future solutions now - the tonle sap initiative november 2004

The Poverty-EnvironmentChallenge of the Tonle Sap

POVERTY AND VULNERABILITYDespite the richness of its naturalresources, the Tonle Sap provides aninadequate living for most of theinhabitants of the provinces thatadjoin it. The indicators of povertythere are more negative than those forthe population as a whole or, indeed,other rural areas, and the needs of thepoor are acute. Half of the villageshave between 40–60% householdsbelow the poverty line, about 80% insome areas. Many households have nolandholdings and depend entirely onfishing and foraging, with access tofishing areas often under dispute.

More than elsewhere inCambodia, health shocks and chronicillness are major causes ofimpoverishment. The cycle of poverty,ill health, and high health careexpenditure by households (11% of

household income) cripples families.About 45% of people borrow to coverthe cost of health emergencies and,all too often, another response tohealth shocks is to remove childrenfrom schools, starting with girls.

Since people frequently relyon pond water for drinking, childrensuffer from repeated attacks ofdiarrhea. Malaria, dengue fever,acute respiratory infections, andtuberculosis are endemic, and the rateof HIV/AIDS infection is the highestin the region. Half of the childrenunder the age of 5 are malnourishedand, for every 1,000 live births,115 children die before they reachthat age.

Adult literacy averages 63%.This figure is inflated, however, as itincludes the partially literate, andhides wide provincial and genderdifferences. Disturbingly, about70% of children do not completeprimary school, compared with thenational average of 60%. Twice asTH

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The Tonle Sap Basin Strategy

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many women as men over 15 yearsof age have never attended school.Lack of education limits the abilityto recognize and act on opportunities.Interestingly, however, a high demandexists for technical and vocationaleducation and training. Low literacylevels, lack of access to environmentaleducation materials, and a dearth ofbasic information (such as copies oflaws, subdecrees, proclamations, anddirectives or circulars) are notpropitious to decisionmaking fornatural resource management.

Women are particularlyvulnerable. They have even morelimited access than men to landownership and other property rights,credit, paid employment, education,and health services. They also havefew opportunities for self-development or participating incommunity decisionmaking sinceKhmer tradition ascribes a passive role

to women. Nevertheless, the genderdivision of labor is changing overall:women and men play progressivelyinterchangeable roles because womenare increasingly called upon to meethousehold needs. There are alsomany displaced or disabled persons,who suffer from poverty and otherforms of social deprivation to an evengreater extent than the rest of thepopulation.

The ethnic minorities living in theTonle Sap basin are the Vietnameseand Muslim Cham. Even thoughmost of the Vietnamese were born inCambodia, they do not have Khmernationality and are classified as

immigrants. This status and thehistorical animosity between themand the Khmers limit the Vietnamesecontribution in community-basednatural resource management, despitethe fact that they are among the mostinnovative of fishers. The Cham, whoare also fishers, do not experiencesegregation despite their conspicuousidentity. But it is a fact that all ethnicminorities are disadvantaged becauseof inadequate representation atmanagement and legislative levels.The Vietnamese are further deprivedby lack of property rights andlanguage barriers.

The communities living on theTonle Sap and in its lowland areasare particularly vulnerable. In therainy season, the lake is prone toheavy swells and high waves thatare liable to topple their floatingstructures. The inhabitants pay tohave their houseboats towed to new

anchorage sites to accommodate thechanging water levels and move intosheltered locations. These and othercosts related to repairing damage tothe houseboats account for as much asa third of annual expenditure.Indebtedness is high and returns forlabor are low as most poor fishers arelocked into a system of borrowingand selling to middlemen. Further,absence of clean water and sanitationleads to morbidity and low levels oflife expectancy.

In the lowlands, rural life isintrinsically linked to the annualcycle of flooding. The communitieshave developed coping mechanismsto live with flooded conditions, oftenfor up to 6 months a year. But,when floods are deeper than normal,unexpectedly fast in onset, orunusually prolonged, they can taxcommunity self-reliance and capacityto cope.


Photo: Steve Griffiths / Photo illustration: Maria Victoria Caramés

Despite the inherent richness ofthe Tonle Sap, most indicators ofpoverty in the provinces that adjoinit are worse than those of thenational population

3ADB MEKONG DEPARTMENT

Poverty is also related toextended instability and conflict, andthe resultant harm to the population;most of Cambodia experienced morepeace and economic growth after1993, but only since 1998 have areasnorthwest of the Tonle Sap enjoyedtheir first real respite from war.Many internally displaced persons,repatriated refugees, internalmigrants, and demobilized soldiersare reestablishing their livelihoodsin what remains a fractured society.

RESOURCE USE MANAGEMENT

The TThe TThe TThe TThe Tonle Sap Basin. onle Sap Basin. onle Sap Basin. onle Sap Basin. onle Sap Basin. Cambodia’smain feature, the Tonle Sap basin,extends over 80,000 squarekilometers, or 44% of the country’stotal area. It is home to about 32% ofCambodia’s total population.It comprises three main physiographicregions• the lake, extending to a maximum

area of 1.6 million hectares (ha)

in the wet season, now declared abiosphere reserve, and effectivelybounded by Highways No. 5 and 6;

• the low-lying watershed, mainly atan altitude of less than 200 metersabove mean sea level, originallycovered with dry open woodlandsinterspersed with oases of wettergrasslands and evergreen forestbut much of which has beendepleted by logging andconversion to upland agriculture,and

• the rainforest of the CardamomMountains, rising to a height ofup to 1,500 meters above meansea level, large areas of which arestill relatively undisturbed.The basin is of unique importance

to Cambodia as a source of primaryfood production, timber, andfirewood; as a potential source ofwater and hydropower; and as areservoir of biodiversity.

Agriculture dominates theCambodian economy, employing

about 75% of the population. Itscontribution to the gross domesticproduct, however, has declined fromabout 45% in 1993 to 34% in 2002,in constant 2000 prices, becauseof relatively stagnant agriculturalproduction. In contrast, productionin other sectors, especially textilesand garments, has grown.

Rice is Cambodia’s most importantcrop: it occupies 2.3 million ha of atotal cultivated area of 2.8 million haand is the staple of the Cambodiandiet. Rainfed lowland rice accountsfor by far the majority of productionbut at less than 2.0 tons per hectare(t/ha), rice yields are very low mainlybecause of limited use of inputs, poorwater control, and weak technicalsupport and extension services.Nearly 500,000 ha receive someirrigation and, in these areas, yieldsmay rise to more than 3.0 t/ha, but arestill well below yields in neighboringcountries. On the Tonle Sap, floatingrice is grown at the lake’s edge. It is


Source: Asian Development Bank

Item

Area

Hydrology

Biology

Socio-economy

Characteristic

• 250,000–300,000 hectares in the dry season

• 1.0–1.6 million hectares in the wet season

• 1–2 meters above mean sea level in the dry season

• 8–11 meters above mean sea level in the wet season

• 20% of the Mekong River’s floodwaters are absorbed by the Tonle Sap

• 62% of the Tonle Sap’s water originates from the Mekong River

• 38% of the Tonle Sap’s water originates from the Tonle Sap basin

• The Tonle Sap is connected to the Mekong River by the 100-kilometer long Tonle SapRiver, which reverses its flow seasonally

• The flooded forest contains about 200 plant species

• The flooded forest extended over more than 1 million hectares originally, 614,000hectares in the 1960s, and 362,000 hectares in 1991

• The Tonle Sap contains at least 200 species of fish, 42 species of reptiles, 225 species ofbirds, and 46 species of mammals

• 1.2 million people live in the area bordered by Highways No. 5 and No. 6

• The Tonle Sap yields about 230,000 tons of fish per annum (about 50% of Cambodia’stotal freshwater capture fisheries production)

• Rice production in the Tonle Sap floodplain makes up about 12% of Cambodia’s total

The Tonle Sap at a Glance


also grown as a recession crop on thereceding floodwaters.

While nationally Cambodia isconsidered to be self-sufficient inrice, for many households riceproduction is sufficient to meettheir needs for only half the year.In 1998, the World Food Programme,for example, supported 1.7 millionpeople (15% of the population) foran average 45 days.

After rice, freshwater fish is themost important component of theCambodian diet and up to half of thisis supplied directly by the TonleSap—the most concentrated sourceof freshwater fish in Southeast Asia.Important types of fish caught includeperch, carp, lungfish, and smelt.Information on yields is unreliable butbest estimates suggest an annual fishcatch of about 230,000 tons of fish.While figures for the overall catchmay appear to indicate that yields arenot declining, there is strongevidence that the catch includes anever-increasing proportion of small

and low-value fish as the numbers oflarger fish decline.

Agriculture and fisheries do notmake the only demands on thenatural resources of the basin. Of theenergy consumed in Cambodia, about82% is obtained from wood. For about92% of Cambodia’s households, woodis the major fuel for cooking. Althoughwood is a renewable resource, it isconsumed at a faster rate than it isreplanted and firewood extraction hasbeen an important factor in thedeforestation of the flooded forestsand the lowland dry and evergreenforest of the watershed. Withpopulation growth, firewood demand

is expected to increase, calling for thedevelopment of alternative sources ofenergy and energy conservation andefficiency.

Despite their depletion, forests inthe Tonle Sap basin remain habitatsof enormous importance. The floodedforest of the Tonle Sap is still by farthe greatest continuous area ofsavannah swamp forest and inundatedforest in the entire Asian region,hence its incorporation in the WorldNetwork of Biosphere Reserves of theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific,and Cultural Organization.

In the current complex ofvegetation communities that makes up

Province

Banteay Meanchey

Battambang

Kompong Chhnang

Kompong Thom

Oddar Meanchey

Preah Vihear

Pursat

Siem Reap

Characteristics and Resources

• Lowlands suitable for agriculture

• Lowlands suitable for agriculture with irrigation potential; Pailin gem mining area onthe border with Thailand; wildlife sanctuary; core biodiversity area; Multiple-UseProtected Area*

• Tonle Sap River transportation route; wide floodplain agricultural area; wildlifesanctuary; Multiple-Use Protected Area

• Agriculture and irrigation; wildlife sanctuary; core biodiversity areas; Multiple-UseProtected Area

• Sparsely populated; protected landscape

• Sparsely populated; historic and cultural attractions; wildlife sanctuary

• Mountainous with hydropower potential; productive forests; wildlife sanctuaries;Multiple-Use Protected Area

• Angkor Wat and other historical and cultural attractions; Chong Kneas harbor forwater transport to and from Phnom Penh; wildlife sanctuary; national park;Multiple-Use Protected Area

Characteristics and Resources of the Tonle Sap Basin Provinces

* In recognition of the Tonle Sap’s importance, a Royal Decree designated it as a Multiple-Use Protected Area in November 1993.Source: Asian Development Bank

Fishing as an “occupation” isa predominantly male activitybut women play key roles inprocessing and marketing



the Tonle Sap, more than 200 plantspecies have been recorded.The Tonle Sap is also known to behome to at least 200 species of fish inthe lake alone, more than 225 speciesof birds, 42 species of reptiles, and46 species of mammals.

Within the basin’s catchments aresignificant tracts of undisturbed forest,particularly the central lowlandcomplex and the rainforest of theCardamom Mountains—home to2,300 described plants, of which40% have traditional uses; more than500 species of birds; and more than130 species of mammals, some ofwhich have only been discovered inthe last decade. Together, these threeforest areas constitute for Cambodiaan enormously important reservoir ofplants and animals many of which maybe of considerable future economicsignificance.

In equal fashion, the productivityof the Tonle Sap’s fisheries dependson natural habitats. However, theflooded forest that once occupiedmost of the seasonally flooded areawas, by 1997, estimated to be about350,000 ha, of which roughly 30% isin the degraded forest categories ofmosaic and regrowth. It is essential topreserve the ecosystem of theseasonally flooded areas as the basisfor sustainable fish capture, whilerecognizing that cultivation andcollection of firewood are the onlyavailable sources of livelihood for thecommunities living on and aroundthe lake. Furthermore, structures suchas dams, roads, and flood-controlworks can significantly affect fisheriesby blocking migration and spawningareas, altering water quality andquantity, changing the temporal andspatial relationship and nature of theflood cycle, and degrading orfragmenting aquatic habitats. Loss ofsuch habitats could have dramaticimpact on fisheries productivity.

Resolving the conflicts betweenproduction and preservation assumesparticular importance in the naturalhabitats of the Tonle Sap basin giventhe country’s dependence on riceand fish—for which no elasticity is

provided by other foods—andfirewood.

Increased agricultural productivity,essential to the food security andoverall economy of the country,can only be achieved through acombination of intensification andextensification of efforts.Intensification of fishing effort canonly take place if the flooded forest ismaintained or expanded, and levelsof fish stocks are enhanced byimposing and enforcing controls andexpanding breeding supportprograms. Intensifying riceproduction will need more useagricultural chemical inputs andincreased irrigation facilities.Fertilizers and pesticides, however,potentially threaten the lower reachesof the basin, particularly the lake.Harnessing the waters of the uppercatchments poses a threat to theirnatural habitats and introducespotentially conflicting uses of thewater for hydropower, domesticconsumption, and irrigation.

Any encroachment into theforested catchment areas—whether for

harnessing water resources, loggingfor timber and firewood, or clearingforests for food and industrial crops—will destroy their viability while alsoleading to erosion, loss of soilfertility, down-stream siltation,flooding, and turbidity of waterbodies.

Any disruption of the lake’shydrological balance could have aseverely detrimental effect on the lake’sfisheries since water levels at peakflood and fish catch in the Tonle Sapare strongly correlated. All of thismeans that the development planningof the Tonle Sap must be donethrough an integrated, basin-wideapproach.

Community-led approaches shouldform part of broader attempts toaddress the social and economicimpacts of reduced resource use


Photo: Ian Fox / Photo illustration: Maria Victoria Caramés


The Tonle Sap basin is home toabout 3.6 million people (1998), mostof whom derive their livelihoodsdirectly from its natural resources.About half of those people depend onthe lake and its associated wetlands,which is also the predominant sourceof protein for the whole of Cambodia.

Not surprisingly, competition forscarce resources is intense. Yet, anincreasing proportion of the TonleSap population is land-less. Thisparticularly applies to female-headedhouseholds, which are morevulnerable to shocks and resort toselling land to meet short-term healthand other crises, and to the ethnicminorities who can make less claim toland rights.

Access to common propertyis important to the livelihoods ofmany people, not just the landless,who depend on fishing and foragingfor a living. These common propertyresources are, however, inadequatelymanaged and may be hugelyoverexploited or become the preserveof a favored few.

The dismantling of the fishing lotsystem in the Tonle Sap in 2000 wassupposed to reduce commercialexploitation and increase the fishingarea available to local communities.However, commercial enterprises stillaccount for a high proportion of the

total fish catch. In the catchments,commercial logging—mostly illegal—has eroded the evergreen forest byabout 15% in the last 10 years.Sustainability of common propertyresources hinges on equitable access,which is best advanced by communitymanagement.

Despite these challenges, theTonle Sap basin offers significantopportunities for supportingproductivity by providing theirrigation water needed to expandirrigated rice areas and raise yields tolevels nearer to those of Cambodia’sneighbors. It has potential forproviding energy from hydropower,which could reduce some of thepressures on the forested areas. Itsnatural resource base should alsofavor the emergence of small andmedium enterprises.

The Mekong River Basin. The Mekong River Basin. The Mekong River Basin. The Mekong River Basin. The Mekong River Basin. Theimportance of the Tonle Sap,however, extends far beyond theboundaries of Cambodia. In the faceof loss of wetland habitat throughoutAsia, the Tonle Sap floodplain’s size,habitat diversity, and relativepreservation are of exceptional globaland regional importance. (Otherwetlands in Cambodia and southernViet Nam are widely disturbed.) Theecosystem is essential to the survival

of the many globally significantspecies of birds, mammals, andreptiles found around the lake.

When the Tonle Sap and otherparts of the Mekong system floodinto fields and forests, fish takeadvantage of the huge increase inavailable food. Some fish spawn inthe main river channels, and eggsand larvae drift into the floodedareas. Other species spawn in theflooded areas. As the floodwatersrecede, fish retreat to main riverchannels. Fish migrations from theTonle Sap help restock fisheries as farupstream as the People’s Republic ofChina and in many tributaries alongthe way.

The lake also helps to controlsalinity intrusion and conservemangrove forests in the Mekong deltaby acting as a natural reservoir fromwhich water drains during the dryseason. Just as the productivity andbiodiversity of large areas of theMekong River basin derive in partfrom the Tonle Sap, so thepreservation of the lake’s uniqueecosystem depends on the waterinflows that originate far fromCambodia, with 62% of the lake’swater having come from the MekongRiver. Because a strong correlationexists between water levels at peakflood and fish catch in the Tonle Sap,not surprisingly, there are concernsthat dam construction on the MekongRiver and its tributaries would affectthe level of flooding in the Tonle Sapand the fisheries and farmlands thatdepend on it. There are also growingconcerns over plans to clear rapidsand widen a shipping lane in theMekong River to enable cargo boatsto navigate between the People’sRepublic of China and Thailand inthe dry season.

The countries of the GreaterMekong Subregion share the forest,water, and biodiversity resources thatendow the region with one of therichest natural environments in theworld. There is an interdependenceamong all elements of thatenvironment that crosses nationalboundaries, meaning that all thecountries of the subregion must share


The transboundary environmentalchallenges of the Mekong Riverexhibit complexity to the highestdegree: all six countries of thesubregion are riparian and all areeager to boost development usingthe Mekong River basin’s land,water, and biotic resources.Their perspectives, however,are not the same


responsibility for meetingthe transboundary environmentalchallenges posed by internationalrivers and watersheds, trade in forestproducts, and expansion of regionalinfrastructure. Better transboundaryenvironmental governance isimportant because the complexmosaic of national interests createsa situation in which competition forregional resources will increasewith further economic growth.

Concurrently, poverty in ruralcommunities has led to overexploit-ation of natural resources, withenvironmental implications thatextend beyond localities. Large-scaledevelopment activities and illegalexploitation of natural resourcesalso threaten local and regionalenvironments.

What is good for one countryor region might have devastatingconsequences for another: Govern-ments in the Greater MekongSubregion will face increasinglydifficult problems as they try tobalance the competing interests offlood control, hydroelectric power,shipping, fishing, agriculture,and environmental protection.This warrants continuous internationalsupport to the Mekong River

We all are aware that fish isimportant to the daily subsistenceof each and every Cambodian.Cambodia is a fish-eating society.Fish is an easily accessible food,obtainable everywhere, in therivers, lakes, ponds, irrigationsystems, and even in the ricefields. We are proud of our TonleSap with its rich stock of fishthat can feed millions of peopleand support many whoselivelihoods depend on fishing—all without relying on importedfish. As the Khmers say: Wherethere is water, there is fish

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Prime Minister’s remarks on the National Fish Day, 1 July 2003




Commission’s basin developmentplan and water utilization programand operating within the strategicenvironmental framework for theGreater Mekong Subregion preparedby ADB.

POLICY, INSTITUTIONAL, ANDMARKET CONSTRAINTS

Despite impressive efforts to establisha policy framework that supportssustainable development,environmental quality and standardsof living in Cambodia continue todecline. One reason for this is thatexisting legislation is not enforced,either because government agencieslack technical and managerial capacityor because of corruption. In the TonleSap basin, the absence of effectiveproperty rights in fisheries, forestry,and land has made policy failure moreevident. Environmental degradationhas also resulted from subsidies onresource use and from the failure ofresource pricing to reflect fullyenvironmental costs.

In some instances, existinglegislation may conflict or provide

insufficient guidance because ofthe continued dominance of sectoralapproaches to policymaking andlack of public participation duringformulation. Preparation of legislationshould be organic and grow out ofexperience, local practice,potentialities, and needs. In addition,a positive approach toward ensuringcompliance with legislation ispreferable to a negative approach thatrequires policing action: experiencedemonstrates that negative approachesencourage bribery and extortion, notcompliance.

Government agencies at thecentral level that have traditionallyexercised direct responsibility fordevelopment are still beset withproblems of overstaffing, a command-and-control mindset among seniorstaff, and limited managementcapacity. Despite their changedmandate to perform throughdecentralization, they still havenot fully realigned their systems orcapabilities: they are still projectand incentive dependent, with apreference for large structures andschemes in the face of low budgets

for operation and maintenance. Theyshould build community developmentexpertise and field qualified staff atthe provincial and district levels.

Policy implementation requiresappropriate institutional structuresbased on the rights and responsi-bilities of the people. These canonly be effectively recognized ina decentralized system, whereineach government level has a clearlydefined role that maximizes peopleparticipation while providing for anoverall harmonization of activities.

In 2001, the Governmentembarked on a devolution ofauthority and responsibility to localgovernments through decentralizationto commune level and an associateddeconcentration of managementfunctions to the provincial levelto effect a new era of grassrootsdemocratization. This has led toa three-tier structure of central,provincial, and communal institutionseach with its defined role.

The management of naturalresources, however, must be effectedat lower institutional levels if it is toachieve long-term and equitablesustainability and environmentalprotection. This will requirestrengthening of the lower levels ofthe institutional structure, includingVillage Development Committees,Village Administrative Groups, anddemand-based organizations such aswater-user groups or parent-teachercouncils which also have major rolesto play. At the same time, it must berecognized that the basin is anecological entity whose overallmanagement calls for basin-levelcoordination at a multisectoral level.

Poverty reduction requires thatthe poor access interlocking marketsand services for agricultural andfisheries products and inputs,production support and credit,information, assets, labor, and foodand other consumer goods. However,the terms under which the poor enterand participate in these markets andservices are all-too-often inequitable.Many of them are merely passiveparticipants, often obliged to sell low


And I have ordered in whateverforest people are collecting resin,don’t cut it… Move quickly togive people ownership rights inthis concession area, so thatconcessionaires don’t violate people’srights. One part must be saved forpeople, and made as reserve forest,or reserve land, and we will createa community forest

Prime Minister’s inaugural speech for the Tumring Hun Sen School,29 August 2001

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(immediately after harvest) and buyhigh, with little choice of wherethey conduct their transactions,with whom, and at what price.With the liberalization of domesticmarkets and the globalization ofinternational markets, marketing hasbecome more open, with morechoices. But it is also more complexand uncertain.

Enhancing access to marketsis a pressing challenge and it is vitalto understand better how theyoperate. In the Tonle Sap provinces,for instance, fishers cannot realizethe true value of fish because of lackof information: the trade dynamicsand volume, the market structure,and power of traders are notunderstood. There is also littleknowledge of trade-relatedpopulation movements to the lake.

ADB’s Response

THE TONLE SAP BASIN STRATEGYPopulation and developmentpressures are taking their toll, andconsumptive use of the Tonle Sap’sresources is intense. The threats tothe lake’s ecosystem are manifold.They include overexploitation offisheries and wildlife resources, dry-season encroachment and landclearance of the flooded forest, anddegradation of natural vegetation inwatersheds, with associated changesin water and soil quality and siltationrates.

Each threat to the Tonle Sap hasmultiple root causes, the severity ofwhich conditions the speed andmanner in which they can beaddressed. Never has the Tonle Sap

been called upon to supply so muchto so many. Even greater challengeslie ahead: conversations with stake-holders confirm that the number anddiversity of issues are overwhelming.Solutions are elusive.

The Tonle Sap basin strategy formsthe basis for setting priorities andplanning investment and developmentassistance over the next 5–10 years.It meets the key elements of ADB’sPoverty Reduction Strategy within theunique context of the Tonle Sap basin.It marks the introduction of basin-level strategic planning and favorsprojects that promise the biggestreturn in terms of poverty reduction.

The strategic planning process isiterative and provides regularopportunities for inputs in supportof the Country Strategy and Program,2005–2007 and its annual updates.


Meeting ADB’s Country Strategy and Program, 2005–2007

Poverty Reduction

Pro-Poor,Sustainable

Economic GrowthAccess to Assets

Management ofNatural Resources

and the Environment

Core Areas of InterventionOperating Outputs

Activities


Activities


Activities


It concentrates attention andencourages discussion and furtherwork to guide operational directions.While primarily providing the desiredADB focus on the Tonle Sap basin,it also aims to catalyze bilateral andmultilateral endeavors.

GOAL AND DEVELOPMENTOBJECTIVESBased on ADB’s overarching goal,the strategy aims to reduce poverty.Toward this goal, its developmentobjectives are to foster, promote,and facilitate pro-poor, sustainable

economic growth; access to assets;and management of natural resourcesand the environment.

STRATEGIC PRINCIPLESSustainable Livelihoods.Sustainable Livelihoods.Sustainable Livelihoods.Sustainable Livelihoods.Sustainable Livelihoods. Anunderstanding of what can be doneto help the rural poor is still low.The challenge is to focus on themultiple aspects of their livelihoodassets. Livelihoods draw on theresources accessed and the activitiesundertaken in order to live.

However, in Cambodia, humancapital was seriously affected by the

extermination of a generation ofleaders, low levels of health andeducation, and women shoulderingheavy responsibilities as aconsequence of male deaths duringthe protracted civil war and genocide.Social capital has been severelydiminished, and democratic processeshave only recently been introduced.Natural capital, especially forests andfish, is under growing humanexploitation. Physical capital,particularly roads and water supply, isinadequate and there is poor coverageof schools and health posts. Access tofinancial capital is restricted.

The structures and processesthat underpin the five categoriesof assets are institutions, policies,legislation, culture, and powerrelations. They determine access,terms of exchange, and returns;shape the livelihood strategies ofthe poor; and govern theiroutcomes.

Tackling poverty in Cambodiameans working with the rural poor,initially where livelihood assets arebeing affected by unfavorable trends,e.g., overfishing, drought, pest out-breaks, floods, or deterioration ofinfrastructure. Such trends areobvious in the Tonle Sap basin.

The livelihoods approach is away of thinking about the objectives,scope, and priorities for develop-ment. It seeks to develop an under-standing of the factors that lie behindpeoples’ choice of livelihood strategyand then to reinforce the positiveaspects and mitigate against theconstraints or negative influences.Its core principles are that poverty-focused development activity shouldbe people-centered, responsive and

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Prime Minister’s remarks on the National Fish Day, 1 July 2003

“ I call on all citizens in all areasto help preserve and protect ourfishery resources in order tosustain local communities.We must avoid the use ofdestructive fishing equipmentand practices such as tight nets,mosquito nets, electric tools,poison, and the taking of fisheggs. These instruments andpractices destroy the root offishery resources, and make fishharvests scarce. Eventually,we will lack fish for food




Operating Framework


Goal (5–10 years)Poverty reduction

DevelopmentObjectives (5–10 years)

Pro-poor, sustainable economic growth

Access to assets

Management of natural resourcesand the environment

Core Areas ofIntervention (3–5 years)

Rural development andthe environment

Human development

Operating Outputs(annual)

Investment approvals

Technical assistance approvals

Efficiently-managed project portfolios

Resources and cofinancing mobilized

Activities (regular)Economic and sector work

Thematic studies

Programming and processing

Project administration

Aid coordination

Strategic PrinciplesSustainable livelihoods

Social justice

Basin-wide approach

Crosscutting ThemesVulnerable groups

Governance

Resource cooperation

The private sector in development

Operating PrinciplesLong-term perspective

Selectivity and concentration

Partnerships

Country ownership and delegation

Informing and listening

Judicious use of modalities


participatory, multilevel, conductedin partnership, sustainable, anddynamic. The livelihoods approachputs people at the center ofdevelopment, thereby increasingthe effectiveness of developmentassistance.

Social Justice. Social Justice. Social Justice. Social Justice. Social Justice. Social justice is thepursuit of a society that offers equalopportunity to access freedoms andchoices and encourages the develop-ment of all the capacities of allmembers. It is a precondition topoverty reduction. For that reason,Cambodia’s Second SocioeconomicDevelopment Plan, 2001–2005highlights social justice: it identifiesthe need for economic growth toinclude sectors in which the poorderive livelihoods; social and culturaldevelopment; and sustainable use ofnatural resources and soundenvironmental management.

However, extreme inequality ofaccess to assets (evidenced by ahighly skewed distribution ofwealth whereby the lowest 10% ofhouseholds receive just 3% ofestimated total household incomewhile the highest 10% receive nearly35%), insufficient or nonexistentrights of tenure, and cultural andethnic divisions strainintragenerational responsibility andequity and threaten the environ-ment. Women, for example, make upa disproportionate share of the poorand their condition is reflected inindicators such as access to socialservices and illiteracy. What is more,the importance of meeting the needsof the present without compromisingthe ability of future generations tomeet their needs adds force to thecase for intergenerationalresponsibility and equity.

Inclusion of the full spectrum ofstakeholders is crucial to achievingsocial justice. This calls for socialdevelopment that puts people firstand empowers the weaker groups insociety to gain access to assets. Socialsupport programs must respond tothe needs of the poor, women, theaged, and the otherwise disadvan-

taged; ensure equity in development;and maintain the social cohesionnecessary for continued growth. Lawand policy reform also has a vital roleto play, especially when it relates tofair treatment regarding the develop-ment of environmental laws,regulations, and policies.

Basin-Basin-Basin-Basin-Basin-WWWWWide Approach.ide Approach.ide Approach.ide Approach.ide Approach. There is aworldwide trend toward planningand managing land, water, and bioticresources on the basis of basin orcatchment units. Over the comingyears, the Tonle Sap’s naturalresources would be best protectedthrough the mechanism of long-termnatural resource management plansdeveloped collaboratively by local,provincial, and national stakeholders.A basin-wide approach will allowstakeholders to focus on issues thattranscend boundaries and greatlyincrease understanding of thepoverty-environment challenge. Therationale behind the basin-wideapproach stems from the fact thatnatural resources do not recognizeinterjurisdictional boundaries and thatplanning and management decisionsin one part of a basin can have signifi-cant impacts on natural resources else-where. An early imperative is to dev-elop better institutional arrangementsfor basin management.

Natural resource managementplans developed in partnership bycommunities and the Governmentwould outline a transparent andequitable process of resource manage-ment over the next 10 years. Theywould incorporate communityaspirations regarding naturalresources and contain the necessary

rules relating to their management.They would need to provide both aperiod of resource security to naturalresource users, such as fishers, and anability to change plans over time toadapt as new information becomesavailable. Individual plans mightinclude water management plans,regional vegetation managementplans, and fisheries managementplans. There would be regularreporting between the Governmentand communities on the extent towhich the plans are being effective inachieving their objectives. In this waythere would be more accountability tocommunities to ensure that all effortsand investments are best placed todeliver on results.

A Tonle Sap basin blueprint wouldincorporate and integrate individualnatural resource management plans. Itwould set priorities for the basin as awhole, consistent with national andprovincial policy, and in line with thespecific areas for action promoted byADB’s water policy. It would be theway in which communities and theGovernment can reconcile competingdemands on natural resources andbalance long-term environmentaloutcomes and social and economicaspirations.

Ideally, responsibility for prepa-ration of a basin blueprint is given toa basin management organizationconstituted to take on this role or toplay a major part in it. Such organiza-tions transcend administrative boun-daries and are best placed to under-stand the implications of competingor conflicting use of a basin’s totalresources. A basin management orga-nization can also be the coordinating

Institutions governing land,water, and biotic resourcesrarely represent the completerange of stakeholders in the useof these resources



mechanism for externally fundedactivities across the basin.

Operational Program

CORE AREAS OF INTERVENTIONRural Development and theRural Development and theRural Development and theRural Development and theRural Development and theEnvironment. Environment. Environment. Environment. Environment. While much has beendone in recent years to develop animproved understanding of themultiple dimensions of poverty in therural areas of Cambodia, thelivelihoods of the communities in theTonle Sap basin—particularly thosethat most directly depend on the lakeand its immediate surrounds—presentan exceptional level of complexity.The relationships between riceproduction and fishing, the massiveseasonal movement of peoplebetween the lake and its lowercatchment areas, issues of access tocommon property resources, andtrade patterns in aquatic resources

must be better understood to comeup with both relevant and appropriateinterventions. Much also needs to belearned about the breeding,sustainable extraction rates, andmigratory patterns of the fish takenfrom the lake.

The livelihoods of the Tonle Sapbasin communities entirely dependon a unique hydrological regime thatis under threat from a wide range ofstructures already built or plannedboth within and outside of Cambodia.If livelihoods are to be preserved,much more needs to be known aboutthe influence of such structures.The overall process of developingthe basin should be founded onexpansion of the knowledge base.

The majority of the Tonle Sappopulation lives on the lake and inthe seasonally flooded areas andlower lying catchments. Much needsto be done to improve and ensurelivelihood sustainability if

communities there are to be liftedfrom poverty. It is necessary torecognize their current assets and takea positive approach toward buildingon them.

Under the strategy, specificinterventions may include• investing in irrigation and

research and extension,• enhancing fish stocks in the lake

and rice fields,• improving the rural and primary

road network to connect villageswith markets,

• providing affordable rural electricsupplies,

• developing alternativelivelihoods,

• promoting small and mediumenterprises,

• strengthening the legalenvironment, including land titlesand equitable access to commonproperty resources,

• promoting the status of women in


StrategicAgenda

Core Area of Intervention

Cross Impact Strategy Matrix

Crosscutting Theme

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RuralDevelopment

and theEnvironment

HumanDevelopment

Governance The PrivateSector in

Development

VulnerableGroups

ResourceCooperation

Pro-poor,Sustainable

Economic Growth

Managementof Natural

Resourcesand the

Environment


the agricultural sector,• increasing the efficiency of both

input and output markets forfarmers and provision of creditfacilities, and

• reducing the vulnerability of ruralcommunities to natural disasters.None of the measures that might

be introduced to improve the liveli-hoods of the Tonle Sap communitiescan be effective or sustainable withoutaddressing the overall environmentalmanagement of the basin. Protectionof the watershed, particularly theforested upper catchments, is essentialto livelihood sustainability.

Under the strategy, specificinterventions may, therefore, beattributed to measures to improvecatchment management, such as• applying the Forestry Law to

provide a permanent frameworkfor sustainable forestrymanagement,

• rationalizing the forest concessionsystem and delineating permanentforest estates,

• enhancing forest productivity,• developing community forestry

and land-use planning, with long-term tenure rights to localcommunities and indigenouspeoples,

• developing alternative livelihoodsystems for communities whosecurrent activities are incompatiblewith environment conservation,and

• providing alternative energysources and more efficient use ofexisting sources.The mitigation of environmental

threats, such as pollution of the lakearising from increased use ofpersistent organic pollutants and fromhuman habitations would also besupported.

The strategy recognizes thatinterventions in rural developmentand the environment require anappropriate legal and institutionalframework. In particular, the TonleSap basin must be managed as anentity but that management must begenuinely representative of allstakeholder interests and must

include effective mechanisms for theexchange of information and views.Resource management is multilayeredand must embrace the lowest strata ofgovernance, such as Village Develop-ment Committees, Village Administra-tive Groups, and demand-based orga-nizations as well as providing for anintegrated basin planning approach.

ADB would support the Govern-ment’s efforts to decentralize, withparticular emphasis on buildingcommunity-based natural resourcemanagement systems, and wouldassist in examining appropriateorganizational structures forintegrated basin management.Support to the ongoing improvementof the regulatory and managementframework for inland fisheries,particularly community fisheries,would continue.

Human Development.Human Development.Human Development.Human Development.Human Development. The strategy’sinterventions in the core area of ruraldevelopment and the environment,which are based on enhancing thenatural and physical assets of thepeople living in the Tonle Sap basin,can only be effective if they areunderpinned by the development oftheir human assets, particularlythrough improvements in health andeducation.

Poor education and high rates ofadult illiteracy in rural areas constrainhuman development. This situationhas been particularly severe in theTonle Sap basin, where investment ineducation remains low. Education isfundamental to poverty reduction.People without literacy or numeracyskills have little opportunity toimprove their economic status or evento participate fully in society. In theTonle Sap basin, community-based

natural resource management is beingemphasized, and it is important thatall members of society be on an equalfooting. This applies in particular towomen who, despite heading a highproportion of households, haveliteracy levels lower than those ofmen.

The Government aims to improveeducation. Its Education SectorSupport Program, 2001–2005 iscommitted to• increasing access to educational

services of improved quality andinternal efficiency, particularly forthe poor and vulnerable;

• expanding enrollment in basiceducation to all children byproviding additional classrooms,teaching materials, and teachers;

• reducing inequality in educationby providing targeted scholarshipsfor vulnerable groups, includingindigenous groups and girls inprimary school; and

• promoting nonformal educationand technical vocationaleducation and training.ADB would address these broad

objectives in the Tonle Sap basin,providing both targeted andmultisectoral support in view of thebasin’s special circumstances. Inaddition to tackling gender-basedinequality in education, it would alsoconsider the Tonle Sap basin’scultural and geographical diversityand the problems associated withlarge seasonal movements of people.Given the history of successfulcooperation with nongovernmentorganizations, they would beconsidered key partners.

Ill health keeps the poor inpoverty, reduces their ability toproduce food or earn money, and


“

Department of Fisheries, National Fish Day, 1 July 2003

“ Natural resource protectionis an obligation for all

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15ADB MEKONG DEPARTMENT 15ADB MEKONG DEPARTMENT

leads them into indebtedness. Majorhealth shocks often result in the saleof land and other assets, and reducefurther the ability to cope. Women aregenerally most prone to ill healthgiven the stress of childbirth andraising children. In the Tonle Sapbasin, waterborne and water-relateddiseases associated with lack ofsanitation and safe drinking water,e.g., cholera, diarrhea, and malaria,are also endemic and cause morbidity,particularly among children.

Interventions to improve healthin the Tonle Sap basin would supportthe objectives of Cambodia’s HealthSector Strategic Plan, 2003–2007which commits the Government to• increasing health financing,• widening coverage through

improvements in the publichealth system and public-privatepartnerships,

• developing the institutionalframework,

• improving the quality of sectorservices,

• expanding activities to preventHIV/AIDS, and

• building health care skills.This is expected to step up

achievement of the United NationsMillennium Declaration of September2000, with its key focus on health.

In the Tonle Sap basin, particularattention would be given to ensuringaccess to clean water and sanitationfor the floating and mobile communi-ties on and around the lake, as wellas to meeting their special needs forhealth services. Throughout, ADBwould again build on past successesin cooperation with nongovernmentorganizations: history shows that thequality and coverage of health servicesis better, by almost any measure,when such organizations arecontracted to deliver them.

CROSSCUTTING THEMESVVVVVulnerable Groups. ulnerable Groups. ulnerable Groups. ulnerable Groups. ulnerable Groups. Vulnerablegroups include widows and femaleheads of households, the physicallyand mentally disabled, the orphaned,landless, and the aged with no youngto support them. Many demobilized

soldiers also seek to reintegratecommunities.

The burden of poverty has fallendisproportionately on women,particularly when they headhouseholds or have no male labor.Since they play a vital role inagriculture and an even greater rolein fisheries, poverty cannot bereduced unless policies and programsaddress the situation of women.

Therefore, the strategy intends,in particular, to reduce gender-baseddisparities and improve gender equityin credit, health, education, access tonatural resources, socioeconomic andpolitical empowerment, and legalprotection. The Tonle Sap also has asensitive ethnic dimension, and inter-ventions would seek to ensure thatthe interests of the Vietnamese andCham minorities are considered.

Governance. Governance. Governance. Governance. Governance. Poor governanceconstrains, retards, and distortsdevelopment and has a disproportio-nate impact on the weaker sections ofsociety. The most vulnerable victims ofinefficient and inadequate socialsector spending and ill-designedsocial sector programs are the poor.Inaccessible, unpredictable, andinefficient legal systems alsodiscriminate against them. Similarly,corruption often affects the weakestgroups in society the most.

To improve governance, it isnecessary to empower communities,individuals, and groups so that theycan participate in decisions that affecttheir lives and interests.

In Cambodia, the trend towardgreater devolution of governmentservices and participation bystakeholders offers the promise ofmore inclusive development.Therefore, the strategy would supportCambodia’s Governance Action Plan,2001 through deconcentration anddecentralization initiatives andincorporation of key legislationgoverning security of public access tonatural resources.

Resource Cooperation.Resource Cooperation.Resource Cooperation.Resource Cooperation.Resource Cooperation. Regionalcooperation around natural resource

issues in the Mekong River basin hasbeen tempered by the mixedmotivations of individual countries.Ultimately, however, it is theknowledge and appreciation ofthe Mekong River basin’s naturalwealth that will drive regionalgovernance efforts to sustain itshealth for the good of all people.

Many see issues such as sharedwaters as the first vehicle forcooperation that can be extended intoother areas. The strategy takes a basin-wide approach and would encourageemergence of a Mekong basin vision.To this intent, it would disseminateknowledge as widely as possible andcontribute to greater recognition ofthe importance of water and relatednatural resources and the need todevelop them in sustainable ways.Whenever possible, interventionswould build on the Mekong RiverCommission’s efforts to ensureharmonious cooperation among itsfour signatory countries.

The Private Sector in Development.The Private Sector in Development.The Private Sector in Development.The Private Sector in Development.The Private Sector in Development.The private sector can play a key rolein reducing poverty by providinggrowth opportunities and creatingemployment. In the Tonle Sap basin,significant private sector growthhas taken place in the tourism sectorover the past few years and thistrend is expected to continue.

Additional opportunities may existin pro-poor, value-adding privatesector activities to develop naturalresources. The strategy would supportcreation of small and mediumenterprises (including micro-enterprises). In parallel, it wouldfoster the legal environment, marketinformation systems, and financialservices required.

Acknowledgement

Maria Victoria Caramés,Tatiana Gallego-Lizon, andKeech Hidalgo helped designthis brochure.


For more information on the Tonle Sap Initiative, contact

C.R. Rajendran, DirectorOlivier Serrat, Senior Project Economist

Agriculture, Environment, and Natural Resources DivisionMekong DepartmentAsian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City 1550, PhilippinesTel (632) 632-6175Fax (632) 636-2187E-mail [email protected]/Projects/Tonle_Sap/

© 2004 Asian Development Bank

This publication was prepared by staff and consultants of the Asian Development Bank. The analyses and assessments

contained herein do not necessarily reflect the views of the Asian Development Bank, or its Board of Directors, or the

governments its members represent. The Asian Development Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data

included in this publication and accepts no responsibility for any consequences of their use. November 2004

Shyam Bajpai, Country DirectorPaulin Van Im, Project Implementation/Program Officer

Cambodia Resident Mission93/95 Preah Norodom Blvd.Sangkat Boeung RaingKhan Daun Penh, CambodiaP.O. Box 2436Tel (855-23) 215 805, 215 806Fax (855-23) 215 807E-mail [email protected]/CARM

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future solutions now - the tonle sap initiative november 2004

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ill health

health services

high health careexpenditure

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