of the Buddhacaritam and the Saundrarananda,described her as a terrifying woman (divinity?) holding a skull (kapala) who, as amember of Mara’s army, attempted to disturb the Buddha from his meditations.The verse indicates a somewhat prejudicial Buddhist view toward the GoddessKalı; but it is, nonetheless, a very early reference associating the kapala with Kalı.The well known Sanskrit poet Kalidasa refers to Kalı in the Kumarasambhavam;she attended the marriage of Siva and Parvatı wearing ornaments made of skulls.The Devı-Mahatmya, the most outstanding Sakta Tantric text, also refers to Kalı asCamunda (7.18) as well as Mahakalı (12.37); in these forms, she represents thedreadful and destructive aspects of Supreme Power.

The Devı Mahatmya, also called Candipatha or Durga Saptasati, is vitallyimportant for assessing the growth of Saktism in the context of Indian history. Itgenerally has been dated between the fifth and seventh centuries !."., but theabsence of any references to Ganesa or Ganesanı suggests that it was composedduring a time when Brahma did not recognize Ganesa as a Bramanical deity.Other Brahmanical gods like Siva, Visnu, and Skanda are mentioned in the text,but Ganesa had not yet been admitted into the orthodox fold; therefore, the textshould be dated before the fifth century !."., either in the early fourth or even thirdcentury !.". There is no doubt that the Devı Mahatmya has all the major Tantriccharacteristics—total devotion to the Goddess, fire sacrifices in her honor, asystem of japa (mystical chants), offerings that include the flesh of the devotee andreferences to material enjoyment (bhukti) and liberation (mukti). The text men-tions the triple forms of Supreme Power that symbolically are based on threeelements; they are tama (darkness), raja (brilliance), and sattva (purity) and theyare represented respectively by her aspects called Taması or Yoganidra, Mahi-samardinı, and Sarasvatı. These forms mentioned in the Devı Mahatmya symbol-ize the inner movement of the devotee from the darkness of ignorance to the lightof knowledge.

Historical and Iconographic Aspects of Sakta Tantrism 4 7

of Prakrit and Sanskrit. Under the spell of this mantra, according to the text,Ananda lost control of himself and became highly disturbed. Thereupon, theBuddha gave him a mantra called Sadaksari Vidyti to counteract the Goddess'smagic. Afterward, the Buddha explained to Ananda the importance of the mantra,.furthermore, he related that the mantra should be used in conjunction with anamuletic cord that is tied to the arm for protection. The language of the hymn isvery primitive and cannot be understood fully today. It can be determined, at least,that the mantra is the product of a pre-Buddhist tradition and that such practiceswere incorporated by early Sarvastivada teachers in order to popularize Buddhism.Because the mantras invoke only female deities such as Arnald, Vimald, andKunkuma, they seem to have specific relevance to aktism.

Certainly one important milestone in the development of Tantrism was theemergence of the iconographic form of Kali, the pre-eminent form of al(ti,sometime between the Kushan and Gupta periods. The earliest reference to her isas one o f the seven flames o f Agni in the Mtaidaka Upani,cad (2.4). ButAsvaghosha, the Buddhist author of the Buddhacaritam and the Saundrarananda,described her as a terrifying woman (divinity?) holding a skull (leapala) who, as amember of Mara's army, attempted to disturb the Buddha from his meditations.The verse indicates a somewhat prejudicial Buddhist view toward the GoddessKali; but it is, nonetheless, a very early reference associating the kap ala with Kali.The well known Sanskrit poet Kalidasa refers to Kali in the Kumarasambhavam;she attended the marriage of '11,a a n d P a r v a t i w e a r i n g o r n a m e nt s m a de o f s k u ll s .

The Devi-Mahatmya, the most outstanding akta. Tantric text, also refers to Kali asCamur.ida ( 7 .1 8 ) as we ll as Mahakah (12.37); in these forms, she represents the

dreadful and destructive aspects of Supreme Power.The Devi Mahatmya, also called Candipacha or Durga Saptasati, is vitally

important for assessing the growth of al(tism in the context of Indian history. Itgenerally has been dated between the fifth and seventh centuries C.E., but theabsence of any references to Ga r.le a o r G a r.l e a n i s u g g e s t s t h a t i t w a s c o m p os e d

during a time when Brahma did not recognize G a r.le a a s a B r a m a n i c a l d e i t y .

Other Brahmanical gods like iva, Vitiu, and Skanda are mentioned in the text,but Gat:1ea had not yet been admitted into the orthodox fold; therefore, the textshould be dated before the fifth century C.E., either in the early fourth or even thirdcentury C.E. There is no doubt that the Devi Mahatmya has all the major Tantriccharacteristics to ta l devotion to the Goddess, fire sacrifices in her honor, asystem ofjapa (mystical chants), offerings that include the flesh of the devotee andreferences to material enjoyment (bhukti) and liberation (mukti). The text men-tions the triple forms of Supreme Power that symbolically are based on threeelements; they are tama (darkness), raja (brilliance), and sattva (purity) and theyare represented respectively by her aspects called Tamasi or Yoganidrd, Mahi-prnardini, and Sarasvati. These forms mentioned in the Devi Ma hatmya symbol-ize the inner movement of the devotee from the darkness of ignorance to the lightof knowledge.

48 M. C. Joshi

From the Gupta Period, fifth and sixth centuries !."., one image portrays anepisode from the first chapter of the Devı Mahatmya; the terra-cotta plaque fromBhitargaon and now in the Indian Museum in Calcutta depicts the killing of thetwin demons Madhu and Kaitabha (Figure 5).19 Visnu, who sleeps on the snakeAnanta, and Brahma are shown with the two demons. In this sculpture, the Guptaartist meant to convey the idea that Visnu was able to kill the twin demons onlythrough the grace of the Goddess.20 The Devı Mahatmya also contains referencesto Matrkas and other forms of the goddesses such as Sakambharı, Sivadutı, andBrahmanı. Elements of the monotheistic philosophy of the Sakta Tantras and theconcept of bindu (focal point for meditation) are apparent as well.

Sakti worship and its connection to Tantrism are attested to by an inscrip-tion found at Gangadhar in Rajasthan; the inscription, dated !.". 423–424,preserves a distinct reference to Tantric practices. It records the construction of ashrine to the Goddess and Matrkas by a local minister. It refers also to a Tantricritual (tantrodbhuta) which perhaps is based on a left-handed system of Tantrism(Vamacara) because it mentions dakinıs and calls the temple ugravesma (powerfultemple where all wishes are fulfilled).21 The somewhat obliterated inscriptionappears to employ the terms kunapa (corpse) and munda, suggesting that it isreferring to a shrine dedicated to the Goddess Camunda and the Matrkas andattended by dakinıs. We, therefore, propose that the damaged section of theinscription mentions chanting the mantras for Camunda with her corpse that wererevealed to the dakinıs. It is quite likely that the unknown author of this inscrip-tion wanted to indicate that, during the daily puja (worship), in accordance withTantric rites bali (offering of grain) was offered in the temple of the dakinıs whichthey accepted with great joy; their presence was felt in a gust of wind. That thetemple’s Tantric rituals are efficacious is made clear by use of the term ves-matyugram (most powerful or effective shrine where desires are accomplishedeasily). Fleet’s translation of the term as “terrible abode” does not seem to be quiteappropriate.22 It is apparent that, in the Gupta Period, the goddess Durga orKatyayanı was worshiped in various aspects. The Chhoti Sadari epigraph alsoassociates Siva’s Ardhanarısvara form with Saktism and thus the inscriptionalinformation conforms to later Sakta worship; such notions, in fact, appear to haveserved as the base for the growth of the concept of Kamakala (the triad of Sakti,Siva and Nada-Brahma).

For an understanding of early Tantric practices passages from theHarsacarita of Bana are useful. The work describes Sakta rites performed for KingPabhakaravatdhana who was gravely ill. Worship included the use of thematrmandala or yantra by Kulaputras and offering of human or animal heads tothe God Amardaka (Rudra) as Mahabhairava, prayers to the Goddess Candika(ten-handed Durga) by a priest from Andhra country and the burning of guggula(incense) on the devotee’s head in order to propitiate Mahakala. Bana’s descriptionfocuses on the performance by priests of a special anusthana (ritual) to please theGoddess, the Matrkas, Bhairava, and Mahakala as a means of curing the king. A

48 M . C Joshi

From the Gupta Period, fifth and sixth centuries C.E., one image portrays anepisode from the first chapter of the Devi Mahatmya; the terra-cotta plaque fromBhitargaon and now in the Indian Museum in Calcutta depicts the killing of thetwin demons Madhu and Kaitabha (Figure 5 ).19 V i g.l u , w h o s l e e p s o n t h e s n a k e

Ananta, and Brahma are shown with the two demons. In this sculpture, the Guptaartist meant to convey the idea that V ig.lu w a s a b l e t o k i l l t h e t w i n d e m o n s o n l y

through the grace of the Goddess.2() T h e D e v i M a h a t m y a a l s o c o n t a i ns r e f e r en c e s

to Mattkas and other forms of the goddesses such as dkambhari, ivaduti, andBrahmar.ii. E l em e nt s of the m on ot he is t ic ph il osophy of the al(ta Tantras and the

concept of bindu (focal point for meditation) are apparent as well.al(ti worship and its connection to Tantrism are attested to by an inscrip-

tion found at Gangadhar in Rajasthan; the inscription, dated C.E. 423-424,preserves a distinct reference to Tantric practices. It records the construction of ashrine to the Goddess and Mattkas by a local minister. It refers also to a Tantricritual (tantrodbhuta) which perhaps is based on a left-handed system of Tantrism(Vamacara) because it mentions dakinis and calls the temple ugraves'ma (powerfultemple where all wishes are fulfilled).21 T h e s o m e w h a t o b l i t e r a t e d i n s c r i p t io n

appears to employ the terms kulyapa (corpse) and mulyda, suggesting that it isreferring to a shrine dedicated to the Goddess Camur.ida a n d t h e M a t t k a s a n d

attended by dakinis. We, therefore, propose that the damaged section of theinscription mentions chanting the mantras for Camur.icla w i t h h e r c o r p s e t h a t w e r e

revealed to the clakinis. It is quite likely that the unknown author of this inscrip-tion wanted to indicate that, during the daily pup (worship), in accordance withTantric rites bah (offering of grain) was offered in the temple of the clakinis whichthey accepted with great joy; their presence was felt in a gust of wind. That thetemple's Tantric rituals are efficacious is made clear by use of the term vg-matyugram (most powerful or effective shrine where desires are accomplishedeasily). Fleet's translation of the term as "terrible abode" does not seem to be quiteappropriate.22 I t i s a p p ar e n t t h at , in the Gup ta Pe ri od , the goddess Durgd or

Katyayani was worshiped in various aspects. The Chhoti Sadari epigraph alsoassociates iva's Ardhandrigvara form with a.ktism and thus the inscriptionalinformation conforms to later al(ta worship; such notions, in fact, appear to haveserved as the base for the growth of the concept of Kimakata (the triad of akti,iva• and Nada-Brahma).

For an understanding o f early Tantric practices passages from theHar,wcarita of Bar.la a r e u s e f u l . T h e w o rk d e s cr i b es a .k ta r it es p er f or me d for King

Pabhakaravatdhana who was gravely ill. Worship included the use o f thema t rma l.zd a ta o r y a nt r a by K ul a pu t ra s and of fer ing of human or animal heads to

the God Amardaka (Rudra) as Mahabhairava, prayers to the Goddess Cauclika(ten-handed Durga) by a priest from Andhra country and the burning of guggula(incense) on the devotee's head in order to propitiate Mahakala. Bakia's descriptionfocuses on the performance by priests of a special anusthana (ritual) to please theGoddess, the Mattkas, Bhairava, and Mahakala as a means of curing the king. A

Figure 5 Anantasayin Visnu in yoganidra. Bhitargaon. Fifth to sixth century !.". (Courtesy of the

Archaeological Survey of India)Figure 5 Anantasayin Viglu in yoganidra. Bhitargaon. Fifth to sixth century C.E. (Courtesy of the

Archaeological Survey of India)

50 M. C. Joshi

significant feature of this special Sakta ritual was the offering of the worshiper’sown flesh to the Goddess which, according to Sakta tradition, is a great sacrifice.The Harsacarita also preserves some notable references to a secret ritual connectedwith some kind of sava (vetala or zombie); the rite was performed by a MahasaivaBhairavacarya who was South Indian by birth. At the end of the sadhana,Bhairavacarya became a vidyadhara and King Prabhakaravardhana was granted aboon by the Goddess Laksmı (Rajya-Laksmı). The Harsacarita also refers to theMulamantra, a secret initiation which, according to the Saiva system, requiredsacrificing a buffalo on Mahanavami (the ninth day of Asvin) and the TantricSrıparvata cult. Thus, the Harsacarita clearly indicates that, by the seventh cen-tury, Sakta Tantracara was well established. This kind of religious developmentpresupposes a much earlier beginning for Tantra. Therefore, the reference toTantric rites in the Gangadhar inscription is quite meaningful

India’s medieval period is regarded as the golden age of Tantrism, particu-larly for Saktas and Buddhists. The employment of the Panca Makaras (sometimesreferred to as the five M’s—madya (wine), maithuna (sex), mudra (ritual gestures),matsya (consumption of fish), and mamsa (consumption of flesh) in the Tantricrituals became popular. References in such works as the Mattavilasa Prahasana byMahendravarman and Kaipura Manjari by Rajasekhara inform us of the wide-spread awareness of such rites. In addition, alchemy was practiced by some Tantricascetics and teachers in order to turn base metals into gold and to attain a long andhealthy life. During this period, highly developed yantras and mandalas wereintroduced to serve as the symbolic abodes of particular aspects of the Goddess.Additional goddesses such as Tripura, Tara, Sarada, Bhilli or Kiratı, MatangıPadmavatı as well as Nityas and Yoginıs were introduced. Yantras were regarded assuperior to images because they represented the subtle (suksma) and gross (sthula)forms of Devı. Tantric tradition regards the goddess as formless, but she mayassume a form at will.

The Sakta Tantras also incorporated Kundalinı Yoga into their system some-time before the eighth century. The basic concept of Kundalinı Yoga recognizesthat the Supreme Power of the universe exisits in the human body where it lies in astatic or dormant state. The sole aim of Tantrins is to awaken the kundalinı andmake it rise in the body through various practices. Such notions are clearlyindicated in the Devı Purana (10.9.7–8), Sankaracarya’s Saundarayalaharı (9.10)and Bhavabhuti’s Malatı Madhava (5.1). This last work also refers to the system ofnyasa (purification of the body through the recitation of mantras) (5.21).23

The most significant yantra in the Sakta Tantric tradition is the Srıyantra(Figure 6) which is first referred to in an Indonesian inscription dating to theseventh century !.".24 We can assume then that in India, the country of origin, theSrıyantra must have existed long before the time of its introduction to Indonesia.Likewise, we can be certain that the cultic deity Srıvidya, the goddess associatedwith the Srıyantra, predated the seventh century inscription; her cult, however,became popular in India after the eleventh century. The Goddess Srıvidya oc-

50 M . C Joshi

significant feature of this special a.1(ta ritual was the offering of the worshiper'sown flesh to the Goddess which, according to al(ta tradition, is a great sacrifice.The Haryicarita also preserves some notable references to a secret ritual connectedwith some kind of s'aya (vetala or zombie); the rite was performed by a MallaaivaBhairavacarya who was South Indian by birth. At the end o f the sadhana,Bhairavacarya became a vidyadhara and King Prabhakaravardhana was granted aboon by the Goddess Lakmi (Rajya-Lakmi). The Harwarita also refers to theMatamantra, a secret initiation which, according to the a.iva system, requiredsacrificing a buffalo on Mahanavami (the ninth day of _Mvin) and the Tantricriparvata. cult. Thus, the Harwarita clearly indicates that, by the seventh cen-

tury, al(ta Tantracara was well established. This kind of religious developmentpresupposes a much earlier beginning for Tantra. Therefore, the reference toTantric rites in the Gangadhar inscription is quite meaningful

India's medieval period is regarded as the golden age of Tantrism, particu-larly for al(tas and Buddhists. The employment of the Paw Makaras (sometimesreferred to as the five M's—madya (wine), maithuna (sex), mudra (ritual gestures),matsya (consumption of fish), and mamsa (consumption of flesh) in the Tantricrituals became popular. References in such works as the Mattavilasa Prahasana byMahendravarman and Kai pfira Manjari by Rajasekhara inform us of the wide-spread awareness of such rites. In addition, alchemy was practiced by some Tantricascetics and teachers in order to turn base metals into gold and to attain a long andhealthy life. During this period, highly developed yantras and malydalas wereintroduced to serve as the symbolic abodes of particular aspects of the Goddess.Additional goddesses such as Tripura, Tara., a rad , Bhilli or Kirati, MatangiPadmavati as well as Nityas and Yoginis were introduced. Yantras were regarded assuperior to images because they represented the subtle (sukcma) and gross (sthula)forms of Devi. Tantric tradition regards the goddess as formless, but she mayassume a form at will.

The al(ta Tantras also incorporated K u r.i d a l i n i Y o g a i n t o t h e i r s y s t e m s o m e -

time before the eighth century. The basic concept of K u r.i d a l i n i Y o g a r e c o g n i z e s

that the Supreme Power of the universe exisits in the human body where it lies in astatic or dormant state. The sole aim of Tantrins is to awaken the kwydalini andmake it rise in the body through various practices. Such notions are clearlyindicated in the Devi Puralya (10.9.7— 8), alikaracarya's Saundarayalahari (9. 10)and Bhavabhuti's Malati Madhava (5.1). This last work also refers to the system ofnyasa (purification of the body through the recitation of mantras) (5.21).23 The most significant yantra in the a.kta Tantric tradition is the Srlyantra(Figure 6) which is first referred to in an Indonesian inscription dating to theseventh century c.E.24 W e c a n a s s u me t h en t h at i n I n di a , t he c ou n tr y of o ri gi n, the

Srlyantra must have existed long before the time of its introduction to Indonesia.Likewise, we can be certain that the cultic deity rividya, the goddess associatedwith the Srlyantra, predated the seventh century inscription; her cult, however,became popular in India after the eleventh century. The Goddess rividya oc-

Figure 6 SrıyantraF i gur e 6 ' 5' n-Y an t„

i

L

52 M. C. Joshi

cupies an important position in Sakta Tantrism. The two principal divisions ofSakta Tantra are the Kalıkulas and the Srıkulas; each has a complicated system ofdıksas (rites),and sadhanas (meditations) involving a principal deity and relateddivinities who emerge from the ultimate source, that is, the Primordial Energy. Asis evident from the names, the Kalıkulas are associated with the goddesses Kalı anddestruction (samhara); the Srıkulas are connected to Srı or Srıvidya and creation(srsti). The complex form of these sects seems to have been developed sometimeafter the ninth century.

What is most significant for students of iconography is the symbolism of thegoddesses with their various attributes. We are concerned here primarily with Srıor Srıvidya, a creative force whose highest form is represented by the goddessMahatripura Sundarı or Sodasi. Her other forms are Lalita, Tripura Bhairavı,Bhuvanesvarı, Bala Tripura-Sundarı, Rajarajesvarı and others. Matangı, Bagalaand Kamala who also are connected with creative aspects of Srıvidya are includedby the Srıkulas. According to Tantric tradition, Srı or Srı Vidya emerged fromMahakamakala, that is union of Mahakala (Siva) and Adya (Kalı) in a state ofsupreme bliss. The same idea is described in the Lalitasahasranaman wherein theGoddess Srı took her birth from the fire of consciousness (Cidagnikunda-Sambhuta). Thus, Srı or Srı Vidya is a creative energy responsible for the expan-sion of creation. The primary forms, attributes, and colors of the principal god-desses of the Srıkulas are earthbound—red, vermilion, or yellow, which turn whiteor blue in specific conceptual contexts or in connection with the ideal goal ofmukti. The goddesses of the Srıkulas are described as beautiful, young, and charm-ing; they carry in their hands attributes such as the noose, goad, sugarcane bowand arrow, rosary, and book. Other hands assume meaningful mudras. The noose,goad, and bow and arrow that are held by the Goddess Tripura are symbols ofworldly attachment, material desires, and things causing worldly attraction.

The Lalitasahasranama explains the symbolism of the attributes of Lalita orSrı; she holds the noose that symbolizes material attachment (raga), the goad thatrepresents wrath (ahamkara), and the sugarcane bow that characterizes a mind fullof desires. Because the bow and five arrows are weapons of Kamadeva, theysymbolize the five basic human faculties. Other attributes such as the rosary andbook that are held by the divine female deities have significance. The rosaryrepresents the Sanskrit alphabet from A to ksa and is the same as the varnamala(universal creative energy in the form of sound); the book symbolizes all kinds ofcodified knowledge including dharma (righteous law) and adharma (unrighteouslaw), vairagya (detachment), and avairagya (non-detachment), jnana (knowledge)and ajnana (ignorance).

The Srıkulas who are the sectarian family of the Goddess Srıvidya placegreat significance on the Srıyantra ( the mystical diagram of Srı) to which theearliest reference occurs in the Saundarya-Lahari. As the abode of the goddess Srı,it consists of a central point (bindu) five inverted and four upward triangles withineight and sixteen petaled lotuses that are surrounded by three circles (vrtta). The

52 M . C loshi

cupies an important position in akta Tantrism. The two principal divisions ofakta. Tantra are the Kalikulas and the rikulas; each has a complicated system of

dikOs (rites),and sadhanas (meditations) involving a principal deity and relateddivinities who emerge from the ultimate source, that is, the Primordial Energy. Asis evident from the names, the Kalikulas are associated with the goddesses Kali anddestruction (samhara); the rikulas are connected to r i or rividya and creation(mti) The complex form of these sects seems to have been developed sometime

after the ninth century.What is most significant for students of iconography is the symbolism of the

goddesses with their various attributes. We are concerned here primarily withor rividya, a creative force whose highest form is represented by the goddessMahatripura Sundari or Soclai. Her other forms are Lalita, Tripura Bhairavi,Bhuvanevari, Bala Tripura-Sundari, Rajarajevari and others. Matangi, Bagalaand Kamala who also are connected with creative aspects of rividya are includedby the rikulas. According to Tantric tradition, r i or r i Vidya emerged fromMahakamakala, that is union of Mahakala (iva) and Adya (Kali) in a state ofsupreme bliss. The same idea is described in the Latitasahasranaman wherein theGoddess r i took her birth from the fire o f consciousness (Cidagnikunda-Sambhfita). Thus, r i or r i Vidya is a creative energy responsible for the expan-sion of creation. The primary forms, attributes, and colors of the principal god-desses of the rikulas are earthbound—red, vermilion, or yellow, which turn whiteor blue in specific conceptual contexts or in connection with the ideal goal ofmukti. The goddesses of the rikulas are described as beautiful, young, and charm-ing; they carry in their hands attributes such as the noose, goad, sugarcane bowand arrow, rosary, and book. Other hands assume meaningful mudras. The noose,goad, and bow and arrow that are held by the Goddess Tripura are symbols ofworldly attachment, material desires, and things causing worldly attraction.

The Latitasahasranama explains the symbolism of the attributes of Lalita orshe holds the noose that symbolizes material attachment (raga), the goad that

represents wrath (ahamkara), and the sugarcane bow that characterizes a mind fullof desires. Because the bow and five arrows are weapons of Kamadeva, theysymbolize the five basic human faculties. Other attributes such as the rosary andbook that are held by the divine female deities have significance. The rosaryrepresents the Sanskrit alphabet from A to lqa and is the same as the varnamala(universal creative energy in the form of sound); the book symbolizes all kinds ofcodified knowledge including dharma (righteous law) and adharma (unrighteouslaw), vairagya (detachment), and avairagya (non-detachment), jfiana (knowledge)and apiana (ignorance).

The rikulas who are the sectarian family of the Goddess rividya placegreat significance on the Srlyantra ( the mystical diagram of t o which theearliest reference occurs in the Saundarya-Lahari. As the abode of the goddessit consists of a central point (bindu) five inverted and four upward triangles withineight and sixteen petaled lotuses that are surrounded by three circles (vrtta). The

53Historical and Iconographic Aspects of Sakta Tantrism

whole is enclosed in a square (bhupara) that is marked with a projection on eachside to mark the entrances to the interior. Although the Srıyantra, has beeninterpreted by scholars in metaphysical terms, it also has tangible symbolic associa-tions, particularly its outer enclosing perimeters (bhupura) which signify city ortemple walls with four portals, its central pavilion formed of jewels (ratnamandapa), and its lion throne symbolized by the central point (bindu). Thelocation of Srı or Tripura in the Srıyantra is likened to that of a great queen(Maharajnı) who rules over a country or city called Srıpura. That place, accordingto the Tripura Mahimanstotra, is similar to the mundane world (Samsaracak-ramakam). For this reason perhaps, Srı is worshiped in royal form with theaccessories (angas), attributes (ayudhas), vehicle (vahana), and family (parivara)that befit her royal status. The Lalitasahasranama Stotram identifies Srı, Tripura orLalita as Rajarajesvarı (Empress) and as one who enjoys absolute power(anulamghita-Sasana).

In this context, we need to discuss the Goddess Kalı or Daksinakalı. She isrepresented as standing naked with disheveled hair on the corpse of Siva. Kalı is ofthe color of a dark cloud, has three eyes and wears earrings of the dead bodies ofbabies and a garland of skulls. She carries a sword and a human head in two hands;the other two hands signify welcome and blessings. Her blue-black color symbol-izes the limitlessness of cosmic energy or her mahanirguna-rupa (purest formlessform) that is space itself. Her blue-black complexion also characterizes her assarvatattvatmika (all elements and colors). She is without clothing because she isabove all illusion; she is Kalı because she governs and creates time. The dead andpowerless Siva below her feet represents the Nirguna-Brahman (beyond qualitiesor attributes). Her three eyes characterize a trio of light, that is, the sun, moon, andfire. Her grisly earrings represent dharma and adharma and her garland of skullsrepresents the fifty letters in the Sanskrit alphabet (varnamala), which is symbolicof Sabdabrahman (union leading to ultimate peace). The girdle of severed humanarms around her waist indicates the loss of karma or the end of all action. Shegrants protection and boons with the word of knowledge held in the upper lefthand and kills animal instincts as symbolized by the severed human head in thelower left hand. The weapons held by Sakta deities including Tara symbolizeliberation (mukti ) in that they remove all fetters of attachment (pasa). BecauseKalı is the embodiment of destruction, her yantra has only Sakti triangles ortriangles with the apex pointing downward (Figure 7). Her yantra has no Sivatriangles (apex upward) because she does not symbolize creation. In contrast, theSrıyantra has five Sakti trikonas (triangles) and four Siva trikonas (triangles) toindicate creation.

The last notable development in Tantric Saktism was systematizing theimportant Goddesses into the ten Mahavidyas. This development occurred afterthe recognition of Tara in Saktism in eastern India around twelfth century !.".

The ten Mahavidyas are Kalı, Tara, Sodası (Sundarı), Bhuvanesvari, TripuraBhairavı, Matangı, Bagala, Chinnamasta, Dhumavatı and Kamala (Laksmı); they

Historical and Iconographic Aspects of Sakta Tantrism 5 3

whole is enclosed in a square (bhapara) that is marked with a projection on eachside to mark the entrances to the interior. Although the Sriyantra, has beeninterpreted by scholars in metaphysical terms, it also has tangible symbolic associa-tions, particularly its outer enclosing perimeters (bhapura) which signify city ortemple walls with four portals, its central pavilion formed o f jewels (ratnamalidapa), and its lion throne symbolized by the central point (bindu). Thelocation of r i or Tripura in the Sriyantra is likened to that of a great queen(Maharajlii) who rules over a country or city called ripura. That place, accordingto the Tripura Mahimanstotra, is similar to the mundane world (Samsaracak-ramakam). For this reason perhaps, r i is worshiped in royal form with theaccessories (angas), attributes (ayudhas), vehicle (vahana), and family (parivara)that befit her royal status. The Lalitasahasranama Stotram identifies sri, Tripura orLalita as Rajarajevari (Empress) and as one who enjoys absolute power(anulamghita-Sasana).

In this context, we need to discuss the Goddess Kali or DaWnakall. She isrepresented as standing naked with disheveled hair on the corpse ofiva. Kali is ofthe color of a dark cloud, has three eyes and wears earrings of the dead bodies ofbabies and a garland of skulls. She carries a sword and a human head in two hands;the other two hands signify welcome and blessings. Her blue-black color symbol-izes the limitlessness of cosmic energy or her mahanirgulia-rapa (purest formlessform) that is space itself. Her blue-black complexion also characterizes her assarvatattvatmika (all elements and colors). She is without clothing because she isabove all illusion; she is Kali because she governs and creates time. The dead andpowerless iva• below her feet represents the Nirgulia-Brahman (beyond qualitiesor attributes). Her three eyes characterize a trio of light, that is, the sun, moon, andfire. Her grisly earrings represent dharma and adharma and her garland of skullsrepresents the fifty letters in the Sanskrit alphabet (vamamala), which is symbolicof Sabdabrahman (union leading to ultimate peace). The girdle of severed humanarms around her waist indicates the loss of karma or the end of all action. Shegrants protection and boons with the word of knowledge held in the upper lefthand and kills animal instincts as symbolized by the severed human head in thelower left hand. The weapons held by akta• deities including Tara symbolizeliberation (mukti) in that they remove all fetters of attachment (pas'a). BecauseKali is the embodiment of destruction, her yantra has only a.kti triangles ortriangles with the apex pointing downward (Figure 7). Her yantra has no iva•triangles (apex upward) because she does not symbolize creation. In contrast, theSriyantra has five akt i trikonas (triangles) and four iva• trikonas (triangles) toindicate creation.

The last notable development in Tantric aktism was systematizing theimportant Goddesses into the ten Mahavidyas. This development occurred afterthe recognition of Tara in aktism in eastern India around twelfth century C.E.The ten Mahavidyas are Kali, Tara, Sodasi (Sundari), Bhavanegvari, TripuraBhairavi, Matangi, Bagala, Chinnamasta, Dhumavati and Kamala (Lakgni); they

Figure 7 KalıyantraFigure 7 Kailyantra

55Historical and Iconographic Aspects of Sakta Tantrism

are equated with the ten incarnations of Visnu. Kalı, Tara, Chinnamasta andDhuma are associated with the Kalıkulas; the remaining goddesses are associatedwith the Srıkula. While the Supreme Mother is regarded equally by both groups,for purposes of initiation, devotees are asked to follow one of the two systems thatled ultimately to the same goal.

NOTES

1. M. C. Joshi, “Tantrism and Womanhood,” Indian Horizons 34, no. 1–2 (1985):

40–41.

2. Govardhan Rai Sharma, Bharatiya Sanskriti Puratattvik Adhar (1985), 32.

3. Ibid, 33.

4. Farid Khan, J. R. Knox, and D. K. Thomas, “Prehistoric and Protohistoric Settle-

ment in Bannu District,” Pakistan Archaeology 23 (1987–1988): 113–75.

5. J. F. Jarriage, “Excavations at Nausharo,” Pakistan Archaeology 23 (1987–88): 149–

203.

6. Shubhangana Atre feels, however, that the Harappans had a powerful female god-

dess; see; Shubhangana Atre, The Archetypal Mother (Pune: Ravish Publishers, 1987).

7. Indian Archaeology—A Review 1970–1971 (New Delhi: 1974), 25–26, pl. 34-A

and B.

8. See Srı Panchastavi, ed. Sri Ram Saiva (Assam, V.S. 1974), 15.

9. Munish Chandra Joshi, Etihasik Sandarbh-main Saktatantra (New Delhi: 1988),

26–27.

10. See Sankshipta Tantrakamanhikam (Allahabad V.S.2023), 98–100.

11. Arthasastra 14.178.3.2 and 14.178.3.4.

12. Sharan Agrawala Vasuveda, Bharatiya Kala (Varanasi: 1977), 147.

13. Ibid., 95.

14. See D. C. Sirkar, Epigraphia Indica 30:124.

15. See Devi-Mahatmya, Ch. 10.

16. M. C. Joshi, “A Note on the Sarasvatı image of the Kushan Period,” Rtambhara

(Studies in Indology), ed. K. C. Varma (Ghaziabad: 1986): 147–48.

17. Ibid., 147–48.

18. Divyavadanam, ed. P. L. Vaidya (Mithila: 1959), 314–15.

19. M. C. Joshi, “A Note on Anantasayi: A Vishnu Image from Bhitaragaon,” in Pt.

Kunjilal Dube Smriti Grantha, ed. Dr. Rajbali Pandey (Jabalpur: 1971): 393–96.

20. M. C. Joshi, “Sakta Tantrism in the Gupta Age,” Aruna Bharati: Professor A. N. Jani

Felicitation Volume, ed. B. Data (Baroda: 1983), 77–81.

21. John Faithful Fleet, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 3 (Varanasi: 1963), 74–76.

22. Ibid, 78.

23. M. C. Joshi, “Tantrism and Womanhood,” 44–46.

24. J. G. de Casparis, Prasasti Indonesia 2 (Bandung: 1968), 16 ff.

Historical and Iconographic Aspects of Sakta Tantrism 5 5

are equated with the ten incarnations of V i g.m. K a l i , T a r a , C h i n n a m a s t d a n d

Dhuma are associated with the Kdlikulas; the remaining goddesses are associatedwith the i-I1(111a. While the Supreme Mother is regarded equally by both groups,for purposes of initiation, devotees are asked to follow one of the two systems thatled ultimately to the same goal.

NOTES

1. M . C. Joshi, "Tantrism and Womanhood, "Indian Horizons 34, no. 1- 2 (1985):40-41.

2. Govardhan Rai Sharma, Bharatiya Sanskriti Puratattvik Adhar (1985), 32.3. Ibi d, 33.4. Far id Khan, J. R. Knox, and a K. Thomas, "Prehistoric and Protohistoric Settle-

ment i n Bannu District," Pakistan Archaeology 23 (1987-1988) : 113-75.5. J. F. Jarriage, "Excavations at Nausharo," Pakistan Archaeology23 (1987-88): 149-

203.6. Shubhangana Atre feels, however, that the Harappans had a powerful female god-

dess; see; Shubhangana Atre, The Archetypal Mother (Pune: Ravish Publishers, 1987).7 I nd i an Archaeology-A Review 1970-1971 (New Delhi: 1974), 25- 26, pl. 34-A

and B.8. See Sr i Panchastavi, ed. Sri Ram Saiva (Assam, VS. 1974), 15.9. Munish Chandra Joshi, Etihasik Sandarbh-main Saktatantra (New Delhi: 1988),

26-27.10. See Sankshipta Tantrakamanhikam (Allahabad V.S.2023), 98-100.11. Ar thtthistra 14.178.3.2 and 14.178.3.4.12. Sharan Agrawala Vasuveda, Bharatiya Kala (Varanasi: 1977), 147.13. Ibid., 95.14. See a C. Sirkar, Epigraphia Indica 30:124.15. See Devi-Mahatmya, Ch. 10.16. M . C. Joshi, " A Note on the Sarasvati image of the Kushan Period," Ftambhara

(Studies in Indology), ed. K. C. Varma (Ghaziabad: 1986): 147- 48.17. Ibid., 147- 48.18. Divyavadtinam, ed. R L. Vaidya (Mithila: 1959), 314 -1 5 .19. M . C. Joshi, "A Note on Anantasayi: A Vishnu Image from Bhitaragaon," i n Pt.

Kunji lal Dube Smriti Grantha, ed. Dr. Rajbali Pandey (Jabalpur: 1971): 393- 96.20. M . C. Joshi, "Sakta Tantrism in the Gupta Age," Aruna Bharati: Professor A. N Jani

Felicitation Volume, ed. B. Data (Baroda: 1983), 77- 81.21. John Faithful Fleet, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 3 (Varanasi: 1963), 74- 76.22. Ibi d, 78.23. M . C. Joshi, "Tantrism and Womanhood," 44- 46.24. J. G. de Casparis, Prasasti Indonesia 2 (Bandung: 1968), 16 ff.