Geological Society, London, Special Publications

doi: 10.1144/SP354.2 2011; v. 354; p. 15-31Geological Society, London, Special Publications

 Ó. Ingólfsson Fingerprints of Quaternary glaciations on Svalbard  

serviceEmail alerting

articles cite this article to receive free e-mail alerts when newhereclick

requestPermission

this article to seek permission to re-use all or part ofhereclick

SubscribeLondon, Special Publications or the Lyell Collection

to subscribe to Geological Society,hereclick

Notes

guest on May 28, 2011Downloaded by

2011© The Geological Society of London

Fingerprints of Quaternary glaciations on Svalbard

O. INGOLFSSON

Faculty of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland, Sturlugata 7, Is-101 Reykjavık,

Iceland and The University Centre in Svalbard (UNIS) (e-mail: oi@hi.is)

Abstract: Marine and terrestrial archives can be used to reconstruct the development of glaciallyinfluenced depositional environments on Svalbard in time and space during the late Cenozoic.The marine archives document sedimentary environments, deposits and landforms associatedwith the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) when Svalbard and the Barents Sea were covered bycontinental-scale marine-based ice sheet, the last deglaciation and the work of tidewater glaciersin interglacial setting as today. The terrestrial archives record large-scale Quaternary glacialsculpturing and repeated build-up and decay of the Svalbard–Barents Sea ice sheet. The finger-printing of Quaternary glaciations on Svalbard reflects the transition from a full-glacial mode,with very extensive coverage by the Svalbard–Barents Sea ice sheet and subsequent deglaciation,to an interglacial mode with valley, cirque and tidewater glaciers as active agents of erosion anddeposition. Conceptual models for Svalbard glacial environments are useful for understandingdevelopments of glacial landforms and sediments in formerly glaciated areas. Svalbard glacialenvironments, past and present, may serve as analogues for interpreting geological records ofmarine-terminating and marine-based ice sheets in the past.

Svalbard is an archipelago in the Arctic Ocean thatcomprises all islands between 748N–818N and108E–358E (Fig. 1). The principal islands are Spits-bergen, Nordaustlandet, Barentsøya, Edgeøya,Kong Karls Land, Prins Karls Forland and Bjørnøya(Bear Island). The total area of Svalbard is62 160 km2. The West Spitsbergen Current, whichis a branch of the North Atlantic Current, reachesthe west coast of Svalbard, keeping water openmost of the year. The present climate of Svalbardis Arctic, with mean annual air temperature ofc. 26 8C at sea level and as low as 215 8C inthe high mountains. Most of Svalbard is situatedwithin the zone of continuous permafrost (Humlumet al. 2003). Precipitation at sea level is low, onlyc. 200 mm water equivalent (w.e.) in central Spits-bergen and c. 400–600 mm w.e. along the westernand eastern coasts of the island. The Svalbardlandscape, in particularly the island of Spitsbergen,is generally mountainous with the highest eleva-tion of c. 1700 m a.s.l. on north-eastern Spitsbergen.Large glacially eroded fjords are numerous, parti-cularly at the northern and western coasts of Spits-bergen where the Wijdefjorden, Isfjorden and VanMijenfjorden fjords have lengths of 108, 107 and83 km, respectively. Some coastal areas are charac-terized by strandflat topography: low-lying bedrockplains often blanketed by raised beaches.

About 60% of Svalbard is covered by glaciers(Hagen et al. 1993, 2003), with many outlet glaciersterminating in the sea. Svalbard ice caps and gla-ciers cover about 36 600 km2, with an estimatedtotal volume of c. 7000 km3 (Hagen et al. 1993).Most of the ice volume is contained in the high-land ice fields and ice caps on Spitsbergen and

Nordaustlandet, but large valley glaciers andcirque glaciers are frequent along both the westand east coasts of Spitsbergen. Small ice caps alsoexist on the eastern islands, Edgeøya and Barentsøya(Fig. 1). On Spitsbergen, glaciation is most extensivein areas near the eastern and western coasts, wheremany glaciers terminate in the sea. In contrast, gla-ciers in the central part of the island are smaller,mainly because of low precipitation (Humlum2002). A significant number of glaciers in Svalbardare of the surging type. The surges are relativelyshort intervals (,1 to .10 a) of extraordinary fastflow which transfer mass rapidly down-glacier,punctuating much longer quiescent periods (,10to .200 a) characterized by stagnation when icebuilds up in an upper accumulation area forming areservoir of mass for the next surge (Dowdeswellet al. 1991, 1999; Lønne 2004; Sund 2006). Lefau-connier & Hagen (1991) suggested that the majorityof Svalbard glaciers surged. The mass balance ofmany glaciers in Svalbard is partly controlled bysnowdrift during the winter (Humlum et al. 2005).The equilibrium-line altitude (ELA) rises on a trans-ect from west to east across Spitsbergen (Fig. 1),reflecting the distribution of precipitation very well.On Prins Karls Forland and along the central westcoast it lies at 300 m a.s.l., but reaches .700 m inthe highlands of north-eastern Spitsbergen.

There are two end-member modes of glacieri-zation on Svalbard: a full-glacial mode, whenSvalbard and the Barents Sea were covered by alarge marine-based ice sheet, and an interglacialmode (like today) when the Svalbard glacialsystem is dominated by highland ice fields, icecaps and numerous valley and cirque glaciers. The

From: Martini, I. P., French, H. M. & Perez Alberti, A. (eds) Ice-Marginal and Periglacial Processes and Sediments.Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 354, 15–31.DOI: 10.1144/SP354.2 0305-8719/11/$15.00 # The Geological Society of London 2011.

full-glacial mode leaves pronounced fingerprints onthe continental shelf margins and slopes, and duringdeglaciation sediments and landforms are deposi-ted on the continental shelf and in fjords aroundSvalbard. Most sedimentation occurs subglaciallyin fjords and on the shelf, and ice-marginally onthe continental break and slope. There is prevailingerosion inside the present coast, but a strong sig-nal of glacial isostasy in response to deglaciationwhere sets of raised beaches mark deglaciationand marine transgression. The interglacial mode ischaracterized by fjord and valley sedimentationbelow and in front of polythermal and surgingglaciers. The interglacial mode of glacierizationproduces landform-sediment assemblages that canbe related to the tidewater glacier landsystem(Ottesen & Dowdeswell 2006), the glaciated valleylandsystem (Eyles 1983) and the surging glacierlandsystem (Evans & Rea 1999). The glacial finger-printing on Svalbard is primarily reflecting thetransition from a full-glacial mode to an intergla-cial mode.

Full-glacial-mode sediments and

landforms

The timing of the onset of Cenozoic Northern Hemi-sphere high-latitude glaciations is not well known.Ice rafted debris (IRD) and foraminiferal data fromArctic basin deep-sea sediment cores suggests thatepisodical perennial sea ice might have occurredas early as the middle Eocene 47.5 million yearsago (Ma) (Stickley et al. 2009). It is recognizedthat sea-ice cover existed in the central Arctic basinby the middle Miocene (Darby 2008; Krylov et al.2008), but ice-sheet build-up over the Svalbard–Barents Sea region probably did not initiateuntil the Pliocene–Pleistocene, 3.6–2.4 Ma (Knieset al. 2009). Sejrup et al. (2005) suggested thatextensive shelf glaciations started around Svalbardat 1.6–1.3 Ma. The number of full-scale ice-sheetglaciations over Svalbard–Barents Sea is notknown, but Solheim et al. (1996) suggest at least16 major glacial expansion events occurred overthe past 1 Ma. Laberg et al. (2010) reconstructed the

Fig. 1. The Svalbard archipelago with distribution pattern of the equilibrium-line altitude (ELA) given as 100 mcontour intervals (modified from Hagen et al. 2003). The islands of Hopen (SE from the Svalbard archipelago) andBjørnøya (midway between Norwegian mainland and Spitsbergen) are not on the map.

O. INGOLFSSON16

late Pliocene–Pleistocene history of the Barents Seaice sheet, based on three-dimensional seismic datafrom the south-western Barents Sea continentalmargin. They inferred that a temperate BarentsSea ice sheet with channelized meltwater flowdeveloped during the late Pliocene–Early Pleisto-cene. More polar ice conditions and a BarentsSea ice sheet that included large ice streams, withlittle or no channelized meltwater flow, occurredin the Middle and Late Pleistocene. There are bothmarine and terrestrial geological archives that high-light full-glacial-mode conditions and subsequentdeglaciation.

Marine archives

The dimensions and dynamics of the Last GlacialMaximum (LGM) Svalbard–Barents Sea ice sheetare reflected in the submarine sediments and land-forms preserved on the seafloor of the deglaciatedshelves and fjords (Ottesen et al. 2005). Marinearchives that contain information on formerice-extent and ice dynamics include the following.

Shelf bathymetry. Landforms include glacialtroughs, submarine transverse ridges, mega-scaleglacial lineations,elongateddrumlinsandrhombohe-dral ridge systems. These delineate the drainage ofglaciers and show that the shelf areas havebeen shaped by erosion and deposition below and infront of moving outlet glaciers and ice streams.

High-resolution seismic records. These showglacial unconformities and give information onthickness, extensions and architecture of sedimentsabove basement rocks. These records signify theextent of glacial erosion and subsequent depositionon the shelf.

Sediment cores. These include sedimentological andpetrographic analyses for identifying tills and gla-ciomarine sediments. Sediment cores are used toverify seismic records. The tills are first-orderevidence on former ice extent, and 14C dates fromglaciomarine sediments provide constraining mini-mum dates for deglaciation of the shelf areas.

The seafloor morphology of the Svalbard marginwest and north of the archipelago is characterizedby a series of deep fjord-trough systems separatedfrom one another by intervening shallow banks.This is caused by the actions of ice sheets and icestreams during the Pleistocene, where the extent ofthe Svalbard–Barents ice sheet during peak gla-ciations was repeatedly limited by the shelf edge(Solheim et al. 1996; Vorren et al. 1998). Sejrupet al. (2005) concluded that the morphologystrongly reflected that fast-moving ice streamshad repeatedly entered the continental shelf areas,creating numerous glacial troughs/channels that

are separated by shallow bank areas. Less dynamicice probably existed on shallower banks (Landviket al. 2005; Sejrup et al. 2005; Ottesen et al. 2007).

Studies of large-scale margin morphology andseismic profiles have identified large submarinetrough-mouth fans (TMF) at the mouths of severalmajor cross-shelf troughs (Fig. 2) (Vorren et al.1989; Sejrup et al. 2005). These are stacked unitsof glaciogenic debris flows interbedded with hemi-pelagic sediments displaying thickness maximaalong the shelf edge, and reflect direct sedimentdelivery from an ice stream reaching the shelfedge (Vorren et al. 1989; Vorren & Laberg 1997).Andersen et al. (1996) defined five lithofaciesgroups from cores retrieved from the westernSvalbard continental slope. Laminated-to-layeredmud and turbidites reflect post-depositional rework-ing of the shelf banks, caused by eustatic sea-levelfall during ice growth. Hemipelagic mud representsthe background sediments and is evenly dispersedover the entire continental margin. Homogeneousand heterogeneous diamictons were depositedduring glacial melt events (hemipelagic mud withice-rafted debris) and during peak glaciation on thesubmarine fans (debris-flow deposits). Large-scaleslope failures have affected the glaciogenic depositsalong the western Barents Sea margin (Kuvaas &Kristoffersen 1996; Laberg & Vorren 1996). Thelargest TMFs occur in front of the Storfjordenand Bear Island trough mouths (Fig. 2), probablyreflecting where the largest Svalbard–BarentsSea palaeo-ice streams entered the western shelfbreak (Faleide et al. 1996; Vorren & Laberg 1997;Andreassen et al. 2008). The oldest Storfjordenand Bear Island TMF sediments have been esti-mated to be c. 1.6 Ma (Forsberg et al. 1999; Buttet al. 2000).

Whereas TMFs can be regarded as archivesof numerous glaciations, most sediments and land-forms on the shelf and in the fjords relate to theLGM and subsequent deglaciation. End-moraineshave been identified at several locations on the shelf(Ottesen et al. 2005, 2007; Ottesen & Dowdeswell2009), suggesting outlet glaciers and ice streamsdraining the Svalbard fjords and a shelf-edge glacia-tion along the major part of the margin during theLGM. Ottesen et al. (2005, 2007) and Ottesen &Dowdeswell (2009) recognized an assemblage ofsediments and landforms that can be used to inferthe flow and dynamics of the last ice sheet onSvalbard (Fig. 3). They distinguished betweeninter-ice-stream and ice-stream glacial landformassemblages, which reflect different glacialdynamics associated with ice streams in fjords andtroughs and slower moving ice between thetroughs and ice streams. They identified fivesubsets of landforms that make up the inter-ice-stream glacial landform assemblage, and labelled

FINGERPRINTS OF GLACIATIONS ON SVALBARD 17

them 1 to 5 by their relative age of deposition(Fig. 3a).

Landforms relating to ice advance to the shelf edge.These are glacial lineations orientated in the direc-tion of ice flow across the shelf, and a well-definedlinear belt of hummocky terrain inferred to representthe shelf-edge ice grounding zone (1 on Fig. 3a).The glacial lineations are sets of parallel subduedridges that have amplitudes of less than 1 m and awavelength of several hundred metres. The hum-mocky belt is a well-defined, continual and linearbelt of irregular hummocky terrain about one kilo-metre in width, where hummocks and ridges haveamplitudes of c. 5 m. The belt terminates abruptlyat the shelf edge (Fig. 3a), and Ottesen & Dowdes-well (2009) suggest that this terrain represents thegrounding zone of an ice margin.

Landforms of ice retreat across the shelf duringdeglaciation. These are large and small transversemoraine ridges; small ridges are interpreted to beretreat moraines whereas the larger ridges probablymark stillstands during retreat of a grounded icemargin (2 on Fig. 3a). The lateral continuity of theridges over a number of kilometres also impliessystematic retreat along a wide ice front.

Landforms of ice retreat from fjord mouths to fjordheads. These are arcuate moraines (suggesting poss-ible glacial re-advance to fjord mouths and/or still-stands during deglaciation), crag-and-tail featuresand small transverse ridges (suggesting active ice

in fjords prior to deglaciation). The crag-and-taillandforms (3 on Fig. 3a) are streamlined featureswith an upstream core of bedrock and glacialsediments deposited in lee of the bedrock knob, pro-duced at the bed of moving ice.

The sediment-landform sets (4) and (5) (Fig. 3a)defined by Ottesen & Dowdeswell (2009) wereproduced during the Holocene and belong tointerglacial-mode tidewater glacier sediment-landform assemblages. These include basin fillswithin fjords (4), representing fine-grained sedimentdeposition linked to the discharge of turbid melt-water from tidewater glacier margins and submarineslides from steep fjord walls, demonstrating slopeinstability. Landforms of recent ice re-advance andretreat at fjord heads (5) include large terminalmoraines within a few kilometres of present tide-water glacier margins, recording re-advance associ-ated with the Little Ice Age and subsequent retreatmarked by deposition of small, sometimes annualtransverse ridges.

The ice-stream glacial landform assemblage(Fig. 3b) of Ottesen & Dowdeswell (2009) recog-nizes sediment-landform subsets that characterizethe action of active ice streams in cross-shelftroughs.

Mega-scale glacial lineations and lateral ice-stream moraines. The mega-scale glacial lineationsare streamlined linear and curvilinear submarinefeatures elongated in the direction of the long axisof the depressions, observed in several majorfjords and cross-shelf troughs on the Svalbard

Fig. 2. Location of large submarine trough-mouth fans (TMF), reflecting where the largest Svalbard–Barents Seapalaeo-ice streams entered the western shelf break (modified from Vorren et al. 1989).

O. INGOLFSSON18

Fig. 3. Schematic models of submarine glacial landforms on Svalbard continental margins. (a) An inter-ice-streamglacial landform assemblage, located between fast-flowing ice streams. (b) An ice-stream glacial landform assemblage,where fast-flowing ice was fed from large interior drainage basins. The landforms are labelled by their relative ageof deposition, where 1 denotes the oldest landform (modified from Ottesen & Dowdeswell 2009).

FINGERPRINTS OF GLACIATIONS ON SVALBARD 19

margin (Ottesen et al. 2007; Ottesen & Dowdeswell2009). They vary from hundreds of metres to morethan 10 km in length and up to 15 m in height.The mega-scale lineations probably result from soft-sediment deformation at the base of fast-flowingice streams (Dowdeswell et al. 2004). Lateralice-stream moraines (1 on Fig. 3b) are individuallinear ridges of tens of kilometres in length and upto c. 40–60 m high that have been observed alongsome of the lateral margins of cross-shelf troughsin Svalbard. Ottesen et al. (2005, 2007) describedlinear ridges of tens of kilometres in length and upto 50 m in relative elevation running along thelateral margins of the Isfjorden and Kongsfjordencross-shelf troughs as they approach the shelfbreak west of Svalbard. Sub-bottom profilers donot generally achieve acoustic penetration of theseridges, implying that they are made up of relativelycoarse diamictic sediments. These extensive lateralridges are interpreted to define the lateral marginsof fast-flowing former ice streams (Ottesen et al.2005, 2007).

Grounding zone wedges and transverse ridges.Grounding zone wedges are large seafloor ridgesorientated transverse to the direction of former iceflow and occur both at the shelf edge and in thetroughs and fjords of Svalbard. The ridges arecharacteristically tens of metres high, up to severalkilometres wide and tens of kilometres long. Acous-tic stratigraphic records show that the ridges formsedimentary wedges lying above strong basal reflec-tors. Ottesen et al. (2007) concluded that althoughthe sedimentary wedges sometimes only have rela-tively subtle vertical expression on the sea floor,they may contain a few cubic kilometres of sedi-ments. Where these extensive ridges and underlyingsedimentary wedges are found in the troughs andfjords of Svalbard (2 on Fig. 3b) they are interpretedas marking major stillstands of the ice margin duringgeneral deglaciation (Landvik et al. 2005; Ottesenet al. 2007), lasting for hundreds rather than tens

of years (Dowdeswell et al. 2008). The diamicticgrounding-zone wedges were produced by continu-ing sediment delivery from the deforming beds ofactive ice during the stillstands (Dowdeswell et al.2008). The transverse ridges that are observed onthe continental shelf to the side of the troughs(Fig. 3b) have been interpreted to be recessionalpush moraines reflecting stillstands or winter-summer ice-front oscillations during deglaciation(Ottesen & Dowdeswell 2006). Individual ridgesare up to 15 m high, are spaced a few hundred metresapart and usually occur in clusters rather than asisolated individual features.

Dowdeswell et al. (2008) argued that the mega-scale glacial lineations were products of rapid iceretreat, whereas the grounding-zone wedges sug-gested episodic retreat. They interpreted suites oftransverse ridges to be indicative of relatively slowretreat of grounded ice margins.

Seismic record and sediment core data. These data(Fig. 4) concur with the bathymetric data on theglacial origin of landforms and sediments describedabove. Unconformities caused by glacial erosionprovide strong reflectors (Solheim et al. 1996).When the marine sequence is penetrated by corers,stiff diamictons, interpreted to be subglacial tillsdeposited below grounded glaciers in the fjordsand out on the shelf, are retrieved (Svendsen et al.1992, 1996; Landvik et al. 2005). The diamictonsare overlain everywhere by fine-grained marine orglaciomarine muds (Elverhøi et al. 1980, 1983;Sexton et al. 1992). Radiocarbon ages on subfossilshells from the muds give constraining ages forthe muds as being of deglaciation ages and the dia-mictons having been deposited in connection withthe LGM expansion of ice.

Terrestrial records

While the marine archives contain evidence ofrepeated expansions of the Svalbard–Barents Seaice sheet to the continental margin around Svalbard,

Fig. 4. Sketch of seismic section along Isfjorden, Svalbard. A moraine ridge at the shelf edge marks LGM extensionof an ice stream in the Isfjorden trough, and stiff diamicton is interpreted to be till deposited by the last majorglaciations (modified from Svendsen et al. 1996).

O. INGOLFSSON20

the terrestrial record of full-scale glaciations is morefragmentary because of the prevailing erosion attimes of major ice-sheet expansion. Volume esti-mates of sediments offshore have been argued toindicate that 2–3 km of rock has been removedfrom central Spitsbergen since the Eocene (Eiken& Austegard 1987; Vorren et al. 1991). It hasbeen suggested that at least half of this volumewas removed during the Pleistocene glaciations(Svendsen et al. 1989; Dimakis et al. 1998; Elverhøiet al. 1998), and it has been assumed that thebedrock geomorphology of Svalbard is predomi-nantly the result of Quaternary sculpturing (Hjelle1993). The landscapes of Svalbard are charac-terized by extensive glacial carving of cols,valleys and fjords where the glaciers have enhancedpre-glacial fluvial and tectonic landscapes. Svend-sen et al. (1989) pointed out that erosion of themajor fjords below sea level requires large icesheets with outlet glaciers at the pressure meltingpoint at their base. They also concluded that the pro-nounced alpine landscape of Svalbard indicated thatcirque and valley glaciers, rather than ice sheets,were mainly responsible for carving the valleysand other high-relief landforms and that glacialerosion by polythermal valley glaciers is themost important geomorphic process in the presentclimate.

Evidence of more extensive ice cover than todayduring the LGM and previous glaciations is presenton every ice-free lowland area around Svalbardoutside the Neoglacial limits in the form of glacialdrift, erratics and striations (Sollid & Sørbel 1988;Salvigsen et al. 1995). Directional evidence gener-ally suggests ice flow offshore towards the shelfareas on western Svalbard (Kristiansen & Sollid1987; Landvik et al. 1998). Evidence on ice thick-ness and ice movements during the LGM includeice-abraded ridge crests roche moutonnees, stria-tions, erratics and glacial drift on nunataks andcoastal mountains. A number of studies haveaddressed the thickness of the Svalbard–BarentsSea ice sheet over Svalbard during the LGM. Along-standing debate exists on whether morpholo-gical data (such as the existence of pre-LGM setsof raised beaches and large rock glaciers) could betaken to suggest the existence of ice-free enclaveson the lowlands of western and northern Svalbard(Landvik et al. 1998, 2005; Andersson et al. 1999;Houmark-Nielsen & Funder 1999). There is a grow-ing consensus that although some coastal moun-tains may have protruded as nunataks above theice-sheet surface at LGM on the outer coast ofnorthern and western Svalbard, there are very littledata to support the existence of any lowland ice-free enclaves (Landvik et al. 2003, 2005; Ottesenet al. 2007). Taken together, marine and terrestrialevidence suggest a LGM configuration of the

Svalbard–Barents Sea ice sheet that covered mostof Svalbard and its shelf areas (Fig. 5).

As there is overall erosion on land on Svalbardduring repeated glaciations, the pre-late Quaternary(Saalian) glacial history of Svalbard lacks all details(Svendsen et al. 2004). There are a number of key-lithostratigraphical sections that contain tills andmarine sediments that have been dated or correlatedto late Quaternary Svalbard–Barents Sea icesheet oscillations (Mangerud et al. 1998) (Fig. 6):Kongsøya (Ingolfsson et al. 1995), Kapp Ekholm

Fig. 5. Reconstruction of the Svalbard–Barents Sea icesheet and its fast-flowing ice streams (modified fromOttesen et al. 2005).

Fig. 6. Location of key stratigraphic sites on Svalbard.

FINGERPRINTS OF GLACIATIONS ON SVALBARD 21

(Mangerud & Svendsen 1992), Skilvika (Landviket al. 1992), Linneelva (Lønne & Mangerud1991), Site 15 (Miller et al. 1989), Kongsfjordhallet(Houmark-Nielsen & Funder 1999) and Poole-pynten (Andersson et al. 1999). Most stratigraphickey sites are on the west coast of Svalbard, but therecently described site from Murchisonfjorden,Nordaustlandet (Fig. 6) (Kaakinen et al. 2009)adds to our understanding of late Quaternary glacialevents on Svalbard. One striking characteristic ofthe lithostratigraphical records from coastal Sval-bard is that sections often reflect glaciation eventsin the form of repeated regressional sequences(Figs 7 & 8). Each cycle consists of a basal till(Fig. 8a) deposited during a regional glaciationlarge enough for isostatic depression to cause trans-gression and deposition of glaciomarine–marinesediments on top of till as the ice sheet retreats(Fig. 8b, c). Glacial unloading and isostatic reboundcauses a coarsening-upwards sequence where sub-littoral sediments and beach foresets reflectregression (Fig. 8d, e). This is particularly wellexpressed in the stratigraphic record from KappEkholm (Fig. 7).

Raised beaches around Svalbard can generallybe regarded as isostatic fingerprinting of earlierexpanded ice volumes compared to present. Post-glacial raised beaches have been described frommost ice-free coastal areas (Forman 1990; Landviket al. 1998), and the elevation of the postglacialmarine limit and history of relative sea-level changesare well known (Fig. 9) (Forman 1990; Forman et al.2004). The isostatic fingerprinting (Fig. 10) reflectsthe heaviest glacial loading in the central BarentsSea and clearly expresses the differential ice loadof the Svalbard–Barents Sea ice sheet at LGM.

Interglacial-mode sediments and

landforms

Svalbard did not completely deglaciate duringthe Holocene (Hald et al. 2004). Salvigsen et al.(1992) and Salvigsen (2002) documented warmerconditions in Svalbard during the early and midHolocene compared to the present-day climate.Glacier volumes were probably considerably smallerthan present (Svendsen & Mangerud 1997; Forwick& Vorren 2007) and some valley/cirque glaciersmay have melted away completely. Because of theNeoglacial expansion of glaciers that started sometime after mid-Holocene (Svendsen & Mangerud1997) and culminated by the end of the Little IceAge around 1890–1900 AD (Werner 1993; Man-gerud & Landvik 2007), the timing, extent andvolume of ice at the early Holocene glacialminima is not well known (Humlum et al. 2005).Interglacial-mode glacial landforms and sediments

Fig. 7. Composite stratigraphy of the Kapp Ekholmsection. Each coarsening-upwards sequence reflectsglaciation (till) and deglaciation (marine-to-littoralsediments) (modified from Mangerud & Svendsen1992).

O. INGOLFSSON22

on Svalbard primarily relate to the Neoglacialexpansion of glaciers. Most glaciers in Svalbardare presently retreating from their 1890–1900 AD

maxima, and many glaciers have retreated 1–2 kmor more. It has been calculated that the net massbalance of Svalbard glaciers has been negative

Fig. 8. Examples of Svalbard glacial-deglacial sediments in coastal sections: (a) subglacial till, unit A, Kapp Ekholm(Figs 6 & 7) (pocket knife for scale); (b) dropstones in shallow-marine sediments (pocket knife for scale), site 15(Fig. 6); (c) stratified shallow-marine sediments with subfossil kelp (35 cm scrape for scale), Poolepynten (Fig. 6);(d) a whale rib at the contact between sublittoral marine sediments and gravelly beach foresets (1 m stick for scale),site 15 (Fig. 6); (e) sublittoral marine sediments with in situ subfossil molluscs, Skilvika (Fig. 6). All photographs byO. Ingolfsson in 2008.

FINGERPRINTS OF GLACIATIONS ON SVALBARD 23

Fig. 9. Relative sea-level curves from Svalbard (modified from Forman et al. 2004).

Fig. 10. The pattern of postglacial raised beaches combined with well-dated relative sea-level curves fingerprints theisostatic depression caused by the Svalbard–Barents Sea ice sheet (modified from Bondevik 1996).

O. INGOLFSSON24

most years for the past .100 years, and that theglacial systems of Svalbard may have lost up to30% of their volume since 1900 AD (Lefauconnier& Hagen 1990; Glasser & Hambrey 2003).

Tidewater glacier/fjord environments

There are a number of conceptual models proposedfor tidewater glaciers (Fig. 11a) (Elverhøi et al.1980; Bennett et al. 1999), identifying and link-ing sedimentary processes, deposits and landforms.Plassen et al. (2004) proposed a model for sedi-mentation of Svalbard tidewater glaciers (Fig. 12a)based on high-resolution acoustic data and sedimentcores and sedimentation patterns in four tidewaterglacier-influenced inlets of Isfjorden, Svalbard.Their model shows glaciogenic deposition in proxi-mal and distal basins. The proximal basins comprise

morainal ridges and hummocky moraines, boundedby terminal moraines marking the maximum Neo-glacial ice extent. The distal basins are characterizedby debris lobes and draping stratified glaciomarinesediments beyond and, to some extent, beneathand above the lobes. Distal glaciomarine sedimentscomprise stratified clayey silt with ice-rafted debriscontent (Forwick & Vorren 2009).

Ottesen & Dowdeswell (2006), Ottesen et al.(2008) and Kristensen et al. (2009) identifiedan assemblage of submarine landforms from themargins of several Svalbard glaciers that theylinked to glacier surging into the fjord environments(Fig. 12b). The submarine landforms include:streamlined landforms found within the limits ofknown surges, interpreted as mega-scale glaciallineations formed subglacially beneath activelysurging ice (1 on Fig. 12b); large transverse

Fig. 11. Svalbard glaciers: (a) Kongsvegen tidewater glacier, Kongsfjorden; (b) Comfortlessbreen glacier in surge; and(c) Pedersenbreen polythermal glacier, Kongsfjorden. All photographs by O. Ingolfsson in 2008.

FINGERPRINTS OF GLACIATIONS ON SVALBARD 25

ridges, interpreted to be terminal moraines formedby thrusting at the maximum position of glaciersurges (2a on Fig. 12b); sediment lobes at thedistal margins of terminal moraines, interpreted asglaciogenic debris flows formed either by failureof the frontal slopes of thrust moraines or fromdeforming sediment extruded from beneath theglacier (2b on Fig. 12b); sinuous ridges, interpretedas eskers, formed after surge termination by thesedimentary infilling of subglacial conduits (4 onFig. 12b); concordant ridges parallel to former icemargins, interpreted as minor push moraines pro-bably formed annually during winter glacierre-advance (5 on Fig. 12b); and discordant ridgesoblique to former ice margins and interpreted ascrevasse-squeeze ridges, forming when soft sub-glacial sediments were injected into basal crevasses(3 on Fig. 12b).

Ottesen et al. (2008) proposed that these sub-marine landforms were deposited in the followingsequence based on cross-cutting relationshipsbetween them, linked to stages of the surge cycle(Fig. 12b): (1) mega-scale glacial lineations; (2a)

terminal moraines; (2b) lobe-shaped debris flows;(3) isolated areas of crevasse-fill ridges; (4) eskersand (5) annual retreat ridges.

Terrestrial polythermal and surging glaciers

There are numerous studies of the depositionalenvironments of Svalbard terrestrial polythermaland surging glaciers (Fig. 11b, c) which outlinestructural properties, landform-sediment associ-ations and dead-ice disintegration (Boulton 1972;Bennett et al. 1996, 1999; Boulton et al. 1999;Hambrey et al. 1999; Lysa & Lønne 2001; Slettenet al. 2001). Glasser & Hambrey (2003) gave anoverview of sediments and landforms associa-ted with glaciated valley landsystems on Svalbard(Fig. 13). Characteristics of this landsystem arerockfall debris supply, passive transport and rework-ing of a thick cover of supraglacial morainic till,combined with actively transported debris derivedfrom the glacier bed. They identified morainecomplexes produced by thrusting as the most com-mon. The sedimentary composition of moraine

Fig. 12. Svalbard tidewater glaciers: (a) a model for proglacial sedimentation by Svalbard polythermal tidewaterglaciers (modified from Plassen et al. 2004); and (b) landform assemblage model for Svalbard surge-type tidewaterglaciers (modified from Ottesen et al. 2008).

O. INGOLFSSON26

complexes varies with source materials and rangesfrom reworked marine sediments to terrestrial dia-mictons and gravels. Original sedimentary struc-tures or subfossil marine mollusks are commonlypreserved as a slab of sediments which has beenstacked by the glacier. The thrusted morainecomplexes often show evidence of glaciotectonicdeformations, including low-angle thrust faultsand recumbent folds. Moraine complexes resultingfrom deformation of permafrost also occur onSvalbard. There, stresses beneath the advancingglaciers are transmitted to the proglacial sedimentsand can cause proglacial deformation of the perma-frost layer. This may lead to folding, thrust-faultingand overriding of proglacial sediments.

Glasser & Hambrey (2003) suggested that atypical receding Svalbard glacier has three zoneswithin its forefield (Fig. 13) as follows.

(1) Outer moraine ridge. These are arcuate ridgesrising steeply from the surrounding topo-graphy to heights of 15–20 m. They are com-monly ice-cored and may be either the resultof englacial or proglacial thrusts or be aproduct of permafrost deformation. Some gla-ciers have large ice-cored lateral moraines.

(2) Moraine-mound complex (Fig. 13), oftendraped by supraglacial debris stripes. Theseare often present in the form of arcuate beltsof aligned hummocks or mounds comprising

a wide variety of morphological types (oftenice cored), linear ridges up to 100 m long orshort-crested ridges of several metres andnear conical mounds. Rectilinear slopes andstacking indicate that the moraine-moundcomplex is a result of thrusting in proglacial,ice-marginal and englacial position.

(3) Inner zone, between the moraine-mound com-plex and the contemporary glacier snout com-prising various quantities of foliation-parallelridges, supraglacial debris stripes, geometricalridge networks, streamlined ridges/flutes andminor moraine mounds. Sediment facies arepredominantly glacial diamicton, commonlybeing reworked by proglacial streams.

The most widespread deposit on the forefields ofreceding valley glaciers on Svalbard is diamicton(Glasser & Hambrey 2003) produced by basallodgement processes or meltout. The diamictonsare in turn reworked by fluvial processes and slump-ing where there is active down-wasting of dead ice(Schomacker & Kjær 2007).

Christofferson et al. (2005) described landform-sediment assemblages relating to surging Svalbardglaciers. They identified ice-flow parallel ridges(flutings), ice-flow oblique ridges (crevasse-fill fea-tures), meandering ridges (infill of basal meltwater),thrust-block moraines, hummocky terrain anddrumlinoid hills. Kristensen et al. (2009) suggested

Fig. 13. A landsystem model for terrestrial Svalbard polythermal glacier (modified from Glasser & Hambrey 2003).

FINGERPRINTS OF GLACIATIONS ON SVALBARD 27

that surging glacier ice-marginal landforms onland closely resemble the corresponding landformson the seabed, including debris-flow mud apronsin front of surge moraines. They argued that boththe submarine and the terrestrial mud apron wereformed by a combination of ice push and slopefailure.

Conclusion

Conceptual models have been developed that explainsediment-landform assemblages for Svalbardshelf-, ice-stream-, fjord-, surging- and terrestrial-polythermal glacial systems. Landsystem modelsare useful tools for the reconstruction of pastenvironments and palaeoglacier dynamics fromgeomorphological, sedimentological and strati-graphical records (Evans 2003). Our understandingof the dynamics, processes and products of marine-based ice sheets is hampered by lack of data(Vaughan & Arthern 2007). The Svalbard modelstherefore have the potential to help clarify thegenesis of glacial landforms and sediments informerly glaciated areas and to help explain thegeological record of ancient marine-terminatingice sheets such as the Upper Ordovician Saharanice sheet (Le Heron & Craig 2008; Le Heron et al.2010) or the Carboniferous–Permian Gondwanaice sheet (Visser 1989; Isbell et al. 2008). Thestratigraphic record of Svalbard–Barents Seaglaciations, with recurring shallowing-upwardsmarine to littoral sequences separated by tills (Man-gerud et al. 1998), could help in the recognition oftransitions from full-glacial to interglacial situationsrecorded in ancient glaciogenic sequences.

Epicontinental glaciogenic deposits are gener-ally poorly preserved in the geological records(Eyles 1993) and, seen over an interglacial–glacial cycle, most interglacial deposits and land-forms will be destroyed by an advancing/growingice sheet as the glacial system shifts to full-glacialmode. It has been pointed out that because ofthe predominantly ice-cored nature of Neoglacialmoraines on Svalbard and the very active dead-icemelting, together with the active reworking pro-cesses and cryoturbation, the preservation potentialof terrestrial glacial landforms on Svalbard is prob-ably poor (Evans 2009). The use of these morainesas modern analogues for ancient glaciated land-scapes therefore may not be appropriate (Lukas2005). However, geomorphological and sedimento-logical research on landforms and sediments result-ing from the last deglaciation and Holoceneoscillations of Svalbard glaciers can provide impor-tant analogues for palaeoglaciological reconstruc-tions (Boulton 1972; Boulton et al. 1999). This is

particularly important for our understanding of thesignatures of surging glaciers, where the recognitionof palaeosurges within landform and sedimentaryrecords is still somewhat capricious.

Valuable and constructive suggestions from the journalreviewers are acknowledged. The paper was writtenduring a sabbatical visit to Lund University, Sweden.

References

Andersen, E. S., Dokken, T. B., Elverhø, A., Solheim,A. & Fossen, I. 1996. Late Quaternary sedimentationand glacial history of the western Svalbard continentalmargin. Marine Geology, 133, 12–156.

Andersson, T., Forman, S., Ingolfsson, O. & Manley,W. 1999. Late Quaternary environmental history ofcentral Prins Karls Forland, Svalbard. Boreas, 28,292–307.

Andreassen, K., Laberg, J. S. & Vorren, T. O. 2008.Seafloor geomorphology of the SW Barents Sea andits glaci-dynamic implications. Geomorphology, 97,157–177.

Bennett, M. R., Hambrey, M. J., Huddart, D. &Ghienne, J. F. 1996. Moraine development at thehigh arctic valley glacier Pedersenbreen, Svalbard.Geografiska Annaler, 78A, 209–222.

Bennett, M. R., Hambrey, M. J., Huddart, D.,Glasser, N. F. & Crawford, K. 1999. The landformand sediment assemblage produced by a tidewaterglacier surge in Kongsfjorden, Svalbard. QuaternaryScience Reviews, 18, 1213–1246.

Bondevik, S. 1996. The Storegga tsunami deposits inwestern Norway and postglacial sea level changes onSvalbard. PhD thesis, Universitetet i Bergen.

Boulton, G. S. 1972. Modern arctic glaciers as deposi-tional models for former ice sheets. Journal of theGeological Society, London, 128, 361–393.

Boulton, G. S., van der Meer, J. J. M., Beets, D. J.,Hart, J. K. & Ruegg, G. H. J. 1999. The sedimentaryand structural evolution of a recent push morainecomplex: Holmstrombreen, Spitsbergen. QuaternaryScience Reviews, 18, 339–371.

Butt, F. A., Elverhøi, A., Solheim, A. & Forsberg, C.F. 2000. Deciphering late Cenozoic development of thewestern Svalbard margin from ODP site 986 results.Marine Geology, 169, 373–390.

Christofferson, P., Piotrowski, J. A. & Larsen, N. K.2005. Basal processes beneath an Arctic glacier andtheir geomophic imprint after a surge, Elisebreen,Svalbard. Quaternary Research, 64, 125–137.

Darby, D. A. 2008. Arctic perennial ice cover over thelast 14 million years. Paleoceanography, 23, PA1S07.

Dimakis, P., Braathen, B. I., Faleide, J. I., Elverhøi, A.& Gudlaugsson, S. T. 1998. Cenozoic erosion andthe preglacial uplift of the Svalbard–Barents Searegion. Tectonophysics, 300, 311–327.

Dowdeswell, J. A., Hamilton, G. S. & Hagen, J. O.1991. The duration of the active phase on surge-typeglaciers: contrasts between Svalbard and otherregions. Journal of Glaciology, 37, 388–400.

O. INGOLFSSON28

Dowdeswell, J. A., Unwin, B., Nuttall, A. M. &Wingham, D. J. 1999. Velocity structure, flowinstability and mass flux on a large Arctic ice capfrom satellite radar interferometry. Earth and Plane-tary Science Letters, 167, 131–140.

Dowdeswell, J. A., O Cofaigh, C. & Pudsey, C. J. 2004.Thickness and extent of the subglacial till layerbeneath an Antarctic paleo-ice stream. Geology, 32,13–16.

Dowdeswell, J. A., Ottesen, D., Evans, J., O Cofaigh,C. & Anderson, J. B. 2008. Submarine glacial land-forms and rates of ice-stream collapse. Geology, 36,819–822.

Eiken, O. & Austegard, A. 1987. The tertiary belt ofwest-Spitsbergen: seismic expressions of the offshoresedimentary basins. Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrift, 67,383–394.

Elverhøi, A., Liestøl, O. & Nagy, J. 1980. Glacialerosion, sedimentation and microfauna in the innerpart of Kongsfjorden, Spitsbergen. Norsk PolarinstituttSkrifter, 172, 33–58.

Elverhøi, A., Lønne, Ø. & Seland, R. 1983. Glaciomar-ine sedimentation in a modern fjord environment,Spitsbergen. Polar Research, 1, 127–149.

Elverhøi, A., Hooke, R. L. & Solheim, A. 1998. LateCenozoic erosion and sediment yield from theSvalbard–Barents Sea region: implications for under-standing erosion of glacierized basins. QuaternaryScience Reviews, 17, 209–241.

Evans, D. J. A. (ed.) Glacial Landsystems, Hodder Arnold,London.

Evans, D. J. A. 2009. Controlled moraines: origins,characteristics and palaeoglaciological implications.Quaternary Science Reviews, 28, 183–208.

Evans, D. J. A. & Rea, B. R. 1999. Geomorphology andsedimentology of surging glaciers: a landsystemsapproach. Annals of Glaciology, 28, 75–82.

Eyles, N. 1983. The glaciated valley landsystem. In:Eyles, N. (ed.) Glacial Geology: An Introductionfor Engineers and Earth Scientists. Pergamon,Oxford, 91–110.

Eyles, N. 1993. Earth’s glacial record and its tectonicsetting. Earth Science Reviews, 35, 1–248.

Faleide, J. I., Solheim, A., Fiedler, A., Hjelstuen, B.O., Andersen, E. S. & Vanneste, K. 1996. Late Cen-ozoic evolution of the western Barents Sea–Svalbardcontinental margin. Global and Planetary Change,12, 53–74.

Forman, S. L. 1990. Post-glacial relative sea-level historyof northwestern Spitsbergen, Svalbard. GeologicalSociety of America Bulletin, 102, 1580–1590.

Forman, S., Lubinski, D., Ingolfsson, O., Zeeberg, D.,Snyder, J. A. & Matishov, G. G. 2004. A review ofpostglacial emergence on Svalbard, Franz Josef Landand Novaya Zemlya, northern Eurasia. QuaternaryScience Reviews, 22, 1391–1434.

Forsberg, C. F., Solheim, A., Elverhoi, A., Jansen, E.,Channell, J. E. T. & Andersen, E. S. 1999. Thedepositional environment of the western Svalbardmargin during the late Pliocene and the Pleistocene:Sedimentary facies changes at Site 986. In: Raymo,M., Jansen, E., Blum, P. & Herbert, T. D. (eds) Pro-ceeding Ocean Drilling Program. Scientific Results,

162. Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX,233–246.

Forwick, M. & Vorren, T. O. 2007. Holocenemass-transport activity and climate in outer Isfjorden,Spitsbergen: marine and subsurface evidence. TheHolocene, 17, 707–716.

Forwick, M. & Vorren, T. O. 2009. Late Weichselian andHolocene sedimentary environments and ice rafting inIsfjorden, Spitsbergen. Palaeogeography, Palaeocli-matology, Palaeoecology, 280, 258–274.

Glasser, N. F. & Hambrey, M. J. 2003. Ice-marginal ter-restrial landsystems: Svalbard polythermal glaciers. In:Evans, D. J. A. (ed.) Glacial Landsystems. Arnold,London, 65–88.

Hagen, J. O., Liestøl, O., Roland, E. & Jørgensen, T.1993. Glacier atlas of Svalbard and Jan Mayen. Norwe-gian Polar Institute, Meddelelser, 129, 141.

Hagen, J. O., Melvold, K., Pinglot, F. & Dowdeswell,J. 2003. On the net mass balance of the glaciers and icecaps in Svalbard, Norwegian Arctic. Arctic, Antarctic,and Alpine Research, 35, 264–270.

Hald, M., Ebbesen, H. et al. 2004. Holocene paleocea-nography and glacial history of the West Spitsbergenarea, Euro-Arctic margin. Quaternary ScienceReviews, 23, 2075–2088.

Hambrey, M. J., Bennett, M. R., Dowdeswell, J. A.,Glasser, N. F. & Huddart, D. 1999. Debris entrain-ment and transport in polythermal valley glaciers,Svalbard. Journal of Glaciology, 45, 69–86.

Hjelle, A. 1993. Svalbards Geologi. Norwegian PolarInstitute, Oslo.

Houmark-Nielsen, M. & Funder, S. 1999. Pleistocenestratigraphy of Kongsfjordhallet, Spitsbergen, Sval-bard. Polar Research, 18, 39–49.

Humlum, O. 2002. Modelling late 20th century precipi-tation in Nordenskiold land, central Spitsbergen, Sval-bard, by geomorphic means. Norwegian GeographicalJournal, 56, 96–103.

Humlum, O., Instanes, A. & Sollid, J. L. 2003. Per-mafrost in Svalbard; a review of research history, cli-matic background and engineering challenges. PolarResearch, 22, 191–215.

Humlum, O., Elberling, B., Hormes, A., Fjordheim, K.,Hansen, O. H. & Heinemeier, J. 2005. Late-Holoceneglacier growth in Svalbard, documented by subglacialrelict vegetation and living soil microbes. TheHolocene, 15, 396–407.

Ingolfsson, O., Rognvaldsson, F., Bergsten, H.,Hedenas, L., Lemdahl, G. & Sejrup, H. P. 1995.Late Quaternary glacial and environmentalhistory of Kongsøya, Svalbard. Polar Research, 14,123–139.

Isbell, J. L., Cole, D. I. & Catuneanu, O. 2008.Carboniferous-Permian glaciation in the main KarooBasin, South Africa: stratigraphy, depositional con-trols, and glacial dynamics. Geological Society ofAmerica Special Paper, 441, 71–82.

Kaakinen, A., Salonen, V.-P., Kubischta, F., Eskola,K. O. & Oinonen, M. 2009. Weichselian glacialstage in Murchisonfjorden, Nordaustlandet, Svalbard.Boreas, 38, 718–729.

Knies, J., Matthiessen, J. et al. 2009. The Plio-Pleistocene glaciation of the Barents Sea–Svalbard

FINGERPRINTS OF GLACIATIONS ON SVALBARD 29

region: a new model based on revised chronostratigra-phy. Quaternary Science Reviews, 28, 812–829.

Kristensen, L., Benn, D. I., Hormes, A. & Ottesen, D.2009. Mud aprons in front of Svalbard surge moraines:evidence of subglacial deforming layers or proglacialglaciotectonics? Geomorphology, 111, 206–221.

Kristiansen, K. J. & Sollid, J. L. 1987. SvalbardJordartskart. Nasjonalatlas for Norge, Kartblad 2.3.6.Geografisk Institutt Universitetet i Oslo, Oslo.

Krylov, A. A., Andreeva, I. A. et al. 2008. A shift inheavy and clay mineral provenance indicates amiddle Miocene onset of a perennial sea ice cover inthe Arctic Ocean. Paleoceanography, 23, 1–10.

Kuvaas, B. & Kristoffersen, Y. 1996. Mass movementsin glaciomarine sediments on the Barents Sea continen-tal slope. Global and Planetary Change, 12, 287–307.

Laberg, J. S. & Vorren, T. O. 1996. The glacier-fed fanat the mouth of Storfjorden trough, western BarentsSea: a comparative study. Geologische Rundschau,85, 338–349.

Laberg, J. S., Andreassen, K., Knies, J., Vorren, T. O.& Winsborrow, M. 2010. Late Pliocene–Pleistocenedevelopment of the Barents Sea ice sheet. Geology,38, 107–110.

Landvik, J. Y., Bolstad, M., Lycke, A. K., Mangerud,J. & Sejrup, H. P. 1992. Weichselian stratigraphy andpaleoenvironments at Bellsund, Western Svalbard.Boreas, 21, 335–358.

Landvik, J. Y., Bondevik, S. et al. 1998. The last glacialmaximum of the Barents Sea and Svalbard area: icesheet extent and configuration. Quaternary ScienceReviews, 17, 43–75.

Landvik, J. Y., Brook, E. J., Gualtieri, L., Raisbeck,G., Salvigsen, O. & Yiou, F. 2003. Northwest Sval-bard during the last glaciation: ice free areas existed.Geology, 31, 905–908.

Landvik, J. Y., Ingolfsson, O., Mienert, J., Lehman,S. J., Solheim, A., Elverhøi, A. & Ottesen, D.2005. Rethinking Late Weichselian ice-sheet dynamicsin coastal NW Svalbard. Boreas, 34, 7–24.

Lefauconnier, B. & Hagen, J. O. 1990. Glaciers andclimate in Svalbard: statistical analysis and reconstruc-tion of the Brøgger glacier mass balance for the last 77years. Annals of Glaciology, 14, 148–152.

Lefauconnier, B. & Hagen, J. O. 1991. Surging andcalving glaciers in eastern Svalbard. Norsk Polarinsti-tutt Meddelelser, 116. Norwegian Polar Institute, Oslo.

Le Heron, D. P. & Craig, J. 2008. First order reconstruc-tions of a late Ordovician Saharan ice sheet. Journal ofthe Geological Society, London, 165, 19–29.

Le Heron, D. P., Armstrong, H. A., Wilson, C.,Howard, J. P. & Gindre, L. 2010. Glaciation anddeglaciation of the Libyan Desert: the Late Ordovicianrecord. Sedimentary Geology, 223, 100–125.

Lønne, I. 2004. Low-velocity glacial surges processesunlocked by modern surge on Svalbard. Geology, 34,553–556.

Lønne, I. & Mangerud, J. 1991. An Early or MiddleWeichselian sequence of proglacial, shallow marinesediments on western Svalbard. Boreas, 20, 85–104.

Lukas, S. 2005. A test of the englacial thrusting hypoth-esis of ‘hummocky’ moraine formation: case studiesfrom the northwest Highlands, Scotland. Boreas, 34,287–307.

Lysa, A. & Lønne, I. 2001. Moraine development at asmall high arctic valley glacier: Rieperbreen, Svalbard.Journal of Quaternary Science, 16, 519–529.

Mangerud, J. & Svendsen, J. I. 1992. The last intergla-cial glacial period on Spitsbergen, Svalbard. Quatern-ary Science Reviews, 11, 633–664.

Mangerud, J. & Landvik, J. Y. 2007. Younger Dryascirque glaciers in western Spitsbergen: smaller thanduring the Little Ice Age. Boreas, 36, 278–285

Mangerud, J., Dokken, T. M. et al. 1998. Fluctuationsof the Svalbard–Barents Sea ice sheet the last 150 000years. Quaternary Science Reviews, 17, 11–42.

Miller, G. H., Sejrup, H. P., Lehman, S. J. & Forman,S. L. 1989. Glacial history and marine environmentalchange during the last interglacial–glacial cycle,western Spitsbergen, Svalbard. Boreas, 18, 272–296.

Ottesen, D. & Dowdeswell, J. A. 2006. Assemblages ofsubmarine landforms produced by tidewater glaciers inSvalbard. Journal of Geophysical Research, 111,F01016.

Ottesen, D. & Dowdeswell, J. A. 2009. An inter–ice-stream glaciated margin: submarine landforms and ageomorphic model based on marine-geophysical datafrom Svalbard. Geological Society of America Bulle-tin, 121, 1647–1665.

Ottesen, D., Dowdeswell, J. A. & Rise, L. 2005. Sub-marine landforms and the reconstruction offast-flowing ice streams within a large Quaternary icesheet: the 2500-km-long Norwegian-Svalbard margin(578–808N). Geological Society of America Bulletin,117, 1033–1050.

Ottesen, D., Dowdeswell, J. A., Landvik, J. &Mienert, J. 2007. Dynamics and retreat of the lateWeichselian ice sheet on Svalbard inferred fromhigh-resolution sea-floor morphology. Boreas, 36,286–306.

Ottesen, D., Dowdeswell, J. A. et al. 2008. Submarinelandforms characteristic of glacier surges in twoSpitsbergen fjords. Quaternary Science Reviews, 27,1583–1599.

Plassen, L., Vorren, T. O. & Forwick, M. 2004.Integrated acoustic and coring investigation of glaci-genic deposits in Spitsbergen fjords. Polar Research,23, 89–110.

Salvigsen, O. 2002. Radiocarbon-dated Mytilus edulisand Modiolus modiolus from northern Svalbard: cli-matic implications. Norwegian Journal of Geography,56, 56–61.

Salvigsen, O., Forman, S. & Miller, G. H. 1992. Ther-mophilous molluscs on Svalbard during the Holoceneand their paleoclimatic implications. Polar Research,11, 1–10.

Salvigsen, O., Adrielsson, L., Hjort, C., Kelley, M.,Landvik, J. Y. & Ronnert, L. 1995. Dynamics ofthe last glaciation in eastern Svalbard as inferredfrom glacier-movement indicators. Polar Research,14, 141–152.

Schomacker, A. & Kjær, K. H. 2007. Quantification ofdead-ice melting in ice-cored moraines at the higharctic glacier Holmstrombreen, Svalbard. Boreas, 37,211–225.

Sejrup, H. P., Hjelstuen, B. O. et al. 2005. Pleistoceneglacial history of the NW European continental margin.Marine Petrology and Geology, 22, 1111–1129.

O. INGOLFSSON30

Sexton, D. J., Dowdeswell, J. A., Solheim, A. &Elverhøi, A. 1992. Seismic architecture and sedi-mentation in northwest Spitsbergen fjords. MarineGeology, 103, 53–68.

Sletten, K., Lysa, A. & Lønne, I. 2001. Formation anddisintegration of a high arctic ice-cored morainecomplex, Scott Turnerbreen, Svalbard. Boreas, 30,272–284.

Solheim, A., Andersen, E. S., Elverhoi, A. & Fiedler,A. 1996. Late Cenozoic depositional history of thewestern Svalbard continental shelf, controlled by sub-sidence and climate. Global and Planetary Change, 12,135–148.

Sollid, J. L. & Sørbel, L. 1988. Utbredelsesmønstret avløsmateriale og landformer pa Svalbard – noen hoved-trekk. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift, 42, 265–270.

Stickley, C. E., St John, K., Koc, N., Jordan, R. W.,Passchier, S., Pearce, R. B. & Kearns, L. E. 2009.Evidence for middle Eocene Arctic sea ice fromdiatoms and ice-rafted debris. Science, 460, 376–379.

Sund, M. 2006. A surge of Skobreen, Svalbard. PolarResearch, 25, 115–122.

Svendsen, J. I. & Mangerud, J. 1997. Holocene glacialand climatic variations on Spitsbergen, Svalbard. TheHolocene, 7, 45–57.

Svendsen, J. I., Mangerud, J. & Miller, G. 1989. Denu-dation rates in the Arctic estimated from lake sedi-ments on Spitsbergen, Svalbard. Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 76, 153–168.

Svendsen, J. I., Mangerud, J., Elverhøi, A., Solheim,A. & Schuttenhelm, R. T. E. 1992. The late Weich-selian glacial maximum on western Spitsbergen infer-red from offshore sediment cores. Marine Geology,104, 1–17.

Svendsen, J. J., Elverhøi, A. & Mangerud, J. 1996. Theretreat of the Barents ice sheet on the western Svalbardmargin. Boreas, 25, 244–256.

Svendsen, J. I., Alexandersson, H. et al. 2004. Icesheet history of Northern Eurasia. QuaternaryScience Reviews, 22, 1229–1271.

Vaughan, D. G. & Arthern, R. 2007. Why is it hardto predict the future of ice sheets? Science, 315,1503–1504.

Visser, J. N. J. 1989. The Permo-Carboniferous Dwykaformation of Southern Africa: deposition by a pre-dominantly subpolar marine ice sheet. Palaeogeo-graphy, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 70,377–391.

Vorren, T. O. & Laberg, J. S. 1997. Trough mouth fans –Palaeoclimate and ice-sheet monitors. QuaternaryScience Reviews, 16, 865–881.

Vorren, T. O., Lebesbye, E., Andreassen, K. & Larsen,K. B. 1989. Glacigenic sediments on a passive conti-nental margin as exemplified by the Barents Sea.Marine Geololgy, 85, 251–272.

Vorren, T. O., Richardsen, G., Knutsen, S. M. &Henriksen, E. 1991. Cenozoic erosion and sedimen-tation in the western Barents Sea. Marine Petrologyand Geology, 8, 317–340.

Vorren, T. O., Laberg, J. S. et al. 1998. TheNorwegian–Greenland Sea continental margins: mor-phology and late Quaternary sedimentary processesand environment. Quaternary Science Reviews, 17,243–272.

Werner, A. 1993. Holocene moraine chronology, Spits-bergen, Svalbard: lichenometric evidence for multipleNeoglacial advances in the Arctic. The Holocene, 3,12–37.

FINGERPRINTS OF GLACIATIONS ON SVALBARD 31