The Intellectual HeritageMarx, Weber, and FreudPresented by: Darleen Joy J. Udtujan

Karl Marx(1818-1883)

He is known for establishing the theoretical basis for the expansion of socialism and communism in the 20th century. His work provides an important and quite fundamental statement of the conditions of social life in modern industrial society.

Marx and Hegel

Existing circumstances, seen as passing phases in the evolution of freedom, must be removed in order to ensure the continued extension of reason and freedom.

The task of social theory is unmasking the false appearances generated in the present in order to permit expanded freedom in the future,

Thesis and anti-thesis to form a synthesis Marx saw history as a consequence of contending economic forces that result in conflicts

between economic ideas.Division of Labor and the Accumulation of Capital

All systems of production involve establishing a set of social relationships for the distribution and exchange of goods and services.

When tasks of production are divided among various workers and specialization begins, the possibility of class relationship begins.

Each individual and each society develops its own understanding of the world, but this understanding is conditioned by the social and economic circumstances that characterize the particular epoch.

Transition to Socialism

Inherent tendencies exist that will eventually lead to the transition to a socialist society. Capitalism, for example, is based on an unstable relationship between two classes the owners,

or bourgeoisie, and the workers, or proletariat.

Industrial Organization and Individual Development

The forces of production seem to require an increasingly complex and oppressive mode of organization, in which individuals suffer increasing alienation and depersonalization.

The first historical act is thus the production of the means to satisfy [our] needs

Growth of Alienation

Under Capitalism, the accumulation of wealth by the owners occur only with a corresponding impoverishment of the workers.

Under bureaucratic capitalism, the individual’s work is assimilated into the production of standard units, which no longer bear the stamp of the individual.

When we are alienated from our work, we also feel alienated from one another. When we see ourselves as objects in a system, we see others in the same way, and the distance

between ourselves and others increases.

Social Theory as an Impetus to Action

The task of social theory is to reveal to us how our understanding of our situation has been clouded by ideology and other forms of mystification, to illustrate the conditions of domination that chain us, and to point the way toward freedom.

Theoretical knowledge of the true conditions under which we live reveals so much that we are compelled to act to improve our circumstances.

Through praxis, we engage in critical reflection on our own situation and that of our society to reveal the basis of social domination and the suffering it promotes.

Max Weber (1864-1920)

He is a German sociologist and best known for his analysis of rational bureaucracy which had a broad impact on the social sciences.

Envisioned a sociology that would combine a concern for objectivity with an understanding of the meaning of human action for those involved.

Weber had the most direct impact on theories of public organization although his influence was felt fairly late in the development of the field.

Capitalism and the Protestant Ethic

Weber acknowledged that change could be propelled by other forces such as tradition or belief. Changing societies are not merely economic but also to the world of ideas and ideals. He argued that the belief in predestination was so disconcerting to followers of Calvin that they

sought a kind of “loophole” in their destiny, a way of ensuring that they would be among the elect who enter the state of grace.

The loophole that they developed was “earthly success”, which they saw as a sign of heavenly favor and assurance of their place among God’s chosen, and they diligently sought to extend their holdings.

In terms of formal efficiency, the capitalist dependence on private ownership, managerial control of the means of production, and reliance on competitive pricing in the market were clearly at an advantage.

Rationalization of Social Theory: The Notion of the “Ideal Type”

The rationalization of society lies at the heart of Weber’s analysis that human action, including human labor, is best seen as means to an end.

The objectivity in the social sciences could be achieved through procedures designed to eliminate personal prejudice in the research process. He recognized that values do play a part in social science since it influences social relationships and the way social scientist select significant topics.

He defined sociology is a science concerning itself with the interpretive understanding of social action and thereby with a causal explanation of its course and consequences. The sociologist is

interested in how interacting subjects constitute structures of meaning that in turn guide future actions.

Weber’s notion of the “ideal type” can provide social scientist an objective analysis of the impact of social events on individuals and societies that will lead to the formulation of social understanding.

Ideal-type Bureaucracy

Weber argued that every system of authority must establish and secure a belief in its legitimacy to be done in many different ways.

Pure Types of Legitimate Authority

1. Legal authority – based on a belief in the legality of certain patterns or rules and in the right of those in positions of legal authority to issue commands.

2. Traditional authority – based on the belief in the importance of enduring traditions and those who rule within those traditions.

3. Charismatic authority – based on an emotional attachment or devotion to a specific individual.

They are personally free and are subject to authority only with respect to their impersonal official obligations.

They are organized in a clearly defined hierarchy of offices. Each office has a clearly defined sphere of competence in the legal sense. The office is filled by a free contractual relationship. Thus, in principle, there is free selection. Candidates are selected on the basis of technical qualifications rationally tested by examination,

guaranteed by diplomas certifying technical training, or both. Successful candidates are appointed not elected.

They are remunerated by fixed salaries in money with a right to pensions. Under certain circumstances, the employing authority, especially in private organizations, have a right to terminate the appointment taking into account the responsibility of the position and the requirements of the incumbent’s social status.

The office is treated as the sole, or at least the primary, occupation of the incumbent. The office constitutes a career thus; promotion is based on seniority, achievement, or both and

depends on the judgment of superiors. Officials work entirely separated from ownership of the means of administration and without

appropriation of their positions. They are subject to strict and systematic discipline and control of the conduct of the office. Expansion of Bureaucracy Businesses, governments, churches, all seem to organize around the same principles

emphasizing the exercise of authority through hierarchical structures. Socialist systems may even require a higher degree of bureaucratization to that of capitalist

systems in order to provide a stable economic life. He argued that bureaucratic administration, from a formal and technical point of view, is always

the most rational type for the need of mass administration today and it is completely indispensable.

Herbert Marcuse argued that Weber’s critical analysis ultimately turns into “apologetics” that are quite favorable to the extension of capitalist domination through bureaucratic mechanisms.

He also argued that Weber sees the increasing rationalization of modern life as the “fate” of modern man that’s why it is inevitable. According to some analysts, Weber and Marx are entertaining the same question that there is an increasing limitation of the human spirit under conditions of rapidly expanding bureaucratic regulation.

Wolfgang J. Mommsen, an observer more sympathetic to Weber compared the idea of Marx and Weber as both concerned with the inhuman consequences of modern industrial capitalism. Capitalism depended more or less on formal rationality in all spheres of social life.

Weber envisaged that the further advance of capitalism would eventually result in the emergence of a “new iron cage of serfdom” in which the individual would no longer stand any chance at all.

The only possible escape from the pattern of increasing social regulation is the hope of Weber that charismatic leaders might emerge in positions to control the otherwise enduring systems of bureaucratic administration.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

He was the first to emphasize the notion of the unconscious in the pursuit of a healthier mental attitude. He also developed an understanding of the life of groups, organizations, and societies.

Psychotherapy and Personality Theory Freud developed a theory of personality development by understanding the mind and behavior

of an individual. He argued that when an individual seeks certain pleasures or gratifications but that few of these wishes can be fulfilled, those unfulfilled wishes are repressed into the unconscious mind where they remain hidden and unrecognizable but capable of great influence over the individual’s development. Freud mentioned three forces: id, ego, and superego.

o Id is the source of psychic energy, the aspect of our being that seeks to reduce tension by means of the pleasure principle.

o Ego serves to mediate between the individual and the objective world obeying the reality principle.

o Superego comprises the internal representation of the values and ideals of the society, including matters of right and wrong.

The ego plays a mediating role, checking the primitive and impulsive tendencies of the id but also preventing the personality from being overwhelmed by moralistic considerations.

The ego may respond to the object choices of the instincts, meaning both the specific thing required to satisfy a need and all the behaviors that might go into securing that object.

In the central mechanism of repression, the ego may engage in displacement, projection, reaction formation, and fixation or regression.

The repression of wishes cannot be fulfilled creates the greatest discomfort for the patient. First, the patient may come to recognize that the wish should have been accepted from the

beginning and actions should have been taken to seek its fulfillment or the wish should have been released more easily when it is inappropriate. Or second, the energy of the wish may be redirected toward a more creative end.

Understanding the Behavior and Impact of Group Psychology

Freud examined more closely the implications of his work on therapeutic role of psychoanalysis in understanding social groups and even the entire cultural systems.

Leaders often have their own ideas about the direction the work of the group should take but these ideas may not be at all consistent with the desires of the group’s members. In this case, the leader fails in the eyes of the group and thus earns their hatred.

According to A.K. Rice, followers depend on their leaders to identify their goal, to devise ways of reaching it, and to lead toward it; but if the leaders fail or falters, leaders earn the hatred of followers.

The development of social groups and social organizations, based on the “scientific myth” of Freud, having control to a part of the world around them means doing damage to that world first for which they assume a certain amount of guilt.

This tension is repressed into the unconscious mind of the group, it creates patterns that are inexplicable on the surface but nonetheless control the group’s behavior.

“Scientific Myth”

Having control to a part of the world around them means doing damage to that world first for which they assume a certain amount of guilt. Then as the leader of the group begins to speak for and be identified with the group, the group members can shift their own guilt to the leader. Then recognizing the evil of the leader and the guilt the leader bears, the group can only recoil against him or her, thus creating inevitable tension between the leader and the group. As this tension is repressed into the unconscious mind of the group, it creates patterns that are inexplicable on the surface but nonetheless control the group’s behavior.

Groups and organizations appear as much more significant to the personal and psychological development of the individual than might first appear.

Individuals use groups and organizations not only to accomplish established ends but also to serve as direct sources of need gratification – to provide a sense of security. The organization is itself integral to the development of the person – a direct purveyor of influence and values, of hopes and aspirations, dreams and desires. The individual’s relationship to the group and ultimately the society itself is critical to an understanding of the human condition.

Individual Autonomy and Cultural Constraints

Freud examined the impact of civilization on the possibilities of human satisfaction as illustrated in his Civilization and Its Discontents.

Freud said that a good part of the struggles of mankind center round the single task of finding an expedient accommodation – one, that brings happiness – between this claim of individual autonomy and the cultural claims of the group.

Civilization represents a massive struggle between the life instinct, Eros, and the death instinct, Thanatos – a struggle that can only lead to guilt and repression on the part of the individual.

Our culture can only thwart our desires, limiting our freedom and independence. They depict the individual as engaged in a struggle with the forces of organization in society,

both public and private, due to the complexity and the consequent rationalization of society. Our personal and collective survival depends on our developing both a basic intelligence and a sense of compassion as we live and work in a society of large and complex organizations.

1. Controlling Our Environment2. Interpreting the Intentions of Others3. Freeing Ourselves from Limiting Perspectives

Political heritage: Wilson to WaldoPresented by: Darleen Joy J. Udtujan

Beginnings of Public Administration Theory

• Hamilton argued on behalf of a strong national government with considerable power residing in the executive.

• The Federalists preference for executive branch was a faithful reflection on their distrust of the people. An intelligent perception of sound public policy could come only from well-educated men of affairs, men of trained minds and broad experience—in short, from the upper class.

• Action, to be effective, must have clear direction, and such direction can come from only one source, a unified executive.

• According to Wilson, students have been largely preoccupied with constitutional questions and had ignored active operations of government agencies.

• He then suggested that stable principles of administrative management, “businesslike” principles, should be permitted to guide the operations of public agencies.

“The field of administration is a field of business”

• Politics-administration1. Public administration is made distinctive by its relationship to the government process

and that this relationship requires that special attention be paid to such normative concerns as justice, freedom and responsibility.

2. After decisions are made in a democratic manner, their implementation depends on the same managerial techniques employed in private industry.

• The duties of the executive are to enforce and apply the laws of the nation after they are made by the legislature and interpreted by the courts.

• Legislative, Judicial, Executive, Electorate and Administrative.• Every act [of the public employee] is a seamless web of discretion and action.• Administrators are continually laying down rules for the future, and administrators are

continually determining what the law is, what it means in terms of action.

The lingering influence of politics-administration

• Goodnow and Willoughby argued that the relationship between government functions like policy making and policy execution is much more complex that was previously realized.

Scientific approaches to management

• “the best management is a true science, resting upon clearly defined laws, rules, and principles”• Scientific management recommends managers to view workers as machines to be tuned to their

peak efficiency.

Administrative management and organizational structure

1. Coordination through unity and command.2. Scalar principle—vertical division of labor among various organizational levels.

3. Functional principle—various functions of the organization could be grouped (horizontal division of labor).

4. Relationship between line and staff.

Centralization and integration Efficiency: the key measure of success

• “the objective of public administration is the most efficient utilization of the resources at the disposal of officials and employees.” –White

• “in the science of administration, whether public or private, the basic ‘good’ is efficiency” -Gulick

Democratic administration

• “A democratic state must not only be based on democratic principles but also democratically administered, the democratic philosophy permeating its administrative ministry” –Levitan

• Dynamic administration must be grounded on “a recognition of the motivating desires of the individual and of the group” –Follett

Conclusion

• The problems of public organization are essentially the same as those of private organization, subject to solution through the scientific principles of administrative management.

• Democracy is best preserved through the efficient operation of government agencies.• Efficiency is best produced through sound business management.