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DNB@ Whrm`og Qdper \er`es

Gchbdc`zdt`ho, @oirdstrulture, don@olcus`ve Grhwtf

C. Dcdo W`oters

Oh. >9>Iebrudry 214>

Ds`do Nevechpkeot Bdom @ost`tute

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^fe Whrm`og Qdper ser`es `s d lhot`oudt`ho hi tfe ihrkercy odken N`sluss`ho Qdper ser`es=tfe oukber`og hi tfe pdpers lhot`ouen w`tfhut `oterrupt`ho hr lfdoge. DNB@s whrm`ogpdpers reicelt `o`t`dc `neds ho d thp`l don dre phsten hoc`oe ihr n`sluss`ho. DNB@ eolhurdgesredners th phst tfe`r lhkkeots ho tfe kd`o pdge ihr edlf whrm`og pdper (g`veo `o tfel`tdt`ho bechw). \hke whrm`og pdpers kdy nevechp `oth htfer ihrks hi pubc`ldt`ho.

\uggesten l`tdt`ho:

W`oters, C. D. 214>. Gchbdc`zdt`ho, @oirdstrulture, don @olcus`ve Grhwtf. DNB@ Whrm`og Qdper>9>. ^hmyh: Ds`do Nevechpkeot Bdom @ost`tute. Dvd`cdbce: fttp://www.dnb`.hrg/whrm`og-pdper/214>/12/2>/9479.gchbdc`zdt`ho.`oirdstrulture.`olcus`ve.grhwtf/

Qcedse lhotdlt tfe dutfhr ihr `oihrkdt`ho dbhut tf`s pdper.

Ekd`c:c.d.w`otersAsussex.dl.um

C. Dcdo W`oters `s Qrhiesshr hi Elhohk`ls dt tfe Uo`vers`ty hi \ussex. Fe `s d ResedrlfIecchw don ihrker Qrhgrdk N`relthr hi tfe Leotre ihr Elhohk`l Qhc`ly Resedrlf,Chonho, don Iecchw hi @ZD, Kuo`lf. Fe `s dcsh Lfd`rkdo hi tfe Gchbdc NevechpkeotOetwhrm.

^f`s pdper `s bdsen ho d meyohte dnnress nec`veren dt tfe 49tf DNB@ Dooudc Lhoiereoleho @oohvdt`ve, @olcus`ve, don @otegrdten Ds`d don Qdl`i`l `o ^hmyh ho Wenoesndy 27Ohvekber 214

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Dbstrdlt

^f`s pdper lhvers tfrees `ssues: i`rst, nei`o`og don kedsur`og `olcus`ve grhwtf= selhon, tferecdt`hosf`p betweeo `oterodt`hodc trdne don `oequdc`ty= don tf`rn, tfe c`oms betweeo`oirdstrulture don `oequdc`ty. Bhtf `oterodt`hodc trdne don `oirdstrulture kdme `t eds`er ihrpehpce th exlfdoge ghhns don serv`les don th `olredse `olhke by dcchw`og spel`dc`zdt`ho,elhohk`es hi sldce, vdr`ety, etl. ^fe gd`os dre `kphrtdot oht hocy `o dggregdte, but dcsh dtdo `on`v`nudc cevec, don n`iiereot pehpces db`c`ty th tdme dnvdotdge hi tfek vdr`es. Feoleedlf ldo`olredse `oequdc`ty. Lr`t`ldc th sfdr`og tfe gd`os irhk trdne `s khb`c`tyspel`i`ldccycdbhr khb`c`ty, wf`lf neterk`oes tfe ldpdl`ty hi pehpce th khve irhk dreds, selthrs, sm`ccs,hr i`rks hi chw hr nelc`o`og hpphrtuo`ty th tfhse hi f`gfer hpphrtuo`ty. @o tfe lhotext hi`olcus`ve grhwtf, tf`s lhost`tutes d lfdcceoge. Fhwever, tfe doswer sfhucn oht be th eslfewhpeo`og up tfe elhohky hr bu`cn`og `oirdstrulture, but th nh sh `o do `oihrken wdy don seemth uonertdme lhkpcekeotdry phc`l`es tfdt fecp tfe cess wecc-hii tdme dnvdotdge hi tfek.

JEC Lcdss`i`ldt`ho:I49, I9>, F5>

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Lhoteots

4. @otrhnult`ho ................................................................................................................ . @oirdstrulture don @oequdc ty .................................................................................... 445. Lholcus`hos ............................................................................................................. 49Reiereoles ......................................................................................................................... 47

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9> W`oters

>

@ nh oht dodcyze i`odol`dc gchbdc`zdt`ho `o tf`s pdper. @ nh ohte, fhwever, tfdt wf`ce `thiteo dppedrs tfdt i`odol`dc nevechpkeot `s uoequdc`z`og belduse `t seeks thlholeotrdte reshurles `oth iewer fdons don kdy lredte lr`ses tfdt dre bdn ihr tfephhr, tfere `s dt cedst shke ev`neole tfdt tf`s dspelt hi gchbdc`zdt`ho `s dcsh equdc`z`og(see Belm, Nek`rgul-Muot, don Cev`oe 2117).

2. @OLCU\@YE GRHW^F

Nei`o`og `olcus`ve grhwtf `s s`kpce `otu`t`vecy, but prdlt`ldccy `t `s lhkpcex belduse `tlhkb`oes tfe lholepts hi grhwtf don n`str`but`ho `oth d s`ogce kedsure don tfusrequ`res hoe th spel`iy tfe trdne-hii betweeo tfek.

Ho tfe hbjelt`ve hi sfdren prhsper`ty, tfe Whrcn Bdom (2141% hi dodt`hos phpucdt`ho. ^f`s `kpc`es tfdt d lhuotry w`tf do eveocy spredn grhwtf `o `olhkehi 4% w`cc be rdomen ds equ`vdceot th hoe w`tf oh dggregdte grhwtf but `o wf`lf 1.>%

hi odt`hodc `olhke `s ren`str`buten irhk tfe thp 91% hi tfe `olhke n`str`but`ho th tfebhtthk >1%. Hver tfe pre-lr`s`s per`hn hi 211 n`n.Ren`str`but`ho, ho tfe htfer fdon, `s n`ii`luct ihr ghverokeots, sh we ldo `oier tfdt tfeWhrcn Bdoms kedsure `s gh`og th ihlus kd`ocy ho grhwtf. Khrehver, `t pdys oh feen thtfe id`roess hi tfe n`str`but`ho hi tfe gd`os irhk grhwtf.

^fe @oterodt`hodc Khoetdry Iuon resedrlfers Bdcdmr`sfodo, \te`oberg don \yen (214

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I`rst tfere `s tfe iuolt`hodc n`str`but`ho hi `olhke betweeo cdbhr don ldp`tdc hr, byexteos`ho, betweeo n`iiereot m`ons hi cdbhr, `.e., wdge recdt`v`t`es. ^f`s c`es dt tfe fedrthi tfe nebdte hver `oterodt`hodc trdne don `oequdc`ty don fds dcsh i`guren `olhos`nerdt`hos hi `oirdstrulture. Q` don Zfhu (2142), ihr exdkpce, fdve releotcy sfhwofhw lhkpcex tf`s recdt`hosf`p ldo be `o tfehry= `t nepeons ho tfe subst`tutdb`c`ty hin`iiereot types hi cdbhr don `oirdstrulture (wf`lf hbv`huscy n`iiers by type hi`oirdstrulture) don tfe strulture hi cdbhr kdrmets.

\elhon, hoe k`gft be lholeroen dbhut spdt`dc `oequdc`ty. ^fe oew elhohk`lgehgrdpfy drhse irhk tfe `oterodt`hodc trdne lhkkuo`ty ds slfhcdrs shugft thuonerstdon tfe `kpc`ldt`hos hi tfe reg`hodc c`berdc`zdt`ho hi trdne, e.g., Mrugkdo donYeodbces (4001). @t relhgo`zes tfdt tfe lhkb`odt`ho hi i`xen lhsts don trdn`og lhstsldo g`ve r`se th ihrles hi dggchkerdt`ho wf`lf lduse elhohk`l dlt`v`ty th lcuster don`olhkes th belhke uoequdc gehgrdpf`ldccy. ^fe prhv`s`ho hi `oirdstrulture ihr`oterodt`hodc trdne `s lr`t`ldc `o tf`s v`ew belduse `t neterk`oes trdn`og lhsts. ^fere kdydcsh be `ssues surrhuon`og tfe chldt`ho hi chldc `oirdstrulture, sulf ds wdter hrsdo`tdt`ho pcdots.

^f`rn, tfe terk `olcus`ve grhwtf dppc`en dt tfe lhuotry cevec `s usudccy tdmeo dsreierr`og th tfe pershodc n`str`but`ho hi `olhke. Wf`ce edlf hi tfe prev`huscy ohtenn`keos`hos hbv`huscy pcdys d rhce `o tf`s, hur usudc `on`les hi `oequdc`ty (G`o`lheii`l`eots) dre oht nelhkphsdbce `o d wdy tfdt dcchws tfe lhkphoeots th be `neot`i`enprel`secy. Khrehver, idlthrs htfer tfdo wdges hr chldt`ho kdy dcsh `oicueole fhusefhcn`olhkes don lhucn nhk`odte tfekihr exdkpce, wfere fhusefhcns fdve kuct`pceedroers hr fdve oho-cdbhr shurles hi `olhke sulf ds rek`ttdoles.

Do `kphrtdot n`keos`ho hi tfe pershodc n`str`but`ho hi `olhke `s tfe cevec dt wf`lf tfelr`ter`ho hi equdc`zdt`ho `s dppc`en. @t `s perieltcy phss`bceds we w`cc see bechw `oshke hi tfe `oirdstrulture exdkpcestfdt phc`l`es tfdt dre uoequdc`z`og dt tfe chldccevec dre equdc`z`og dt tfe odt`hodc cevec. @kdg`oe d lhuotry w`tf twh reg`hos `o wf`lf dphc`ly `s dppc`en tfdt diielts hocy tfe skdccer don phhrer reg`ho. @t kdy rd`se tfe`olhkes hi hocy tfe r`lfer pehpce `o tfdt reg`ho don feole be uoequdc`z`og `o tfdtnhkd`o, but by khv`og tfe dverdge `olhke hi tfe reg`ho thwdrn tfe odt`hodc dverdge,be equdc`z`og dt tfe odt`hodc cevec. I`gure 4 `ccustrdtes tfe ldse `o d slfekdt`l wdy. ^fecdrger don r`lfer reg`ho `s `ccustrdten dbhve tfe c`oe, w`tf tfree bchlms hi `olhke, dontfe skdccer don phhrer `s `ccustrdten bechw, w`tf twh bchlms hi `olhke. @i tfe phc`lykhves tfe bchlm hi `olhkes D th phs`t`ho D, `t lcedrcy spredns `olhkes khre w`necy `otfe cdtter reg`ho. Fhwever, g`veo tfdt tfe odt`hodc dverdge `s fdrncy lfdogen, tfe idlttfdt D `s lchser th tfe odt`hodc dverdge tfdo D kedos tfdt odt`hodc `oequdc`ty `srenulen by tfe phc`ly.

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I`gure 4: Chldccy Uoequdc`z`og but Odt`hodccy Equdc`z`og Qhc`ly

\hurle: Dutfhrs ldclucdt`ho.

)ho khre releot c`terdture. ^fe gd`os irhk trdne, fhwever, recy ho expch`t`og

n`iiereoleskd`ocy betweeo lhuotr`es, but dcsh w`tf`o elhohk`es. @oterodt`hodc trdnebredms tfe r`g`n equdc`ty betweeo d lhuotrys prhnult`ho don lhosukpt`ho bdsmets tfdtdutdrmy `kphses donsh `s bhuon th diielt tfe recdt`ve sldrl`ty vdcue hi n`iiereot idlthrsdon n`iiereot sm`ccs. 4

^fe lhkb`odt`ho hi tfe whrns trdne don `olhke n`str`but`ho lduses tfe elhohk`st thredlf `ost`olt`vecy ihr tfe \thcper-\dkuecsho tfehrek. Oeh-lcdss`ldc trdne tfehrydssukes tfdt idlthr suppc`es dre fhkhgeoehus don i`xen don tfdt wdges dre icex`bce.@o d twh idlthr whrcn, \thcper-\dkuecsho pren`lts tfdt do `olredse `o tfe pr`le hi tfeghhn tfdt `s cdbhr-`oteos`ve `o prhnult`ho w`cc `olredse `ts prhnult`ho, `olredse `tsnekdon ihr idlthrs hi prhnult`ho (wf`lf, by dssukpt`ho, `s b`dsen thwdrn cdbhr) dontfus `olredse tfe redc wdge. Khre releotcy, Dnr`do Whhn (4007) fds tdugft us th tf`omkhre `o terks hi tfe twh idlthrs be`og sm`ccen don uosm`ccen cdbhr, w`tf ldp`tdc khb`c`tysuii`l`eotcy f`gf tfdt we ldo tredt `t ds eonhgeohus. @o tf`s ldse tfe mey n`iiereolesbetweeo ghhns dre tfe`r recdt`ve `oteos`t`es `o sm`ccen don uosm`ccen cdbhr. Ihr kdoy

Qehpce wfh lhotr`bute s`go`i`ldotcy th prhnul`og ghhns (donserv`les) tfdt dre vdcudbce `o tfe rest hi tfe whrcn w`cc ohw eolhuoter f`gfer nekdonihr tfe`r serv`les don feole fdve f`gfer `olhkes, wf`ce tfhse wfhse eonhwkeots hrsm`ccs equ`p tfek better th prhnule ghhns tfdt lhkpete w`tf ghhns `kphrten irhk tferest hi tfe whrcn dre c`mecy th chse recdt`vecy. ^fe eiielt hi `oterodt`hodc trdne don trdnephc`ly ho `olhke n`str`but`ho nepeons lr`t`ldccy ho tfe kelfdo`sks tfrhugf wf`lftfese eiielts dre ken`dten don tfe exteot th wf`lf pehpce ldo sw`tlf irhk d chs`og setth d w`oo`og hoe.

4

@i `t n`n oht, tfere whucn, dt cedst `o s`kpce khnecs, be oh gd`os irhk trdne.

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yedrs we wdtlfen Edst Ds`ds hpeo`og up w`tf `ts bhhk`og exphrts hi kdouidlturesdon rdp`n `olhke grhwtf dkhog whrmers w`tf bds`l sm`ccs don iect v`on`ldten. ^ferewere iew ihrkdc tests, fhwever, Iumdse (214) nhlukeoten resedrlf suggest`og severdc expcdodt`hos, `olcun`og:

tfe `o`t`dc strulture hi tdr`iis `o kdoy Cdt`o Dker`ldo lhuotr`es prhteltenuosm`ccen whrmers, sh `t `s fdrncy surpr`s`og tfdt c`berdc`sdt`ho renulen tfe`rwdges recdt`vecy=

tfe eotry hi cdrge cdbhr dbuondot lhuotr`es `oth whrcn kdrmets (espel`dccytfe QRL) `o tfe 4061s don 4001s, wf`lf kedot tfdt khst nevechp`oglhuotry c`berdc`sers were oht dltudccy uosm`ccen cdbhr dbuondot=

tfe c`berdc`sdt`ho hi ldp`tdc ghhns `kphrts, wf`lf fdve f`gf sm`ccsrequ`rekeots=

d burst hi sm`cc-b`dsen telfo`ldc prhgress `o tfe 4061s don 4001s=

hutshurl`og: wf`ce tfe cdbhr tfdt hutshurlen prhlesses hr i`rks requ`re `suosm`ccen by, sdy, U\ stdondrns, `t `s recdt`vecy sm`ccen by chldc stdondrns=

exphrt`og requ`res qu`te d cdrge vhcuke hi sm`ccen cdbhr, e.g., th keetstdondrns hr qudc`ty requ`rekeots hr ihr lh-hrn`odt`og tdsms ds k`gft berequ`ren th be pdrt hi d gchbdc vdcue lfd`o.

Khre releot resedrlf fds suggesten redshos ihr grhw`og `oequdc`ty res`n`og `on`iiereoles betweeo i`rks don fds ihlusen pdrtcy ho expcd`o`og wfy d cdrge pdrt hi tfeeiielt hi trdne c`berdc`zdt`ho seeks th fdppeo w`tf`oselthrs. Khnecs hi feterhgeoehusi`rks, stekk`og irhk Kec`tzs (211

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nevdcudt`ho hi 400> ds d prhxy ihr trdne c`berdc`zdt`ho, lhkpdr`og tfe pesh nevdcudt`hoper`hn, 400

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0

hllupdt`ho wdge `oequdc`ty= selhon, res`nudc wdge `oequdc`ty expcd`os d cdrge pdrt hithtdc wdge `oequdc`ty= tf`rn, betweeo-i`rk wdge n`spers`ho dllhuots ihr d cdrge pdrt hitfe grhwtf hi w`tf`o selthr-hllupdt`ho wdge `oequdc`ty= don ihurtf, cdrger i`rks donexphrters pdy f`gfer wdges ho dverdge.

@o d ohte hi ldut`ho, fhwever, Mr`sfod et dc. (2144) iurtfer prhbe tfe rhce hilhkphs`t`hodc lfdoges `o tfe whrmihrle hi exphrt`og i`rks `o resphose th c`berdc`zdt`ho.^fe`r fyphtfes`s `s tfdt i`rks kdy systekdt`ldccy lfdoge tfe lhkphs`t`ho hi tfe`rwhrmihrle `o terks hi whrmers `oodte db`c`ty don/hr i`rk-whrmer kdtlf-spel`i`l db`c`ty,oe`tfer hi wf`lf `s hbservdbce th resedrlfers. @i tfdt `s tfe ldse, dodcys`s chhm`og hocydt tfe dverdge i`rk-cevec wdges kdy be b`dsen. ^fus wf`ce shke resedrlfers dttr`butetfe f`gfer wdges pd`n by exphrters th tfe idlt tfdt exphrters pdy n`iiereot wdges thhtferw`se `neot`ldc whrmers, tfe redc`ty kdy be tfdt tfere dre systekdt`l butuohbservdbce lhkphs`t`hodc n`iiereoles betweeo i`rks. Mr`sfod et dc. test tfefyphtfes`s hi oho-rdonhk whrmers dss`gokeot us`og Brdz`c`do kdtlfen ekpchyer-ekpchyee ndtd. ^fey sfhw tfdt, hole lhotrhcc`og tfrhugf whrmer-i`rk kdtlf eiielts ihrtfe eonhgeoe`ty hi tfe whrmer-i`rk kdtlf`og, tfere `s oh s`go`i`ldot eiielt hi chwer

tdr`iis ho wdges ho bhtf nhkest`l-hr`eoten don exphrt`og i`rks.

Dk`t` don Ndv`s (2144) exteon tfe feterhgeoehus i`rk khnec th sepdrdte trdne `o i`odcdon `oterken`dte ghhns don dcsh th ekben d id`r wdge khnec hi wdge neterk`odt`howf`lf t`es i`rk wdges th i`rk perihrkdoles. ^fe khnec pren`lts tfdt chwer tdr`iis hoi`odc ghhns `olredse tfe wdges hi whrmers dt exphrt`og i`rks wf`ce renul`og wdges hiwhrmers dt nhkest`l-hr`eoten i`rks. Chwer`og `oput tdr`iis, ho tfe htfer fdon, rd`seswdges dt `kphrt`og i`rks but renules wdges dt i`rks tfdt nh oht `kphrt doy `oputs.^fey test tfe khnec ho @onhoes`do i`rk ndtd ihr tfe 40042111 per`hn hi trdnec`berdc`zdt`ho don i`on tfdt d 41 perleotdge ph`ot renult`ho `o hutput tdr`iis `olredseswdges by up th

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tfe cdbhr kdrmet, but by kdm`og don secc`og ghhns hr serv`les. ^fus hoe sfhucn beldreiuc oht th extrdphcdte tfese khnecs thh idr `oth tfe terr`thry hi `olcus`ve grhwtf.

^fe mey idlthr `o tfe khnecs dbhve `s cdbhr `kkhb`c`ty tfe `odb`c`ty hi cdbhr w`tf chwerwdges th khve `oth jhbs hiier`og f`gfer wdges. ^f`s `kkhb`c`ty k`gft res`ne `o doy hi

severdc n`keos`hos, sulf ds:

sm`ccstfe n`st`olt`ho betweeo sm`ccen don cess sm`ccen whrmers=

gehgrdpfywf`lf kdy recdte th k`grdt`ho lhsts hr `oihrkdt`ho id`cures=

f`r`og don i`r`og lhstswf`lf kdy preveot i`rks irhk turo`og hver tfe`rwhrmihrles=

tfe grdnudc dllukucdt`ho hi i`rk-spel`i`l hr selthr-spel`i`l mohwcenge, shtfdt `olukbeot whrmers dre leter`s pdr`bus better vdcue=

sedrlf don kdtlf prhlesses `o wf`lf i rks don whrmers idle lhsts hilfdog`og tfe`r pd`r`og= hr

lhoveot`ho hr n`slr`k`odt`ho tfdt c`k`t cdbhr kdrmet kdtlfes.

@o tfe dbseole hi doy sulf `kkhb`c`ty cdbhr lhucn khve ireecy betweeo selthrs dontdsms don we whucn expelt th see wdges equdc`zen hver kulf brhdner spdles. ^fus `itfere `s d phc`ly lholcus`ho irhk tf`s stredk hi whrm, `t `s tfdt cdbhr `kkhb`c`t`es c`ebef`on kulf hi tfe uoequdc eiielt hi hpeo`og up `oterodt`hodc trdne. Fhwever, eveow`tf perielt khb`c`ty, n`iiereot sm`ccs whucn pers`st don sh wdge `oequdc`ty whucnres`neds fds beeo ihuon `o Cdt`o Dker`lddt cedst pdrtcy `o tfe returos th enuldt`ho.@i tfese dre f`gf`.e., tfere dre cdrge wdge n`iiereoles betweeo sm`ccen don uosm`ccenwhrmersdon `i tfe dlqu`s`t`ho hi enuldt`ho `s subjelt th b`dses hi gehgrdpfy, lcdss hrrdle etl., `oequdc`t`es w`cc st`cc be uoid`r `o d brhdn seose don feole d ceg`t`kdte tdrgetihr phc`ly `oterveot`ho.

Cdbhr khb`c`ty nepeons ho kdoy idlthrs, but prhk`oeot dkhog tfek dre `ost`tut`hos.Cdbhr cdw `s lcedrcy hoe sulf `ost`tut`ho, but htfers `olcune dreds sulf ds peos`ho donshl`dc selur`ty, dlless th enuldt`ho, fhus`og `ost`tut`hos. Dcsh `kphrtdot dre dtt`tunesthwdrn equdc`ty w`tf`o ghverokeot don tfe bhny phc`t`l. @oterodt`hodc trdne `sren`str`but`ve don ghverokeots tfdt dre w`cc`og th lhos`ner phc`l`es tfdt edse tfe pc`gfthi tfhse wfh suiier dre c`mecy th i`on tfe`r phpucdt`hos kulf khre w`cc`og thlhuoteodole don resphon th lfdoge tfdo htfers. ^fe U\Ds exper`eole w`tf trdne-spel`i`l dnjustkeot dss`stdole fds beeo n`sdpph`ot`ogsee, ihr exdkpce, KlLucchlfet dc. (2114) ihr d n`sluss`ho `o tfe lhotext hi phvertydon khre geoerdc shl`dcselur`ty kedsures kdy be khre dpprhpr`dte.

Hoe reservdt`ho th dcc tf`s kust be relhrnen. @i cdbhr `s gehgrdpf`ldccy khb`ce, oeh-lcdss`ldc tfehry whucn pren`lt tfe equdc`zdt`ho hi wdges dlrhss spdle. Fhwever, `i tfewhrcn resekbces tfdt phstucdten by tfe oew elhohk`l gehgrdpfy slfhcdrs, cdbhrkhb`c`ty ldo exdlerbdte reg`hodc `oequdc`t`es sulf tfdt pehpce wfh dre ceit bef`on `otfe uoidsf`hodbce pdrts hi do elhohky suiier lhos`nerdbce redc wdge n`sdnvdotdge. @returo th tfese `ssues bechw uoner tfe fedn`og hi `oirdstrulture.

Do `oequdc`ty oht dkeodbce th khb`c`ty `s geoner. D oukber hi stun`es fdve exdk`oentfe eiielts hi trdne c`berdc`zdt`ho ho geoner n`spdr`t`es don `o khst ldses ihuon tfdttrdne `s equdc`z`og. Hoe ldo n`st`ogu`sf tfree kd`o rhutes ihr sulf beoei`ts. I`rst, `itrdne c`berdc`zdt`ho idvhrs iekdce-`oteos`ve selthrs, iekdce wdges hr ekpchykeot w`cc`olredse. Dgudyh-^eccez et dc (2141) chhm dt tfe `kpdlt hi tdr`ii renult`hos ldusen bytfe ODI^D ho geoner hutlhkes `o Kex`lh. ^fey nelhkphse tfe lfdoge `o tfe iekdce

sfdre `o ekpchykeot don wdge b`cc `oth tfe betweeo don w`tf`o-`onustry lhkphoeots.

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Whkeos sfdre hi tfe wdge b`cc `olredsen by 5.< perleotdge ph`ots betweeo 4001 don2111, >1% hi wf`lf wds dllhuoten ihr by betweeo-`onustry sf`its ldusen by tdr`iilfdoges idvhr`og `o`t`dccy iekdce-`oteos`ve `onustr`es.

\elhon, trdne ldo diielt tfe w`tf`o-selthr geoner lhkphs`t`ho. Ds ohten dbhve, trdne

c`berdc`zdt`ho st`kucdtes khre prhnult`ve i`rks don f`gfer qudc`ty prhnults. ^f`sirequeotcy eotd`cs sm`ccen don lhgo`t`ve tdsms repcdl`og uosm`ccen don kdoudc tdsms donkdy dcsh `ovhcve telfohchg`ldc upgrdn`og. ^f`s ldo diielt geoner cdbhr kdrmethutlhkes `i whkeo fdve d lhkpdrdt`ve dnvdotdge `o cess pfys`ldccy `oteos`ve donf`gfer sm`ccen dlt`v`t`es. Jufo et dc. (214. @OIRD\^RUL^URE DON @OETUDC@^P

@ w`cc lhos`ner twh phss`bce rhutes tfrhugf wf`lf `oirdstrulture lhucn diielt `oequdc`ty.^fe i`rst `s belduse `t iuondkeotdccy neterk`oes tfe lhsts hi trdne don feole tfe gd`osirhk trdne. ^fese lhucn ds wecc be `oterodc ds `oterodt`hodc. ^rdne `s iuondkeotdc thrd`s`og `olhkes dbhve subs`steole cevec, but ds ohten dbhve tfe db`c`ty th tdmednvdotdge hi `t `s oht lhoierren equdccy ho dcc l`t`zeos. \elhon, `oirdstrulture fds chldceiieltshiteo hocy chldc eiielts, e.g. wdter suppc`esdon sh chldt`ho don dlless thidl`c`t`es dre d lr`t`ldc n`keos`ho.

Do ecegdot exerl`se br`og`og `oirdstrulture don tfe gd`os ihrk trdne thgetfer `sNhodcnsho (2141), ho tfe eiielts hi tfe eohrkhus expdos`ho `o trdosphrtdt`ho`oirdstrulture `kpc`en by tfe lhostrult`ho hi lhcho`dc @on`d's rd`cwdy oetwhrm. F`sexerl`se `s expc`l`tcy chldten `o d tfehret`ldc khnec hi tfe `oter-reg`hodc trdn`ogeov`rhokeot wfereby rd`cwdys renulen tfe lhst hi trdn`og wf`lf fe sfhws resucten `o

`olredsen trdne vhcukes don renulen `oter-reg`hodc pr`le n`iiereoles. Fe est`kdtes

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tfdt wfeo tfe rd`cwdy oetwhrm wds exteonen th tfe dverdge n`str`lt `o lhcho`dc @on`d,redc dgr`lucturdc `olhke `o tfdt n`str`lt rhse by dpprhx`kdtecy 49% don severdcdnn`t`hodc tests kdme tf`s d lren`bce est`kdte.

\`k`cdr est`kdtes fdve beeo kdne ihr tfe grhwtf hi tfe QRLs f`gfwdy systek s`ole

dbhut 4007, tfe chldt`ho don t`k`og hi wf`lf hiiers elhohk`sts dkpce hpphrtuo`t`es th`neot`iy tfe eiielts. Rhberts et dc. (2142) use d lcdss`ldc oew elhohk`l gehgrdpfykhnec th tdlmce tfe quest`ho, bdsen n`reltcy ho tfe khnecs hi Iuj`td, Mrugkdo donYeodbces (4000). Fdv`og chldten tfe f`gfwdy oetwhrm tfey ldclucdte tfe t`ke sdv`ogs(`kprhvekeots `o kdrmet dlless) ho n`iiereot reg`hos trdne tfdt `t `kpc`es, don irhktf`s tfey est`kdte tfe lfdoges `o tfe redc wdge tfdt ldo be supphrten `o tfhse reg`hos.Lhkpdr`og sleodr`hs w`tf don w`tfhut tfe oetwhrm, tfey ldo est`kdte tfe oetwhrmseiieltsdt cedst `o tfe recdt`vecy sfhrt-ruo. ^fere fds oht beeo suii`l`eot t`ke thest`kdte tfe chog-ruo eiielts, but `t `s dcsh true tfdt tfese whucn be khre lhkpcexbelduse hi tfe phss`b`c`t`es hi phpucdt`ho khvekeots don htfer chog-ruo dnjustkeots. >

D recdten dpprhdlf th tfe f`gfwdy oetwhrm `o tfe QRL `s by Idber (2142). Fe ihlusesho feterhgeoe`ty betweeo l`t`es don i`ons tfdt tfe f`gfwdy oetwhrm dcchwen dodggchkerdt`ho hi `onustry tfdt dltudccy fdrken per`pferdc reg`hos, renul`og tfe`r`olhkes by 4

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4>

s`go`i`ldot `kpdlts ho tfe nevechpkeot hi chldc kdrmets don tfe prhv`s`ho hi chldcserv`les, w`tf fhusefhcns sw`tlf`og irhk dgr`lucture th oho-dgr`lucturdc, khstcy serv`le-bdsen, dlt`v`t`es don do edrcy don sustd`oen `olredse `o pr`kdry slfhhc lhkpcet`hordtes. ^fe `kpdlts dre feterhgeoehus, fhwever= phhrer lhkkuoes teon th rephrtf`gfer `kpdlts nue th tfe`r chwer cevecs hi `o`t`dc kdrmet nevechpkeot (tfere `s khrerhhk th kdme up), but dre n`sdnvdotdgen by fdv`og iewer kdrmet `ost`tut`hos `o`t`dccy howf`lf th bu`cn. ^fe exdlt bdcdole hi tfese ihrles `s wfdt neterk`oes recdt`ve hutlhkes,w`tf n`stdole th leotrdc kdrmets, chw phpucdt`ho neos`ty, cdrge k`ohr`ty phpucdt`hos,f`gf dnuct `cc`terdly, don be`og chldt`ho `o tfe Ohrtf dcc lhos`steotcy ndkpeo`og tferhdns phs`t`ve `kpdlts. Ku don Ydo ne Wdcce suggest tfdt skdcc rhdn `kprhvekeotprhjelts lhucn fdve vdstcy cdrger `kpdlts ho chldc kdrmet nevechpkeot `i tfey weretdrgeten th pcdles w`tf `o`t`dccy chwer kdrmet nevechpkeot, don `i dllhkpdo`en bylhkpcekeotdry shl`dc don elhohk`l phc`l`es nes`goen th `kprhve lertd`o dttr`butes(sulf ds dnuct c`terdly) hr renule tfe n`sdnvdotdges hi htfers (sulf ds phc`l`es threverse tfe eiielts hi f`sthr`ldc n`slr`k`odt`ho thwdrn etfo`l k`ohr`ty grhups).

^fe uoequdc`z`og eiielts hi chldc rhdns dre repc`ldten `o Dir`ld ds wecc. \ee, ihr

exdkpce, Odjkdo, Gdlfdss`o, don Rdbdccdon (2141), ho Ldkerhho, wfh drgue tfdt do`olredse `o oho-idrk`og dlt`v`t`es `s tfe kd`o nr`ver ihr phverty renult`ho `o rurdc Dir`ld,don lholcune tfdt tfe pr`hr`ty `o rhdn `ovestkeots sfhucn be ihr chldt`hos wfere oho-idrk`og dlt`v`t`es lhucn be nevechpen, oht tfe sh-ldccen cdst k`ce `o rurdc dreds.\`k`cdrcy, Brylesho, Brdnbury don Brdnbury (2116), ho Etf`hp`d, Zdkb`d, don Y`etOdk, suggest tfdt `o extrekecy rekhte dreds, rhdn `kprhvekeots kdy ldtdcyze tfeexpdos`ho hi shl`dc-serv`le prhv`s`ho, ds ev`neolen `o Etf`hp`d, but dcsh tfdt g`veo tfephhr's recdt`ve cdlm hi khthr vef`lces don `odb`c`ty th pdy ihr pubc`l trdosphrt, rhdns dre,by oh kedos, d suii`l`eot lhon`t`ho ihr eofdol`og tfe khb`c`tydon feole tfeelhohk`l ihrtuoeshi tfe rurdc phhr.

^fe leotrdc tfeke hi tf`s br`ei n`sluss`ho hi `oirdstrulture `s, ds w`tf `oterodt`hodc trdne,

khb`c`ty. @oirdstrulture, c`me trdne, hpeos up hpphrtuo`t`es don tfe kd`o gd`oers w`cc betfhse wfh dre dbce th tdme dnvdotdge hi tfek e`tfer tfrhugf ghhn culm, (ds tfeyfdppeo th be `o tfe r`gft selthr hr pcdle), `ofereot db`c`t`es, hr tfrhugf fdv`og dlless thoelessdry lhkpcekeotdry idlthrs. Hiteo tf`s w`cc requ`re khvekeot betweeo reg`hos hrselthrs hr eveo i`rks, don idlthrs tfdt `of`b`t tf`s dre c`mecy th `kpene hr preveot tfespredn hi tfe beoei`ts hi do `oirdstrulture `ovestkeot prhgrdk.

Ho dlless th `oirdstrulture, Estdlfe don Idy (2117) sfhw tfdt dlless th `otrd-reg`hodc`oirdstrulture `s f`gfcy smewen dgd`ost tfe phhr= see tfe`r ^dbce >, reprhnulen bechwds ^dbce 4 bechw. @t chhms dt tfe thp don bhtthk qu`ot`ces `o tfree grhups hi lhuotr`es.Estdlfe don Idy ohte tfdt tfere dre `ssues bhtf hi pfys`ldc dlless don hi diihrndb`c`ty.Ho tfe ihrker, tfe `ssue `s wfere `oirdstrulture `s bu`ct, wf`lf nepeons substdot`dccy ho

phc`t`ldc `oicueole, don hole `t `s bu`ct, wfh ldo diihrn th c`ve lchse by th `t. ^fe cdtterkedos tfdt eveo `i, sdy, p`pen wdter `s lchse-by, tfe phhr kdy st`cc oeen th pdy serv`lelfdrges th get dt `t don tfese kdy be prhf`b`t`ve. @oneen tfey drgue tfdt ihr tfe phhr,diihrndb`c`ty `s d kdjhr furnce don w`cc dckhst lertd`ocy requ`re pubc`l subs`ny `o shkeihrk hr htfer.

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^dbce 4: Dlless th @oirdstrulture by @olhke Tu`ot`ce

\hurle: Estdlfe don Idy (2117).

Hoe tecc`og exdkpce hi prhbceks w`tf dlless `s Rdbdccdon et dc. (2144), wfh hiierev`neole ho dlless th serv`les irhk d rdonhk`zen exper`keot `o Kdcdw`. @o hrner thuonerstdon wfy rhdns `o recdt`vecy ghhn lhon`t`ho `o rurdc dreds k`gft oht be usen bybuses, d k`o`bus serv`le wds subs`n`zen hver d s`x-khotf per`hn hver d n`stdole hi 21m`chketers th serve 5 v`ccdges. Us`og rdonhkcy dcchldten pr`les ihr use hi tfe bus, tfeexper`keot sfhwen tfdt dt very chw pr`les, bus usdge wds f`gf, but tfdt `t nelredsenrdp`ncy ds pr`les rhse. Hverdcc, fhwever, `t sfhwen tfdt regdrncess hi wfetfer tfepr`les were chw (w`tf f`gf usdge) hr f`gf (w`tf lhrresphon`ogcy chw usdge), tfe busserv`le prhv`ner lhucn oever bredm eveo ho tfe rhdn. @o terks hi phc`ly `kpc`ldt`hos,tf`s exper`keot suggests tfdt khthr`zen serv`les kdy oeen th be subs`n`zen= don `ipershodc trdosphrtdt`ho `s tfe kd`o d`k hi d rhdn bu`cn`og hr upgrdn`og prhjelt, `t `sc`mecy th `oeiielt`ve uocess d lhkpcekeotdry phc`ly `s pursuen. Hi lhurse, tf`s exdkpce

`s f`gfcy ldse spel`i`l, but tfe geoerdc ldut`ho `s vdc`n.Diihrndb`c`ty lhos`nerdt`hos `o turo cedn th quest`hos hi regucdt`ho. Eveo pubc`l ut`c`t`esoeen regucdt`og `o tfe seose hi nei`o`og serv`le stdondrns, etl., don pr`vdt`zen hoeshbv`huscy nh. ^fese `ssues hi n`strbut`ho dre f`gfcy phc`t`ldc don lchsecy recdten th`ssues hi ghverodole `o geoerdc. 5

Fhwever, regucdt`ho fds th be ghhn th be hi use. ^erdvdo`otfhro don Rdbdccdon (2110)chhm dt trdosphrt pr`les dchog rhdn lhrr`nhrs `o Dir`ld. ^fey dssess tfe c`mecy returos th`ovestkeot `o edlf hi i`ve lhrr`nhrs don i`on tfdt tfey vdry s`go`i`ldotcy w`tf tfe`ost`tut`hodc s`tudt`ho. @o pdrt`lucdr tfey i`on tfdt `o west don leotrdc Dir`ld,

trdosphrtdt`ho lhsts lhucn be s`go`i`ldotcy renulen by renul`og iuec lhsts, `kprhv`ogrhdn qudc`ty, don renul`og bhrner lrhss`og t`kes. Fhwever, tfey drgue tfdt tfe trulm`ogselthrs dre sh ldrtec`zen don fedv`cy regucdten tfdt doy lhst sdv`ogs prhnulen w`cc justgh `oth trulmers phlmets rdtfer tfdo st`kucdte trdne don eoterpr`se. ^fe khrdc `s tfdtuot`c regucdt`ho eosures suii`l`eot lhkpet`t`ho th eosure tfdt lhsts sdv`ogs dre pdssenho, rhdn don bhrner-lrhss`og `kprhvekeot slfekes w`cc teon th be uoequdc`z`og

^fus, hoe k`gft expelt tfe eiielt`veoess hi`oirdstrulture `o dnnress`og `oequdc`ty (don eveo phss`bcy grhwtf) th vdry w`tf tfequdc`ty hi ghverodole.

5@oneen kulf hi tfe c`terdture ho tfe regucdt`ho hi `oirdstrulture reiers th tfe ghverodole hi tfe selthr=

see, ihr exdkpce, tfe exlecceot n`sluss`ho `o Meooy (2117). Qdrmer et dc. (2116) hiier d survey hi resuctsho regucdt`ho don phverty don sfhw tfdt tfe dred `s redccy qu`te lfdcceog`og. D mey reiereole ho

regucdt`ho `s Estdlfe don Wreo-Cew`s (2110).

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belduse tfey w`cc `olredse reots. Rdbdccdon et dc (2142) kdme d s`k`cdr ph`ot dbhut phrtidl`c`t`estfe prhbcek `s oht hocy `oeii`l`eot hii`l`dcnhk but pr`vdte restr`lt`ve prdlt`les.

5. LHOLCU\@HO\

^wh hi tfe mey `ogren`eots th elhohk`l grhwtftrdne don `oirdstrultureteon thwdrnlredt`og `oequdc`t`es. \hket`kes tfe`r beoei`l`dr`es dre tfe phhrest, don tfe`r eiielt `sequdc`z`og, but hiteo, tdm`og dnvdotdge hi tfek nepeons ho htfer eonhwkeots hrdb`c`t`es don tfe beoei`ts dllrue th tfhse dbhve (phss`bcy just dbhve) tfe bhtthk hi tfe`olhke n`str`but`ho. @o tfe lhotext hi `olcus`ve grhwtf, tf`s `s d prhbcek, but tfe doswer`s oht th eslfew hpeo`og up tfe elhohky hr bu`cn`og `oirdstrulture, but th nh sh `o do`oihrken wdy don seem th uonertdme lhkpcekeotdry phc`l`es tfdt fecp tfe cess wecc-hiitdme dnvdotdge hi tfek.

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REIEREOLE\

Dgudyh-^eccez, E., J. D`rhcd, don L. Jufo. 2141. N`n ^rdne C`berdc`zdt`ho Fecp Whkeo8^fe Ldse hi Kex`lh `o tfe 4001s. OBER Whrm`og Qdper Oh. 49405.

Ldkbr`nge, KD: Odt`hodc Buredu hi Elhohk`l Resedrlf.Dk`t`, K., don C. Ldkerho. 2142. ^rdne C`berdc`zdt`ho don tfe Wdge \m`cc Qrek`uk:

Ev`neole irhk @onhoes`d. Jhurodc hi @oterodt`hodc Elhohk`ls67(2): 277267.

Dk`t`, K., don N. Ndv`s. 2142. ^rdne, I`rks, don Wdges: ^fehry don Ev`neole.Rev`ewhi Elhohk`l \tun`es70(4):44>41. Wdsf`ogtho, NL: Whrcn BdomEstdlfe, D., don C. Wreo-Cew`s. 2110. ^hwdrn d ^fehry hi Regucdt`ho ihr Nevechp`og

Lhuotr`es: Ihcchw`og Jedo-Jdlques Cdiihot's Cedn. Jhurodc hi Elhohk`lC`terdture, >7(

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Irds, J., N. Mdpcdo, don E. Yerfhhgeo. 2142. Exphrts don W`tf`o-Qcdot WdgeN`str`but`hos: Ev`neole irhk Kex`lh.Dker`ldo Elhohk`l Rev`ew412(>1.

Iumdse, E. 2144: ): 640654.

Q`, J., don P. Zfhu. 2142. Qubc`l @oirdstrulture Qrhv`s`ho don \m`ccenUosm`ccen Wdge@oequdc`ty `o Nevechp`og Lhuotr`es. Cdbhr Elhohk`ls 40(9): 664667.

Rdbdccdon, G., et dc. 2144. Dre Rurdc Rhdn @ovestkeots Dchoe \uii`l`eot th Geoerdte

^rdosphrt Ichws8 Cesshos irhk d Rdonhk`zen Exper`keot `o Rurdc Kdcdw` donQhc`ly @kpc`ldt`hos. Qhc`ly Resedrlf Whrm`og Qdper 55

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Rhberts, K., U. Ne`lfkdoo, B. I`ogcetho, don ^. \f`. 2142. Evdcudt`og Lf`od's Rhdn thQrhsper`ty: D Oew Elhohk`l Gehgrdpfy Dpprhdlf. Reg`hodc \l`eole donUrbdo Elhohk`ls>2: 56150>.

\fdp`rh, L., don J. \t`gc`tz. 406>. Equ`c`br`uk Uoekpchykeot ds d Whrmer N`sl`pc`oe

Nev`le.Dker`ldo Elhohk`l Rev`ew 7>(>.^erdvdo`otfhro, \., don G. Rdbdccdon. 2110. ^rdosphrt Qr`les don Lhsts `o Dir`ld: D

Rev`ew hi tfe Kd`o @oterodt`hodc Lhrr`nhrs. Wdsf`ogtho, NL: Whrcn Bdom.

Yerfhhgeo, E. 2116. ^rdne, Tudc`ty Upgrdn`og, don Wdge @oequdc`ty `o tfe Kex`ldoKdouidltur`og \elthr. Tudrtercy Jhurodc hi Elhohk`ls42605. ^rdne C`berdc`zdt`ho don Qhverty:^fe Ev`neole \h Idr. Jhurodc hi Elhohk`l C`terdture>2:72445.

W`oters, C. D. 2112. ^rdne C`berdc`sdt`ho don Qhverty: Wfdt dre tfe C`oms8 WhrcnElhohk`ls 25(0): 4024.

Whhn, D. 4007. Hpeooess don Wdge @oequdc`ty `o Nevechp`og Lhuotr`es: ^fe Cdt`oDker`ldo Lfdcceoge th Edst Ds`do Lhoveot`hodc W`snhk. ^fe Whrcn BdomElhohk`l Rev`ew44(4):