GHSGT Review for the GHSGT Review for the Physical Science DomainsPhysical Science Domains

Atoms, elements, bonding, compounds, Atoms, elements, bonding, compounds, mixtures, periodic table, Newtons Laws, mixtures, periodic table, Newtons Laws, Force, Work and Mechanical advantage, Force, Work and Mechanical advantage, Heat transfer, Radioactivity, Electricity Heat transfer, Radioactivity, Electricity

and Magnetism, Waves, Sound and and Magnetism, Waves, Sound and Light Light

What is Matter?What is Matter?Everything in the universe is either matter Everything in the universe is either matter or energyor energyMatter has mass and takes up space Matter has mass and takes up space (volume)(volume)Mass is a measure of inertiaMass is a measure of inertiaSpace L x W x HSpace L x W x HEither Pure substance of Elements or Either Pure substance of Elements or Compounds or mixtures of elements and Compounds or mixtures of elements and compoundscompoundsElement- defined by number of protons in Element- defined by number of protons in nucleusnucleusCompound- two or more atoms of elements Compound- two or more atoms of elements combined chemically (ionic or covalent)combined chemically (ionic or covalent)

Pure SubstancesPure SubstancesElements – number of protons in nucleus Elements – number of protons in nucleus of the atom 109 metal or nonmetalof the atom 109 metal or nonmetalCompounds – chemically combined by Compounds – chemically combined by loosing (+) gaining (-) or sharing electrons loosing (+) gaining (-) or sharing electrons Ions IonsIonic bonding – electron transfer from Ionic bonding – electron transfer from metal (+) to nonmetal (-) Cametal (+) to nonmetal (-) Ca²+ O²- ²+ O²- CaOCaOGroup1 A.M.(1+) Group2 A.E.M. (2+) Group1 A.M.(1+) Group2 A.E.M. (2+) Group3-12 T.M.(1+ to 4+) Group3-12 T.M.(1+ to 4+) Boron (3+)Boron (3+)Carbon (4+-) Nitrogen (3-) Oxygen (2-Carbon (4+-) Nitrogen (3-) Oxygen (2-Halogens (1-) Noble Gases stable octect Halogens (1-) Noble Gases stable octect

Formula for CompoundsFormula for Compounds

Sum of the oxidation numbers must Sum of the oxidation numbers must be Obe O

Cross Multiply and use subscripts to Cross Multiply and use subscripts to balancebalance

Na 1+ F 1- NaFNa 1+ F 1- NaF

Ca 2+ F 1- CaF2Ca 2+ F 1- CaF2

Na 1+ O 2- Na2ONa 1+ O 2- Na2O

Al 3+ O 2- Al2O3Al 3+ O 2- Al2O3

MixturesMixturesHeterogeneous – can distinguish phasesHeterogeneous – can distinguish phasesHomogeneous – solute is dissolved in the solvent Homogeneous – solute is dissolved in the solvent Solid, Liquid or GasSolid, Liquid or GasColloid – heterogeneous mixture where the Colloid – heterogeneous mixture where the different phases are held in suspension different phases are held in suspension Tyndall EffectTyndall EffectPhysical Change – chemical properties remain the Physical Change – chemical properties remain the same change of statesame change of stateChemical Change – chemical reaction Chemical Change – chemical reaction rearrangement of atoms new material with new rearrangement of atoms new material with new properties endothermic or exothermicproperties endothermic or exothermicPhysical Properties include color, density, statePhysical Properties include color, density, stateChemical Properties include reactivity Chemical Properties include reactivity

Atomic StructureAtomic StructureAtom – smallest unit an element with characteristics Atom – smallest unit an element with characteristics of that elementof that elementNucleus and an Electron Cloud mostly empty spaceNucleus and an Electron Cloud mostly empty spaceNucleus – protons and neutrons mass of the atom Nucleus – protons and neutrons mass of the atom mass number of amu’smass number of amu’s protons are the atomic number and identify the protons are the atomic number and identify the element element Isotopes – different number of neutronsIsotopes – different number of neutronsElectron Cloud – electrons occur at different energy Electron Cloud – electrons occur at different energy levels filling lower levels first 2-8-18-32 divided up levels filling lower levels first 2-8-18-32 divided up into sublevelsinto sublevelsOutermost electrons are Valence electrons that are Outermost electrons are Valence electrons that are lost, gained or shared during bondinglost, gained or shared during bonding

Periodic Table is organized by the Periodic Table is organized by the electron configuration of elementselectron configuration of elementsGroups or Families have the same Groups or Families have the same number of valence electronsnumber of valence electronsEach Period is filling that energy level Each Period is filling that energy level ex: 3 valence e- in the third energy ex: 3 valence e- in the third energy levellevel Al 3+ oxidationAl 3+ oxidation another ex: 2 valence e- in secondanother ex: 2 valence e- in second has to be Behas to be Be one more ex: 7 valence e- in the 2one more ex: 7 valence e- in the 2

RadioactivityRadioactivityRadioactivity – spontaneous decay of Radioactivity – spontaneous decay of unstable nuclei Strong and Weak unstable nuclei Strong and Weak nuclear forcesnuclear forcesUnstable because of the proton/neutron Unstable because of the proton/neutron ratio 1:1 small elements 2:3 ratio 1:1 small elements 2:3 larger atomlarger atom radioactive isotopes go through series to radioactive isotopes go through series to become stable releasing alpha, beta and become stable releasing alpha, beta and (particles) and gamma (pure energy)(particles) and gamma (pure energy)Alpha decay – 4amu’s 2p 2n He nucleusAlpha decay – 4amu’s 2p 2n He nucleus produces another element strong nuclearproduces another element strong nuclear ex: unstable U-234 undergoes alpha ex: unstable U-234 undergoes alpha decay U-234 yields Hedecay U-234 yields He²+ and ²+ and Th-230 Th-230

Beta decay – high energy electron Beta decay – high energy electron emitted from neutron weak emitted from neutron weak nuclear forcenuclear force

also changes the element by also changes the element by converting a neutron into a proton converting a neutron into a proton mass is the samemass is the same

ex: C-14 to N-14ex: C-14 to N-14

Gamma does not change the Gamma does not change the identity, but does release energy identity, but does release energy E=mcE=mc²²

What is Energy and how is What is Energy and how is Energy used? Energy used?

Energy is the ability to cause a change or to do Energy is the ability to cause a change or to do work work 6 forms – mechanical, electric, thermal, 6 forms – mechanical, electric, thermal, nuclear, radiant and chemicalnuclear, radiant and chemicalMechanical energy is energy of motionMechanical energy is energy of motionMotion – change of position relative to a frame Motion – change of position relative to a frame of referenceof reference motion takes place at a certain speed or motion takes place at a certain speed or velocityvelocitySpeed is rate of change in position rate=timeSpeed is rate of change in position rate=time speed=distance/time speed=distance/time velocity=displacement/time velocity=displacement/time

speed can be constant, changing, speed can be constant, changing, instantaneous or the average is calculatedinstantaneous or the average is calculated constant=straight line curve, changing ? constant=straight line curve, changing ? Instantaneous=point, average=total Instantaneous=point, average=total t/dist/disAcceleration is rate of change of displacementAcceleration is rate of change of displacementAcc = Acc = ΔΔd/d/ΔΔt a=df-di/tf-ti m/s/s or m/s²t a=df-di/tf-ti m/s/s or m/s²Acceleration is the result of an unbalanced Acceleration is the result of an unbalanced forceforceForce – push or pull against a massForce – push or pull against a massMass – measure of InertiaMass – measure of InertiaInertia – resistance to acceleration 1Inertia – resistance to acceleration 1stst Law LawNewton’s Laws 1Newton’s Laws 1stst inertia 2 inertia 2ndnd F=ma F=ma

33rdrd action-reaction F=ma kg m/s action-reaction F=ma kg m/s² ² newtons of force newtons of force friction – force that opposes motionfriction – force that opposes motion static rolling slidingstatic rolling sliding lubricants push surfaces apart to reduce lubricants push surfaces apart to reduce frictionfrictionAir resistance – air friction of falling objectsAir resistance – air friction of falling objects all things fall at the same rate in a all things fall at the same rate in a vacuum because of balance of gravity and vacuum because of balance of gravity and inertiainertiaGravity – force of attraction(?) between all Gravity – force of attraction(?) between all objects F=ma Wt=ma Wt=mg objects F=ma Wt=ma Wt=mg g=9.8m/s² Fg=G m1m2/d²g=9.8m/s² Fg=G m1m2/d²

WorkWorkWork – transfer or conversion of energyWork – transfer or conversion of energy

Energy has six forms and two statesEnergy has six forms and two states

Kinetic energy – energy of motion Kinetic energy – energy of motion KE=1/2mv² kg m²/s² Nm KE=1/2mv² kg m²/s² Nm joulejoule

Potential energy – stored energy Potential energy – stored energy PE=mgh kg m/s² m Nm joule PE=mgh kg m/s² m Nm joule

Conservation of energy – energy can be Conservation of energy – energy can be converted to another formconverted to another form

PowerPowerPower – rate at which work is done or Power – rate at which work is done or converted to another formconverted to another form

P=W/t =Fd/t =F/v kgm²/s²/s P=W/t =Fd/t =F/v kgm²/s²/s or J/s Watts or J/s Watts hp=746Whp=746W

Simple Machines multiply force or Simple Machines multiply force or distance W=Fd make work easierdistance W=Fd make work easier

Levers – bar, wheel-axel and pulleyLevers – bar, wheel-axel and pulley

Inclined Planes – ramp, wedges and Inclined Planes – ramp, wedges and screwsscrews

MA = Le/Lr or Fr/Fe Eff = Wo/WiMA = Le/Lr or Fr/Fe Eff = Wo/Wi

MomentumMomentum

Momentum – property or tendency of Momentum – property or tendency of a moving objecta moving object

p=mv kg m/sp=mv kg m/s

Vector – magnitude and directionVector – magnitude and direction

Impulse – change in momentumImpulse – change in momentum

Requires an unbalanced forceRequires an unbalanced force

Ft = Ft = ΔΔp = mv f – mv ip = mv f – mv i

HeatHeatHeat – thermal energy that movesHeat – thermal energy that moves

Thermal Energy – causes particle vibration Thermal Energy – causes particle vibration or sum of internal energiesor sum of internal energies

KE increases and volume will KE increases and volume will increase…………thermal expansionincrease…………thermal expansion

Measured in Joules or cals 1c=4.1J BTUMeasured in Joules or cals 1c=4.1J BTU

Temperature measures KE of atomsTemperature measures KE of atoms

K °C °FK °C °F

Tf=(9/5Tc)+32 Tc=5/9(Tf-32) K=C+273Tf=(9/5Tc)+32 Tc=5/9(Tf-32) K=C+273

Heat is transferred by Conduction, Heat is transferred by Conduction, Convection and RadiationConvection and RadiationHeat transfer can cause a Phase Change Heat transfer can cause a Phase Change S-L-G as heat is gainedS-L-G as heat is gainedHeating Curves plot Q vs T where the Heating Curves plot Q vs T where the Heat of fusion S-L and Heat of Vaporization Heat of fusion S-L and Heat of Vaporization L-G need to be added for a phase changeL-G need to be added for a phase changeHeat gained or lost is calculated by Heat gained or lost is calculated by Q=m Q=m ΔΔt Cp Cp is specific heatt Cp Cp is specific heatCp low in metals high for water 4.184J/g°C Cp low in metals high for water 4.184J/g°C wow that is high wow that is high measured on a calorimeter measured on a calorimeter Insulators vs ConductorsInsulators vs Conductors

ElectricityElectricityElectricity – flow of electrons from pos to Electricity – flow of electrons from pos to negnegForm of energy that can do workForm of energy that can do workCircuit is the path for electrons open – no Circuit is the path for electrons open – no flow closed – currentflow closed – currentCircuits have conductors (wires), source Circuits have conductors (wires), source (battery), switch, and loads(battery), switch, and loadsCurrent – number electrons flowing or the Current – number electrons flowing or the amount of energy I ampsamount of energy I ampsVoltage – electrical potential energy or Voltage – electrical potential energy or energy on each electron push on energy on each electron push on electrons V voltselectrons V voltsResistance – opposes flow loads R ohmsResistance – opposes flow loads R ohms

Ohm’s Law – V = I ROhm’s Law – V = I R

Resistors control the flow of electrons Resistors control the flow of electrons fixed or variable dimmerfixed or variable dimmer

Electric Charge – Proton=pos Electric Charge – Proton=pos electron=neg opposites attract because electron=neg opposites attract because fields ‘fit into’ one anotherfields ‘fit into’ one another

Static – charge by friction and the Static – charge by friction and the induction method lightninginduction method lightning

Circuits are series and parallelCircuits are series and parallel

Series – all loads are on one pathSeries – all loads are on one path

Parallel – alternate path householdParallel – alternate path household

Short Circuit – path of least resistanceShort Circuit – path of least resistance

Electric Power – rate at which electric Electric Power – rate at which electric energy is converted to other formsenergy is converted to other forms

P=W/t watts 1W=1J/sP=W/t watts 1W=1J/s

P=I V watts kiloWattsP=I V watts kiloWatts

Electric Energy – power x time kWhElectric Energy – power x time kWh

Cost = EE x cost/kWhCost = EE x cost/kWh

Direct current (one direction) and Direct current (one direction) and Alternating Current (60 Hz)Alternating Current (60 Hz)

Adapters convert AC to DCAdapters convert AC to DC

MagnetismMagnetismMagnetism – field force due to the spin of Magnetism – field force due to the spin of electrons in an aligned magnetic domains in electrons in an aligned magnetic domains in permanent magpermanent magElectrons flowing also creates a mag field around Electrons flowing also creates a mag field around the wire Right Hand Rulethe wire Right Hand RuleLining up domains creates poles Lining up domains creates poles North and South can’t be isolatedNorth and South can’t be isolatedElectromagnet – temporary magnet has an iron Electromagnet – temporary magnet has an iron core and wire carrying current and converts core and wire carrying current and converts electric to mechanical energyelectric to mechanical energyElectric Motors – electromagnet within a Electric Motors – electromagnet within a permanent magnet electric to mechanicalpermanent magnet electric to mechanicalGenerators – electromagnet in a permanent Generators – electromagnet in a permanent magnet mechanical to electricalmagnet mechanical to electricalTransformers step up or step down voltage to Transformers step up or step down voltage to save power save power

WavesWavesWave – repeating disturbance that transfers Wave – repeating disturbance that transfers energy in matter or spaceenergy in matter or spaceMechanical waves transfer energy through matter Mechanical waves transfer energy through matter (the medium) and can be longitudinal or (the medium) and can be longitudinal or transversetransverseElectromagnetic waves are disturbances in Electromagnetic waves are disturbances in electric and magnetic fields transverseelectric and magnetic fields transverseLongitudinal waves are a series of compressions Longitudinal waves are a series of compressions and rarefactions ex: sound or and rarefactions ex: sound or seismic wavesseismic wavesTransverse waves are disturbances that are at Transverse waves are disturbances that are at right angles to transfer of energyright angles to transfer of energyCrest Trough NodesCrest Trough NodesWavelength – distance from crest to crestWavelength – distance from crest to crest

Amplitude – wave height EnergyAmplitude – wave height EnergyFrequency – number of wavelengths or Frequency – number of wavelengths or cycles per second 1/s Hzcycles per second 1/s HzWave Speed=wavelength x frequency Wave Speed=wavelength x frequency v = v = λλ f m/s f m/sProperties include: reflection, refraction, Properties include: reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference diffraction and interference Reflection – change in direction from a Reflection – change in direction from a surface surface θθi = i = θθr mirrorsr mirrorsRefraction – bending rays due to change in Refraction – bending rays due to change in speed from one medium to another speed from one medium to another slowed bends toward normalslowed bends toward normalDiffraction – waves bend around a barrierDiffraction – waves bend around a barrier

Interference – waves combine to Interference – waves combine to produce another waveproduce another waveConstructive – crests and troughs Constructive – crests and troughs match and increase amplitude match and increase amplitude Destructive – partial or complete Destructive – partial or complete cancellation cancellation Standing – two waves equal in Standing – two waves equal in amplitude and wavelength from amplitude and wavelength from opposite directions appear not to opposite directions appear not to movemoveResonance – natural frequency an Resonance – natural frequency an object vibrates when absorbs energyobject vibrates when absorbs energy

SoundSoundSound is a longitudinal wave caused by a Sound is a longitudinal wave caused by a vibrationvibrationSpeed of sound depends upon the Speed of sound depends upon the temperature and density of the medium temperature and density of the medium s= s=λλff increase density increase speedincrease density increase speedIncrease temperature increase speedIncrease temperature increase speedIntensity is the energy amplitudeIntensity is the energy amplitudeLoudness is how we perceive intensity Loudness is how we perceive intensity decreases with distance decreases with distance measured in decibels-15dB whisper -150measured in decibels-15dB whisper -150Pitch is how we perceive frequency Pitch is how we perceive frequency below 20 Hz infra above 20,000 Hz below 20 Hz infra above 20,000 Hz ultra ultra

Uses of sound include: echolocation, Uses of sound include: echolocation, sonar, ultrasonic imaging and musicsonar, ultrasonic imaging and music

Doppler Effect – apparent change in Doppler Effect – apparent change in pitch due to change in relative pitch due to change in relative position of observer or sourceposition of observer or source

ex: sirens and Corvetts red shiftsex: sirens and Corvetts red shifts

LightLightLight is a transverse wave or a disturbance Light is a transverse wave or a disturbance in electric and magnetic fields in electric and magnetic fields electromagneticelectromagneticProduced by an oscillating electronProduced by an oscillating electron c = 300,000,000 m/s in the vacuum of c = 300,000,000 m/s in the vacuum of space space Duel nature – photons act as particles Duel nature – photons act as particles (photoelectric effect) and as waves (photoelectric effect) and as waves (reflection,refraction,diffraction)(reflection,refraction,diffraction)Range of frequencies of the Range of frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum electromagnetic spectrum radio-micro-IR-visible-UV-Xrays-gamma radio-micro-IR-visible-UV-Xrays-gammaColors are Colors are λλ of light ROYGBIV of light ROYGBIV

Light is produced by incandescent, Light is produced by incandescent, fluorescent, neon and by lasersfluorescent, neon and by lasers

Polarized – block one plane of lightPolarized – block one plane of light

Lasers are used to produce Holograms Lasers are used to produce Holograms

Optical Fibers – total internal reflectionOptical Fibers – total internal reflection

Reflection by mirrors concave and convexReflection by mirrors concave and convex

Refraction by lenses convex and concave Refraction by lenses convex and concave

Images can br virtual or real, upright or Images can br virtual or real, upright or inverted, magnified or reduced inverted, magnified or reduced

GHSGT GHSGT

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