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Geography Project

A volcano is an opening, or rupture, in a planet's surface or crust, which allows hotmagma, volcanic

ash and gases to escape from below the surface.

Volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging. Amid-oceanic ridge, for 

example the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has examples of volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling

apart; the Pacific Ring of Fire has examples of volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates coming

together. By contrast, volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another.

Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of theEarth's crust in the interiors of 

plates, e.g., in the East African Rift, the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and the Rio Grande Rift in

North America. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of "Plate hypothesis" volcanism.[1] Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called

"hotspots", for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirswith magma from the core-

mantle boundary, 3,000 km deep in the Earth.

Erupting volcanoes can pose many hazards, not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption. Volcanic

ash can be a threat to aircraft, in particular those with jet engines where ash particles can be melted bythe high operating temperature. Large eruptions can affect temperature as ash and droplets of  sulfuric

acid obscure the sun and cool the Earth's lower atmosphere or troposphere; however, they also absorb

heat radiated up from the Earth, thereby warming thestratosphere. Historically, so-called volcanic

winters have caused catastrophic famines.

Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes)

Cross-section through a stratovolcano (vertical scale is

exaggerated):

1. Large magma chamber 9. Layers of lava emitted by the

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2. Bedrock

3. Conduit (pipe)

4. Base

5. Sill

6. Dike

7. Layers of ash emitted by the

volcano

8. Flank

volcano

10. Throat

11. Parasitic cone

12. Lava flow

13. Vent

14. Crater

15. Ash cloud

Main article: Stratovolcano

Stratovolcanoes or composite volcanoes are tall conical mountains composed of lava flows and other 

ejecta in alternate layers, the strata that give rise to the name. Stratovolcanoes are also known as

composite volcanoes, created from several structures during different kinds of eruptions. Strato/composite

volcanoes are made of cinders, ash and lava. Cinders and ash pile on top of each other, lava flows on top

of the ash, where it cools and hardens, and then the process begins again. Classic examples include Mt.

Fuji in Japan, Mayon Volcano in the Philippines, and Mount Vesuvius and Stromboli in Italy.

In recorded history, explosive eruptions by stratovolcanoes have posed the greatest hazard to

civilizations, as ash is produced by an explosive eruption. No supervolcano erupted in recorded history.

Shield volcanoes have not an enormous pressure build up from the lava flow. Fissure vents

and monogenetic volcanic fields (volcanic cones) have not powerful explosive eruptions, as they are

many times under extension. Stratovolcanoes (30–35°) are steeper than shield volcanoes (generally 5–

10°), their loose tephra are material for dangerous lahars.[3]

Supervolcanoes

Main article: Supervolcano

See also: List of largest volcanic eruptions

A supervolcano is a large volcano that usually has a large caldera and can potentially producedevastation on an enormous, sometimes continental, scale. Such eruptions would be able to cause

severe cooling of global temperatures for many years afterwards because of the huge volumes

of sulfur and ash erupted. They are the most dangerous type of volcano. Examples include Yellowstone

Caldera inYellowstone National Park and Valles Caldera in New Mexico (both western United

States), Lake Taupo in New Zealand, Lake Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia andNgorogoro

Crater in Tanzania, Krakatoa near  Java and Sumatra, Indonesia. Supervolcanoes are hard to identify

centuries later, given the enormous areas they cover. Large igneous provinces are also considered

supervolcanoes because of the vast amount of  basalt lava erupted, but are non-explosive.

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Effects of volcanoes

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Schematic of volcano injection of aerosols and gases.

Solar radiation graph 1958-2008, showing how the radiation is reduced after major volcanic eruptions.

Sulfur dioxide concentration over theSierra Negra Volcano, Galapagos Islandsduring an eruption in October 2005

There are many different types of volcanic eruptions and associated activity: phreatic eruptions (steam-

generated eruptions), explosive eruption of high-silicalava (e.g., rhyolite), effusive eruption of low-silica

lava (e.g., basalt), pyroclastic flows, lahars (debris flow) andcarbon dioxide emission. All of these

activities can pose a hazard to humans. Earthquakes, hot springs,fumaroles, mud pots and geysers often

accompany volcanic activity.

The concentrations of different volcanic gases can vary considerably from one volcano to the next. Water 

vapor is typically the most abundant volcanic gas, followed bycarbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Other 

principal volcanic gases include hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen fluoride. A largenumber of minor and trace gases are also found in volcanic emissions, for example hydrogen, carbon

monoxide, halocarbons, organic compounds, and volatile metal chlorides.

Large, explosive volcanic eruptions inject water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2),

hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen fluoride (HF) and ash (pulverized rock and pumice) into

the stratosphere to heights of 16–32 kilometres (10–20 mi) above the Earth's surface. The most

significant impacts from these injections come from the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric

acid(H2SO4), which condenses rapidly in the stratosphere to form fine sulfate aerosols. The aerosols

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increase the Earth's albedo—its reflection of radiation from the Sun back into space – and thus cool the

Earth's lower atmosphere or troposphere; however, they also absorb heat radiated up from the Earth,

thereby warming the stratosphere. Several eruptions during the past century have caused a decline in the

average temperature at the Earth's surface of up to half a degree (Fahrenheit scale) for periods of one to

three years — sulfur dioxide from the eruption of Huaynaputina probably caused the Russian famine of 

1601–1603.[13]

One proposed volcanic winter happened c. 70,000 years ago following the supereruption of Lake Toba on

Sumatra island in Indonesia.[14] According to the Toba catastrophe theory to which some anthropologists

and archeologists subscribe, it had global consequences,[15] killing most humans then alive and creating

a population bottleneck that affected the genetic inheritance of all humans today.[16] The 1815 eruption

of Mount Tambora created global climate anomalies that became known as the "Year Without a Summer "

because of the effect on North American and European weather .[17] Agricultural crops failed and livestock

died in much of the Northern Hemisphere, resulting in one of the worst famines of the 19th century. [18] The

freezing winter of 1740–41, which led to widespread famine in northern Europe, may also owe its origins

to a volcanic eruption.[19]

It has been suggested that volcanic activity caused or contributed to the End-Ordovician, Permian-

Triassic, Late Devonian mass extinctions, and possibly others. The massive eruptive event which formed

the Siberian Traps, one of the largest known volcanic events of the last 500 million years of Earth's

geological history, continued for a million years and is considered to be the likely cause of the "Great

Dying" about 250 million years ago,[20] which is estimated to have killed 90% of species existing at the

time.[21]

The sulfate aerosols also promote complex chemical reactions on their surfaces that alter chlorine

and nitrogen chemical species in the stratosphere. This effect, together with increased

stratospheric chlorine levels from chlorofluorocarbon pollution, generates chlorine monoxide (ClO), which

destroys ozone (O3). As the aerosols grow and coagulate, they settle down into the upper troposphere

where they serve as nuclei for  cirrus clouds and further modify the Earth's radiation balance. Most of thehydrogen chloride (HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF) are dissolved in water droplets in the eruption cloud

and quickly fall to the ground as acid rain. The injected ash also falls rapidly from the stratosphere; most

of it is removed within several days to a few weeks. Finally, explosive volcanic eruptions release the

greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and thus provide a deep source of carbon for biogeochemical cycles.

Gas emissions from volcanoes are a natural contributor to acid rain. Volcanic activity releases about 130

to 230 teragrams (145 million to 255 million short tons) of carbon dioxide each year.[22] Volcanic eruptions

may inject aerosols into the Earth's atmosphere. Large injections may cause visual effects such as

unusually colorful sunsets and affect global climate mainly by cooling it. Volcanic eruptions also provide

the benefit of adding nutrients to soil through the weathering process of volcanic rocks. These fertile soils

assist the growth of plants and various crops. Volcanic eruptions can also create new islands, as the

magma cools and solidifies upon contact with the water.

Ash thrown into the air by eruptions can present a hazard to aircraft, especially jet aircraft where the

particles can be melted by the high operating temperature. Dangerous encounters in 1982 after the

eruption of Galunggung in Indonesia, and 1989 after the eruption of Mount Redoubt in Alaska raised

awareness of this phenomenon. Nine Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers were established by

the International Civil Aviation Organization to monitor ash clouds and advise pilots accordingly. The 2010

eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull caused major disruptions to air travel in Europe.

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Science Activity

Hibiscus

Hibiscus ( /

 

hɨˈbɪs k ə s/[2] or 

 

/

 

h aɪˈbɪs k ə s /)[3] is a genus of flowering plants in

the mallow family,Malvaceae. It is quite large, containing several hundred species that are native towarm-temperate,subtropical and tropical regions throughout the world. Member species are often noted

for their showy flowers and are commonly known as hibiscus, sorrel, and flor de Jamaica, or less

widely known as rosemallow. The genus includes both annual and perennial herbaceous plants, as well

as woody shrubs and small trees. The generic name is derived from the Greek word ἱβίσκος (hibískos),

which was the name Pedanius Dioscorides (ca. 40-90) gave to  Althaea officinalis.[4]

Uses

ried hibiscus is edible, and is often a delicacy in Mexico. It can also be candied and used as a garnish.[7]

The roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) is used as a vegetable

Certain species of hibiscus are also beginning to be used more widely as a natural source of foodcoloring (E163),[citation needed 

 

] and replacement of  Red #3 / E127.[citation needed ]

Hibiscus species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Chionodes

hibiscella, Hypercompe hambletoni , the Nutmeg moth, and the Turnip Moth.

The tea is popular as a natural diuretic; it contains vitamin C and minerals, and is used traditionally as a

mild medicine.

Dieters or people with kidney problems often take it without adding sugar for its beneficial properties and

as a natural diuretic.

A 2008 USDA study shows consuming hibiscus tea lowers blood pressure in a group of 

prehypertensive and mildly hypertensive adults. Three cups of tea daily resulted in an average drop of 8.1points in their systolic blood pressure, compared to a 1.3 point drop in the volunteers who drank the

placebo beverage. Study participants with higher blood pressure readings (129 or above) had a greater 

response to hibiscus tea: their systolic blood pressure went down by 13.2 points. These data support the

idea that drinking hibiscus tea in an amount readily incorporated into the diet may play a role in controlling

blood pressure, although more research is required.[9]

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis has a number of medical uses in Chinese herbology.[8]

In the Indian traditional system of medicine, Ayurveda, hibiscus, especially white hibiscus and red

hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis), is considered to have medicinal properties. The roots are used to make

various concoctions believed to cure ailments such as cough, hair loss or hair greying. As a hair 

treatment, the flowers are boiled in oil along with other spices to make a medicated hair oil. The leaves

and flowers are ground into a fine paste with a little water, and the resulting lathery paste is used as a

shampoo plus conditioner.

Roses

 

A rose is a woody perennial 

 

of the genus 

 

Rosa, within the family Rosaceae. There are over 100 species.

They form a group of erect shrubs, and climbing or trailing plants, with stems that are often armed with

sharp prickles

 

. Flowers are large and showy, in colours ranging from white through yellows and reds.

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Most species are native to Asia, with smaller numbers native to Europe, North America, and northwest

Africa. Species, cultivars and hybrids 

 

are all widely grown for their beauty and fragrance. Rose plants

range in size from compact, miniature roses, to climbers that can reach 7 meters in height. Different

species hybridize easily, and this has been used in the development of the wide range of  garden roses

 

.[1]

 

Uses

Rose perfumes are made from attar of roses or rose oil, which is a mixture of volatile essential

oilsobtained by steam distilling the crushed petals of roses. An associated product is rose water which is

used for cooking, cosmetics, medicine and in religious practices. The production technique originated

in Persia then spread through Arabia and India, and more recently into eastern Europe. In Bulgaria, Iran

and Germany, damask roses (Rosa damascena 'Trigintipetala') are used. In other parts of the world Rosa

centifoliais commonly used. The oil is transparent pale yellow or yellow-grey in colour. 'Rose Absolute' is

solvent-extracted with hexane and produces a darker oil, dark yellow to orange in colour. The weight of oil

extracted is about one three-thousandth to one six-thousandth of the weight of the flowers; for example, a

Geraniol (C10H18O)

The main constituents of attar of roses are the fragrant alcohols geraniol and l-citronellol; and rose

camphor, an odourless paraffin. β-Damascenone is also a significant contributor to the scent.

Rose water , made as a byproduct of rose oil production, is widely used in Asian and Middle Eastern

cuisine. In France there is much use of  rose syrup, most commonly made from an extract of rose petals.

In the United States, this French rose syrup is used to make rose scones andmarshmallows.

Rose perfumes are made from attar of roses or rose oil, which is a mixture of volatile essential

oilsobtained by steam distilling the crushed petals of roses. An associated product is rose water which is

used for cooking, cosmetics, medicine and in religious practices. The production technique originated

in Persia then spread through Arabia and India, and more recently into eastern Europe. In Bulgaria, Iran

and Germany, damask roses (Rosa damascena 'Trigintipetala') are used. In other parts of the world Rosa

centifoliais commonly used. The oil is transparent pale yellow or yellow-grey in colour. 'Rose Absolute' is

solvent-extracted with hexane and produces a darker oil, dark yellow to orange in colour. The weight of oil

extracted is about one three-thousandth to one six-thousandth of the weight of the flowers; for example,

about two thousand flowers are required to produce one gram of oil.

Geraniol (C10H18O)

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The main constituents of attar of roses are the fragrant alcohols geraniol and l-citronellol; and rose

camphor, an odourless paraffin. β-Damascenone is also a significant contributor to the scent.

Rose water , made as a byproduct of rose oil production, is widely used in Asian and Middle Eastern

cuisine. In France there is much use of  rose syrup, most commonly made from an extract of rose petals.

In the United States, this French rose syrup is used to make rose scones andmarshmallows.

Roses are a favored subject in art and therefore used in various artistic disciplines. They appear in

portraits, illustrations, on stamps, as ornaments or as architectural elements. The Luxembourg

born Belgian artist and botanist Pierre-Joseph Redoutéis known for his detailed watercolours of flowers,

particularly roses.

Renoir's painting of cabbage roses, Roses in a vase

Henri Fantin-Latour was also a prolific painter of still life, particularly flowers including roses. The Rose

'Fantin-Latour' was named after the artist.

Other impressionists including Claude Monet, Paul Cézanne and Pierre-Auguste Renoir have paintings of 

roses among their works.

Science Journals

1.

 

Batteries come in many sizes, from miniature cells used to power  hearing aids 

 

and wristwatches

to battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby power for telephone exchanges 

 

and

computer  data centers.

2. Various cells and batteries (top-left to bottom-right): twoAA, one D, one handheld ham radio battery, two 9-

volt (PP3), two AAA, one C, one camcorder  battery, one cordless phone battery.

Dry cell

Science Project

2012-the international year of forests

A cooperative is an autonomous voluntary association of people who unite to meet commoneconomic, social and cultural needs and aspirations, through a jointly owned and democraticallycontrolled enterprise. In general, they contribute to socio-economic development.

As self-help organizations that meet the needs of their members, cooperatives assist in generatingemployment and incomes throughout local communities. Cooperatives provide opportunities for socialinclusion. In the informal economy, workers have formed shared service cooperatives and associations to

assist in their self-employment. In rural areas, savings and credit cooperatives provide access to bankingservices that are lacking in many communities and finance the formation of small and micro businesses,promotes inclusive finance.

The cooperative sector worldwide has about 800 million members in over 100 countries and isestimated to account for more than 100 million jobs around the world. The strength and reach of cooperatives are illustrated in the following examples:

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•  under the umbrella of the World Council of Credit Unions, 49,000 credit unions serve177 million members in 96 countries, and 4,200 banks under the European Association of Cooperative Banks serve 149 million clients;

•  agricultural cooperatives account for 80 to 99 per cent of milk production in Norway,New Zealand and the United States; 71 per cent of fishery production in the Republic of Korea; and 40 per cent of agriculture in Brazil;

•  electric cooperatives play a key role in rural areas. In Bangladesh, rural electriccooperatives serve 28 million people. In the United States, 900 rural electric cooperativesserve 37 million people and own almost half of the electric distribution lines in thecountry.

International Years are declared by the United Nations to draw attention to major issues andencourage action. To commemorate the Year, regional conferences will raise awareness of cooperativesand seek ways to leverage their contribution to socio-economic development and foster regulatoryframeworks. A research agenda will be proposed and Member States are to form national committeesthat will serve as focal points for the Year’s activities.

For more information, contact the Department of Economic and Social Affairs focal point oncooperatives, Felice Llamas, llamas@un.org, +1 212 963 2924.

NEW YORK, 21 December (Department of Economic and Social Affairs) -- The United NationsGeneral Assembly has declared 2012 as the International Year of Cooperatives, highlighting the contributionof cooperatives to socio-economic development. In adopting resolution 64/136 on 18 December, theAssembly noted that cooperatives impact poverty reduction, employment generation and social integration.

The United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution declaring 2012 the UN International Year

of Co-operatives on December 18, 2009.

The UN resolution entitled 'Co-operatives in Social Development' recognises the diversity of the co-

operative movement around the world and urges governments to take measures aimed at creating a

supportive environment for the development of co-operatives. Click hereto go to the UN IYC website

to find out more about the UN Resolution and about other UN IYC activities.

The International Year of Co-operatives, or IYC, celebrates a different way of doing business, one

focused on human need not human greed, where the members, who own and govern the business,

collectively enjoy the benefits instead of all profits going just to shareholders.

Having an International Year of Co-operatives provides an opportunity to captivate the attention of

national governments, the business community and, most importantly, the general public on the

advantages provided by the co-operative model.

As the global voice of co-operatives, the International Co-operative Alliance is seeking to leverage

the International Year to raise the public awareness of co-operatives worldwide.

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The International Year of Cooperatives is a unique opportunity to celebrate cooperatives. Activities can

include conferences, seminars, workshops, publications, media events, preparation of films, video series,

radio programmes and others. It can also focus on initiating a change in policies requiring short and long-

term lobbying campaigns, undertaking research, collecting statistics, and working with authorities at all

levels. IYC also provide s opportunities to develop new relationships and partnerships with institutions,

development partners, citizen groups, and other business enterprises. It can be the year where

cooperative foundations or support programmes and funds are launched. International Year of 

Cooperatives should also reach out to the public - and so commemorative stamps, coins, and events able

to introduce various groups of people to cooperatives through sporting events, concerts, fairs, etc are also

appropriate.

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Cooperative Coffees is a green coffee importing cooperative, comprising 24 community-based coffee

roasters in the USA and Canada, who are committed to building and supporting fair and sustainable trade

relationships for the benefit of farmers and their exporting cooperatives, families, and communities.

We strive to promote transparent Fair Trade and sustainable development alternatives in both the North

and the South, while continuing to sell the highest quality coffee on the market.

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