Herbs and SpicesHerbs and Spices

Biology 355Biology 355

Plants and PeoplePlants and People

Herbs and SpicesHerbs and Spices

Robert S. WallaceRobert S. WallaceDept. of Ecology, Evolution and Dept. of Ecology, Evolution and

Organismal BiologyOrganismal BiologyIowa State UniversityIowa State University

““Herbs” Herbs” versusversus “Spices” “Spices”• There are several differences in definitions of ‘herbs’

versus ‘spices’.• Some suggestion that Some suggestion that herbsherbs come from the herbaceous come from the herbaceous

(non-woody) parts of plants (e.g. leaves).(non-woody) parts of plants (e.g. leaves).• Many spices come from reproductive plant parts (e.g.

flowers, fruits, seeds), regardless of the place of geographic origin.

• Some definitions are based on the Some definitions are based on the geographic originsgeographic origins of of the materials used:the materials used:• Herbs tend to come from Herbs tend to come from temperatetemperate regions. regions.• Spices tend to come from Spices tend to come from tropicaltropical regions regions

• Some definitions use ‘herb’ as a plant product which has Some definitions use ‘herb’ as a plant product which has applications beyond flavoring food (i.e. ‘medicinal herbs’ or applications beyond flavoring food (i.e. ‘medicinal herbs’ or ‘aromatic herbs’‘aromatic herbs’

• No practical distinction, since they are traded No practical distinction, since they are traded internationally under their common names.internationally under their common names.

Working DefinitionsWorking Definitions• Herb – Primarily vegetative plant

parts used for medicinal, aromatic, or savory purposes. • Spice – Primarily reproductive plant

parts used for aromatic, or savory purposes.• FlavoringFlavoring – Extracts of herbs, spices, – Extracts of herbs, spices,

or non-botanical products, used for or non-botanical products, used for savory purposes, but containing no savory purposes, but containing no actual plant parts.actual plant parts.

Herbs and SpicesHerbs and SpicesThroughout HistoryThroughout History

• Highly prized and widely traded commodities.• Often used plant materials in lieu of currency – universally-used

and desired.• Used to enhance the flavor of food, serve as medicines, provide Used to enhance the flavor of food, serve as medicines, provide

pleasing aromas, and to enable ceremonial cremation or pleasing aromas, and to enable ceremonial cremation or embalming of the dead. In some cases linked to religions.embalming of the dead. In some cases linked to religions.

• Ancient trade routes (on land and sea) determined based upon Ancient trade routes (on land and sea) determined based upon locations of the sources of herbs and spices. Trade for these locations of the sources of herbs and spices. Trade for these same commodities still occurs along these same paths today.same commodities still occurs along these same paths today.

• Much exploration and colonial establishment done to secure Much exploration and colonial establishment done to secure spices (e.g. Great Britain in India and in many islands).spices (e.g. Great Britain in India and in many islands).

• Spice trade formed the basis of the economies of many small or Spice trade formed the basis of the economies of many small or developing nations.developing nations.

• Profound influence on changes in cuisine based upon mixing of Profound influence on changes in cuisine based upon mixing of cultures and sharing of tastes and flavors from around the cultures and sharing of tastes and flavors from around the World.World.

Chemistry of FlavorChemistry of Flavor• Flavor incorporates both aroma and taste.

• Aromatic components must be volatile and capable of being perceived by humans’ olfactory senses.

• Taste components must be at least Taste components must be at least partially soluble in water, and capable of partially soluble in water, and capable of stimulating humans’ taste buds.stimulating humans’ taste buds.

• Combination of senses required for full Combination of senses required for full savory experience.savory experience.

Chemical Compounds of Chemical Compounds of Herbs and SpicesHerbs and Spices

• “Essential Oils” – Often are complex mixtures of terpenes, and other terpenoid compounds.- Some are volatile and vaporize quickly.Some are volatile and vaporize quickly.- Others remain as liquid oils and are perceived Others remain as liquid oils and are perceived

through both smell and taste senses.through both smell and taste senses.- These account for most ‘aromatic’ properties.These account for most ‘aromatic’ properties.

• Esters – “fruity” aromas, often associated with ripening.

• Amides - Nitrogen containing compounds, e.g. Amides - Nitrogen containing compounds, e.g. capsaicin.capsaicin.

• Vitamins - Typically vitamins A, B-complex, and C.Vitamins - Typically vitamins A, B-complex, and C.

Herbs and Spices of the Mint Family Herbs and Spices of the Mint Family (Lamiaceae)(Lamiaceae)

• Primarily from the Mediterranean region, Africa and Asia

• In almost all cases, In almost all cases, leavesleaves are the preferred plant part are the preferred plant part used.used.

• Most species used for herbs have oil glands or secretory trichomes (epidermal hairs).

• Contains a diverse array of terpenes in the essential Contains a diverse array of terpenes in the essential oil component of the plant’s secondary metabolites.oil component of the plant’s secondary metabolites.- Peppermint – - Peppermint – Mentha piperitaMentha piperita- Spearmint – - Spearmint – Mentha spicataMentha spicata- Basil – - Basil – Ocimum basilicumOcimum basilicum- Marjoram – - Marjoram – Origanum majoranaOriganum majorana - Oregano – - Oregano – Origanum vulgareOriganum vulgare- Rosemary – - Rosemary – Rosmarinus officinalisRosmarinus officinalis- Thyme – - Thyme – Thymus vulgarisThymus vulgaris- Sage – - Sage – Salvia officinalisSalvia officinalis- Lavender – - Lavender – Lavandula angustifoliaLavandula angustifolia

Plant Terpenes

Plant Terpenes

Vanillin

Peppermint

Spearmint

Basil

Oregano

Thyme

Rosemary

Herbs and Spices of the Carrot Family (Apiaceae)Herbs and Spices of the Carrot Family (Apiaceae)• Regions of origin are the Mediterranean and other places with

temperate climates.• Leaves, stems, fruits and seeds are used.• Plant parts are used fresh, or they are dried.Plant parts are used fresh, or they are dried.• Contain glands with an array of essential oils and terpenes.• Leaves and Stems:Leaves and Stems:

- Chervil – - Chervil – Anthriscus cerefoliumAnthriscus cerefolium- Cilantro – - Cilantro – Coriandrum sativum*Coriandrum sativum*- Dill ‘weed’ – - Dill ‘weed’ – Anethum graveolens*Anethum graveolens*- Parsley – - Parsley – Petroselinum crispumPetroselinum crispum

• Fruits and ‘Seeds’ (actually mericarps):Fruits and ‘Seeds’ (actually mericarps):- Anise – - Anise – Pimpinella anisumPimpinella anisum- Caraway – - Caraway – Carum carviCarum carvi- Celery – - Celery – Apium graveolensApium graveolens- Coriander – - Coriander – Coriandrum sativum*Coriandrum sativum*- Cumin – - Cumin – Cuminum cyminumCuminum cyminum- Dill ‘seed’ – - Dill ‘seed’ – Anethum graveolens*Anethum graveolens*- - Fennel – Fennel – Foeniculum vulgareFoeniculum vulgare

* Same species (different cultivars) used for both leaves and fruits.* Same species (different cultivars) used for both leaves and fruits.

Caraway

Parsley

Dill

Cilantro and Coriander

‘‘Pepper’Pepper’• Species used is Piper nigrum (Family Piperaceae)• Region of origin is India and Sri Lanka; presently grown in

tropical regions, particularly Brazil, India, and Indonesia.• Plant part used is the fruit; a drupe.Plant part used is the fruit; a drupe.• Harvest and Preparation:Harvest and Preparation:

- - Black Pepper Black Pepper – Unripe but mature drupes removed from – Unripe but mature drupes removed from vines; piled in heaps in full sun to initiate enzymatic vines; piled in heaps in full sun to initiate enzymatic fermentation to darken fruits and develop flavor. When fermentation to darken fruits and develop flavor. When completed, fruits are dried fully in the sun and packaged completed, fruits are dried fully in the sun and packaged for shipment.for shipment.- - White Pepper White Pepper – Ripe and fleshy drupes are harvested and – Ripe and fleshy drupes are harvested and placed in running water for 1 to 2 weeks to rot away the placed in running water for 1 to 2 weeks to rot away the fleshy parts of the pericarp, leaving the white endocarp and fleshy parts of the pericarp, leaving the white endocarp and seed within. Remaining parts dried and packaged.seed within. Remaining parts dried and packaged.- - Green Pepper Green Pepper – Drupes harvested with green and pickled – Drupes harvested with green and pickled in brine or vinegar; the whole drupes are then dried.in brine or vinegar; the whole drupes are then dried.

Black Pepper

Black Pepper

““Peppers”Peppers”• Primary species is Capsicum anuum (C. fructescens in Tabasco

sauce) [Family Solanaceae; the Potato Family]• Region of origin is South and/or Central America; grown Region of origin is South and/or Central America; grown

commercially in tropical or warm temperate regions throughout commercially in tropical or warm temperate regions throughout the World.the World.

• Plant part used is the fruit (berry) and the seeds within.• Harvest and Preparation:Harvest and Preparation:

- Fruits grown to maturity, harvested, and - Fruits grown to maturity, harvested, and used either fresh or quickly dried.

• Compound that produces the “fire” is Compound that produces the “fire” is capsaicincapsaicin, an amide with , an amide with a chemical structure similar to vanillin, which stimulates pain a chemical structure similar to vanillin, which stimulates pain receptors.receptors.

• The ‘Hotness Scale’ is measured in Scoville Units:The ‘Hotness Scale’ is measured in Scoville Units:- A green ‘bell’ pepper is 0 S.U.; a jalapeno 2,500 – 3,000 S.U., - A green ‘bell’ pepper is 0 S.U.; a jalapeno 2,500 – 3,000 S.U.,

and a habanero is ca. 300,000 S.U.and a habanero is ca. 300,000 S.U.• Capsaicin is useful when blocking pain in treating arthritis, Capsaicin is useful when blocking pain in treating arthritis,

shingles, diabetes, and neuralgia, or during surgery. High shingles, diabetes, and neuralgia, or during surgery. High concentrations can be dangerous, causing blistering or redness concentrations can be dangerous, causing blistering or redness of the skin, or cause temporary blindness in the eyes.of the skin, or cause temporary blindness in the eyes.

• ““Pepper Spray” used as a personal defense is a solution of Pepper Spray” used as a personal defense is a solution of capsaicin designed to disable an attacker without causing capsaicin designed to disable an attacker without causing permanent damage.permanent damage.

Peppers

Peppers

Peppers

The Scoville Hotness Scale

Capsaicin – An amide

Capsaicin ProductsCapsaicin Products

MustardsMustards• Species used are Brassica nigra and B. alba/B. hirta for

seeds; Armoracia rusticana for roots (Family Brassicacae)• Region of origin is the Mediterranean; grown commercially

throughout the world.• Plant parts used are the seeds to produce true mustards; Plant parts used are the seeds to produce true mustards;

the taproot of the taproot of Armoracia rusticanaArmoracia rusticana is used to make is used to make horseradish.horseradish.

• Harvest and Preparation:Harvest and Preparation: - For mustards, mature seeds are harvested and ground- For mustards, mature seeds are harvested and ground

into a paste, to which additional flavorings are added.into a paste, to which additional flavorings are added. - For horseradish, the taproot is harvested, washed, and- For horseradish, the taproot is harvested, washed, and

ground.ground.• Sulfur-containing compounds give mustards their Sulfur-containing compounds give mustards their

characteristic flavor. The smell and taste of horseradish is characteristic flavor. The smell and taste of horseradish is derived from a glycoside sinigrin, which decomposes in derived from a glycoside sinigrin, which decomposes in the presence of water to form mustard oils.the presence of water to form mustard oils.

Mustards

Horseradish

GingerGinger• Primary species used is Zingiber officinale

(Family Zingiberaceae)

• Region of origin is tropical Asia; primary commercial growing regions are eastern and southern Asia, and pacific islands.

• Plant part used is the rhizome (root-like Plant part used is the rhizome (root-like underground stem), used either fresh or dried.underground stem), used either fresh or dried.

• Harvest and Preparation:Harvest and Preparation:- Plants grown to maturity- Plants grown to maturity- Aboveground plant parts removed; rhizomes - Aboveground plant parts removed; rhizomes

dug, washed, and prepared for use.dug, washed, and prepared for use.

• Related herb is Related herb is TurTurmericmeric ( (Cucuma domesticaCucuma domestica) ) [Zingiberaceae] from Asia, where dried rhizomes [Zingiberaceae] from Asia, where dried rhizomes are used in curry powder, or as a source of are used in curry powder, or as a source of soluble yellow dye.soluble yellow dye.

Ginger

GarlicGarlic• Species used is Allium sativum (Family Alliaceae; the Onion

Family).

• Region of origin is temperate central Asia; grown commercially throughout the world.

• Plant parts used are the swollen leaf bases of the branching, Plant parts used are the swollen leaf bases of the branching, subterranean corm. Used either fresh or dried, as individual subterranean corm. Used either fresh or dried, as individual ‘cloves’.‘cloves’.

• Harvest and Preparation:Harvest and Preparation:- Plants grown to maturity, but harvested prior to the- Plants grown to maturity, but harvested prior to the production of flowers.production of flowers.- Corms harvested, washed, and stored cool and dry.- Corms harvested, washed, and stored cool and dry.

• Garlic (and other cultivated members of the Alliaceae) have Garlic (and other cultivated members of the Alliaceae) have extensive medicinal properties. Demonstrated to be a extensive medicinal properties. Demonstrated to be a stimulant of human immune response.stimulant of human immune response.

Garlic

ClovesCloves• Species used is Syzygium aromaticum (Family Myrtaceae).

• Region of origin is the “Spice Islands’ (Mollucas) and nearby areas of Indonesia. Now grown on many eastern Indian Ocean islands.

• Plant part use is the unopened flower bud; used locally when Plant part use is the unopened flower bud; used locally when fresh, or more commonly, dried for export.fresh, or more commonly, dried for export.

• Harvest and Preparation:Harvest and Preparation:- Flower buds are harvested as they turn from green to- Flower buds are harvested as they turn from green to pink.pink.- Buds are dried, cleaned, graded, and packaged.- Buds are dried, cleaned, graded, and packaged.

• Clove oil, obtained by extracting buds stems and leaves of Clove oil, obtained by extracting buds stems and leaves of S. S. aromaticumaromaticum is a source of eugenol, which is used in perfumery, is a source of eugenol, which is used in perfumery, soap manufacture, and dentistry.soap manufacture, and dentistry.

Cloves

SaffronSaffron• Species used is Crocus sativus (Family Iridaceae, the Iris Family).• Region of origin is from the Mediterranean; primary commercial

growing regions are in Spain and Portugal.• Plant parts used are the stigmas of the flowers (…only!!), used Plant parts used are the stigmas of the flowers (…only!!), used

dried.dried.• Harvest and Preparation:Harvest and Preparation:

- Flowers at anthesis are harvested and the stigmas are removed - Flowers at anthesis are harvested and the stigmas are removed manually.manually.- One acre of saffron plants yields between 8 and 12 pounds (3.5 to- One acre of saffron plants yields between 8 and 12 pounds (3.5 to 5.5 kg) of dried spice per year.5.5 kg) of dried spice per year.- Approximately 154,000 flowers are needed for each kilogram of- Approximately 154,000 flowers are needed for each kilogram of dried spice (210,000 stigmas per pound).dried spice (210,000 stigmas per pound).

• Intense yellow, water soluble coloring and distinctive flavors make Intense yellow, water soluble coloring and distinctive flavors make saffron a valuable and sought-after spice, despite its high cost.saffron a valuable and sought-after spice, despite its high cost.

• Turmeric (Turmeric (Cucuma domesticaCucuma domestica) is sometimes used as a substitute for ) is sometimes used as a substitute for saffron, but cannot match the same qualities of color and subtle saffron, but cannot match the same qualities of color and subtle flavors..flavors..

Saffron

Saffron

Nutmeg and MaceNutmeg and Mace• Species used is Myristica fragrans (Family Myristicaceae).• Region of origin is the “Spice Islands’ (Mollucas) and nearby

areas of Indonesia. Now grown on many eastern Indian Ocean islands.

• Plants are dioecious (separate male and female trees) with plantations having primarily female trees (1 male per 10 female trees).

• Plant parts used are the seed (nutmeg) and the aril (mace) Plant parts used are the seed (nutmeg) and the aril (mace) which surrounds the seed. Both parts are used dry.which surrounds the seed. Both parts are used dry.

• Harvest and Preparation:Harvest and Preparation:- Ripe, dehiscent fruits (berry-like fruits) are removed from - Ripe, dehiscent fruits (berry-like fruits) are removed from trees.trees.- Berries that are split are then cleaned of pericarp (fruit wall),- Berries that are split are then cleaned of pericarp (fruit wall), leaving a seed covered with a fleshy, red aril (mace).leaving a seed covered with a fleshy, red aril (mace).- The aril is separated from the seed, and both are then dried - The aril is separated from the seed, and both are then dried and readied for shipmentand readied for shipment

• Nutmeg is hallucinogenic in moderate concentrations, and is Nutmeg is hallucinogenic in moderate concentrations, and is toxic in high concentrationstoxic in high concentrations

Nutmeg and Mace

VanillaVanilla• Species used are Vanilla planifolia and V. fragrans (Orchidaceae; The

Orchid Family.• Plant part used is the dried, ‘fermented’ fruit, an immature capsule (“pod” Plant part used is the dried, ‘fermented’ fruit, an immature capsule (“pod”

or “bean”).or “bean”).• The region of origin is Central or South America; primary commercial

growing regions are in Madagascar, Mexico, and Central America.• Harvest and Preparation:Harvest and Preparation:

- Individual vanilla flowers are hand-pollinated.- Individual vanilla flowers are hand-pollinated.- Fruits (capsules) are allowed to mature approx. 9 months on the vines.- Fruits (capsules) are allowed to mature approx. 9 months on the vines.- Nearly mature (still green) capsules are harvested by hand.- Nearly mature (still green) capsules are harvested by hand.- Fruits are placed in full sun to raise temperature.- Fruits are placed in full sun to raise temperature.- Warm fruits are wrapped in blankets and ‘sweatted’ in boxes for- Warm fruits are wrapped in blankets and ‘sweatted’ in boxes for one to several days until fruits begin to turn brown.one to several days until fruits begin to turn brown.- The ‘sunning’ and ‘sweatting’ process repeated for 25 to 36 days.- The ‘sunning’ and ‘sweatting’ process repeated for 25 to 36 days.- Once the color change is complete, the fruits are dried indoors for- Once the color change is complete, the fruits are dried indoors for one month, then placed in boxes to condition for 2 to 3 months,one month, then placed in boxes to condition for 2 to 3 months, until they are packaged for shipment. until they are packaged for shipment.

• ‘‘Real Vanilla Extract’ is made by percolating alcohol over chopped pieces Real Vanilla Extract’ is made by percolating alcohol over chopped pieces of processed vanilla. Must be extracted from actual vanilla plant of processed vanilla. Must be extracted from actual vanilla plant material.material.

• ‘‘Imitation Vanilla’ or ‘Artificial Vanilla Extract’ is a mixture of synthetic Imitation Vanilla’ or ‘Artificial Vanilla Extract’ is a mixture of synthetic chemicals. Lacks complexity and subtle aromas and flavors found in real chemicals. Lacks complexity and subtle aromas and flavors found in real vanilla products.vanilla products.

Vanilla

Health Benefits of Herbs and SpicesHealth Benefits of Herbs and Spices• Some reported to be anti-microbial agents;

‘preservatives’.• Anti-oxidants – various phenolic compounds,

vitamins, β-carotene, etc.• Stimulation of gastrointestinal function.Stimulation of gastrointestinal function.• Relaxation of smooth muscles; calming Relaxation of smooth muscles; calming

effects.effects.• Improvement of immune system function.Improvement of immune system function.• Vermifuge – eradication of intestinal Vermifuge – eradication of intestinal

parasites.parasites.• Source of vitamins (A, B-complex, C) and Source of vitamins (A, B-complex, C) and

some trace elements.some trace elements.

SummarySummary• Diverse plants from throughout the World provide a

wide range of herbs and spices which humans have identified as beneficial and desirable for their use.

• Chemical components in the plant tissues (or subsequently developed by processing) are responsible for contributions to aroma and taste.

• Select herbs and spices are often ‘signature’ Select herbs and spices are often ‘signature’ flavors of certain cuisines.flavors of certain cuisines.

• Price of herbs and spices is often more related to Price of herbs and spices is often more related to costs involving labor, rather than rarity or costs involving labor, rather than rarity or geographic origin of the plants.geographic origin of the plants.