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FAT SUBSTITUTING IN SOUR CREAM CHICKEN ENCHILADAS
A Research Paper
Submitted to Cassondra Strawser, MS, RD and Jodie Seybold, MS, RD
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for
FDNT 362 Experimental Foods
Rachel Enck
Indiana University of Pennsylvania
April 25, 2011
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Title: Fat Substituting In Sour Cream Chicken Enchiladas
Author: Rachel Enck
Instructors: Cassondra Strawser, MS, RD
Jodie Seybold, MS, RD
The purpose of this experiment was to determine the effect of substituting high fat sour
cream with fat free or lower fat alternatives including fat free sour cream, fat free Greek yogurt,
and silken tofu in sour cream chicken enchiladas in order to accompany people with
cardiovascular disease with a focus on atherosclerosis, a common but preventable disease. The
criteria that were measured to determine the effect of these fat substitutions on the final product
included: saltiness, creaminess, and sourness which were measured subjectively by a sensory
panel that consisted of 5 students from the FDNT 362 Experimental Foods class, who rotated
from week to week. In addition, the viscosity of the filling in the sour cream chicken enchiladas
made with the different variables was measured objectively using a cone penetrometer and a line
spread test. The results conclude that the lower fat alternatives used in the experiment, namely
the fat free sour cream, the fat free Greek yogurt, and the silken tofu, make acceptable substitutes
for sour cream in sour cream chicken enchiladas. Additional research is needed to compare other
factors that play a role in the function of sour cream in sour cream chicken enchiladas and the
effect that these substitutes have in the overall product.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my professors, Cassondra Strawser and Jodie Seybold, who tirelessly,
sympathetically, and understandingly helped me in developing my experiment and research
paper for this class. Together, they have made an excellent team in guiding me toward
completing this project.
I would also like to thank the students from the FDNT 362 Experimental Foods class who
helped with subjectively evaluating my recipe. It is with their contributions that I was able to
evaluate differences that fat substitutions make in sour cream chicken enchiladas.
Further thanks will be given to everyone working in the field of food and nutrition,
culinary arts, and food sciences who work toward creating healthier food alternatives for disease
prevention as well as for people struggling with diet related disease.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I: THE PROBLEM.....................................................................................7
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8
9
10
Research Statement..........................................................................................11
Research Questions..........................................................................................11
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE....................................................12
Introduction......................................................................................................12
Atherosclerosis and Fat.....................................................................................12
The Need for Fat Substitutions.........................................................................13
Dairy is a Prominent Source of Fat in the Diet.................................................14
High Fat Dairy Products...................................................................................14
Desired Characteristics in High Fat Dairy Products ........................................15
The Effect of Fat Substitutes on Dairy Products..............................................16
Fat free Sour Cream as a Fat Substitute............................................................17
Yogurt as a Fat Substitute.................................................................................18
Tofu as a Fat Substitute.....................................................................................19
Conclusion........................................................................................................19
CHAPTER III: METHODS........................................................................................20
Introduction.......................................................................................................20
Trial Week........................................................................................................20
Time Span.........................................................................................................20
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Lab Attire..........................................................................................................21
Materials...........................................................................................................21
Pre-weighing.....................................................................................................23
Recipe Preparation............................................................................................25
Gathering Materials for Testing........................................................................27
Labeling............................................................................................................28
Panelists............................................................................................................29
Scorecards.........................................................................................................30
Line Spread Test...............................................................................................31
Cone Penetrometer Test....................................................................................32
Data Analysis....................................................................................................33
Conclusion........................................................................................................33
CHAPTER IV: RESULTS..........................................................................................34
Introduction.......................................................................................................34
Saltiness............................................................................................................35
Sourness............................................................................................................36
Creaminess........................................................................................................37
Standard Deviation............................................................................................38
Viscosity – Cone Penetrometer.........................................................................40
Viscosity – Line Spread Test............................................................................41
Significance.......................................................................................................42
Conclusion........................................................................................................43
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION...................................................................................44
CHAPTER VI: DISCUSSION...................................................................................45
Introduction.......................................................................................................45
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Limitations of the Study....................................................................................45
Confounding Variables.....................................................................................46
Recommendations for Future Research............................................................47
Conclusion........................................................................................................48
REFERENCES............................................................................................................49
APPENDICES.............................................................................................................52
Appendix A – Nutrient Analyses Info.........................................................................52
Appendix B – Original Recipe.....................................................................................64
Appendix C – Market Order........................................................................................65
Appendix D – SPSS Output.........................................................................................66
Appendix E – Pictures.................................................................................................67
a. Sour Cream Chicken Enchilada Filling Made with Tofu…………………67
b. Sour Cream Chicken Enchilada Filling Made with Fat Free Sour Cream...68
c. Sour Cream Chicken Enchilada Filling Made with Sour Cream…………. 69
d. Sour Cream Chicken Enchilada Filling Made with Fat Free Greek Yogurt.70
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CHAPTER I: THE PROBLEM
Introduction
According to the National Cancer Institute, 3 out of 4 Americans die from a disease that
is diet related (2011). To resolve this misfortune, research is being done to improve and modify
foods in the diet for the prevention and treatment of diseases, allergies or intolerances, which is
the purpose of the FDNT 362 experimental foods class. For this class, students were required to
choose from a list of diet-related diseases in order to modify a recipe of their choice from the
“Good Housekeeping Illustrated Cookbook Revised and Expanded Edition.” In order to modify
their recipes, students had to choose a single ingredient linked to a diet related disease, allergy or
intolerance and find three different substitutions that would meet the requirement for being both
acceptable in preventing or treating the diet related disease chosen as well as appropriate for
meeting the functions of the missing ingredient in the recipe that needed to be substituted. The
following describes the sequence of events taken in coming to the conclusion of choosing fat
substituting in sour cream chicken enchiladas for this experiment.
Choosing a Disease
Before choosing a recipe, it was necessary to look into diseases, allergies or intolerances that
would require one to modify a recipe in order to accommodate that disease. One of the diseases
mentioned in class was Cardiovascular Disease, which are both a very common disease as well
as one that is closely tied to one’s diet. Furthermore, it is also a disease that a great deal can be
done with since it is not limited to a single factor such as Celiac disease is to gluten or lactose
intolerance is to lactose. Therefore, the possibility of recipes that can be selected for
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cardiovascular disease would be more numerous than other diseases like Celiac disease or
lactose intolerance. For example, instead of being limited to recipes that have gluten for Celiac
disease or being limited to recipes that have lactose for lactose intolerance, which would
substantially limit ones availability for choosing recipes, cardiovascular disease could include
any recipe that is low in fiber, high in sodium, high in saturated or trans-fat, or that is high in
simple sugars. These criteria would include almost any recipe in the book “Good Housekeeping
Illustrated Cookbook Revised and Expanded Edition,” which the students of the FDNT 362
Experimental Foods class were required to find a recipe in. Potential goals for substituting
ingredients that could be used in the original recipe include: (1) Increasing soluble fiber which
may lower serum cholesterol levels, (2) lowering sodium amounts which may help to lower
blood pressure, (3) decreasing saturated or trans-fat intake which may decrease arterial plaque,
and (4) decreasing simple sugar which complies with lowered triglyceride levels would all be.
Additionally, it is now 2011 and there are many substitutes commonly used in products
that can now be easily substituted for others and there are also plenty of ingredients that can be
added to recipes which can help fight against cardiovascular disease. For example, there are fat
free version’s made in almost every popular high fat American favorite constituting dips, fillings,
pies, cookies, cakes, chips, casseroles, smoothies, toppings and other popular foods, which is
great due to the fact that cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in America (CDC,
2011). Fortunately, there is a large base of research to stand on and lots of information for both
treatment and prevention of cardiovascular disease through the elements of one’s diet.
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Choosing an Ingredient to Substitute
Since modifying single ingredients would be the key to the experiment, it would be
useful to list ingredients used in the original recipe which would contribute to cardiovascular
disease the most; namely high sodium, high amounts of simple sugars, or high fat foods. Since
the high fat content in foods is a considerably greater contributor to cardiovascular disease than
the high sugar or salt constituents, the decision was made to focus on ingredients containing high
amounts of fat. Possibilities for high fat ingredients in consideration included: various cheeses
(especially cream cheese), whole milk or derivatives from whole milk (like butter, and various
creams, namely sour cream) or high fat meats; generally, a focus on the animal components of a
food. Knowing that sour cream has a high fat content, cholesterol content, and sodium content, it
was understood that this would be one of the most useful ingredients for altering in order to
prevent cardiovascular disease. Despite the fact that sour cream is high in all of these
components, the component of the sour cream which will be paid special attention to for altering
was the high fat content. Therefore, in order to alter the recipe successfully for someone who
does in fact have cardiovascular disease or who is at risk for this disease, all of the substitutes
should have a lower fat content compared to the control recipe. Another important factor in
deciding which food item should be altered would, of course, be figuring out what items of food
can be used in altering that ingredient. Luckily, sour cream has quite a few. Examples of
substitutes that could be used to replace sour cream in a recipe include: silken tofu, fat free Greek
yogurt, and fat free sour cream.
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Choosing a Recipe
The next step, after deciding which ingredient in the recipe needed to be substituted, was
finding out a recipe that included the ingredient that needed substitution, which for this
experiment was sour cream. This method seemed to be easier than doing it the other way; that is,
finding a recipe first and then deciding which ingredient in the recipe to alter because it would
save the time one would use to have to look through endless recipes while thinking about endless
possibilities for an endless list of ingredients and then trying to determine if they contributed
enough to the overall recipe that altering them would make a significant difference in treating an
endless list of diseases. While choosing possible recipes that could be used for this experiment, it
was useful to look through the glossary of the “Good Housekeeping Illustrated Cookbook
Revised and Expanded Edition” by ingredient. The recipe for sour cream chicken enchiladas was
chosen on page 431 because it was delicious, different, easy to manipulate and sour cream
contributed to a big part of the overall product.
Conclusion
Sour cream chicken enchiladas make a great recipe for modifying in the prevention of
cardiovascular disease, and for experimenting in the use of fat substitutes. Sour Cream, which is
in the title of the recipe itself, makes up a significant part of the recipe and helps hold and blend
the filling together. Having a high fat content, cholesterol content, and sodium content sour
cream would be a great ingredient for substituting in recipes for preventing and treating disease,
such as cardiovascular disease. Being that there are several healthy low fat foods that hold
similar characteristics to sour cream itself, fat substituting in sour cream chicken enchiladas
would be a great experiment to conduct for the class FDNT 362 Experimental Foods.
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Research Statement
The purpose of this experiment is to determine the effect of replacing sour cream with
low(er) fat substitutes on the saltiness, creaminess, sourness and viscosity for the filling and
topping in sour cream chicken enchiladas.
Research Questions
1. Which filling used in the sour cream chicken enchiladas will be the most viscous: sour cream,
fat free sour cream, fat free Greek yogurt or silken tofu?
2. Which filling used in the sour cream chicken enchiladas will be the most sour: sour cream, fat
free sour cream, fat free Greek yogurt or silken tofu?
3. Which filling used in the sour cream chicken enchiladas will be the creamiest: sour cream, fat
free sour cream, fat free Greek yogurt or silken tofu?
4. Which filling used in the sour cream chicken enchiladas will be the saltiest: sour cream, fat
free sour cream, fat free Greek yogurt or silken tofu?
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CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Introduction
Sour cream chicken enchiladas, with their creamy texture and balance of spicy and sour
flavors, are a prized recipe in many kitchens. Sour cream chicken enchiladas are just one of
many well loved recipes that contain sour cream in its ingredient list. Unfortunately, however,
sour cream contains 15 to 20 percent fat, half of which is saturated fat, an amount that is hard to
ignore (Ian, 2011); especially when cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in
America (CDC, 2011). Since consuming foods with a high amount of saturated fat sets a person
at increased risk for cardiovascular disease (Anderson, Rolls, & Steffen, 1997, p. 222), being
able to replace sour cream in a recipe with a comparable low fat alternative will help to maintain
the popularity of sour cream chicken enchiladas while also protecting people from a disease that
claims 1 million of Americans lives a year (CDC, 2011).
Atherosclerosis and Fat
There are many diseases associated with overconsumption of saturated fat over healthier
fats. One of these examples is cardiovascular disease which is the most common cause of death
in the United States (CDC, 2011). The biggest risk factor for cardiovascular disease is a more
specific disease known as atherosclerosis (Mahan & Escott-Stump, 2007, p. 834).
Atherosclerosis is an advanced form of arteriosclerosis, which is a condition characterized by
toughened areas clogged by plaques that cause the arteries to become hard (Leas, 2008, p. 88).
Fat plays its role on atherosclerosis through the initiation of endothelial dysfunction by
increasing the chance for plaques to form (Mahan & Escott-Stump, 2007, p. 834). Endothelial
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dysfunction is defined on page 833 as "impaired function of endothelial cells lining the arteries
that results in abnormalities in vasomotor control, fibrinolysis and thrombosis, inflammatory
response and maintenance of volume and electrolytes in intravascular and extravascular spaces
(Mahan & Escott-Stump, 2007)”. Through endothelial dysfunction, atherosclerosis can increase
the risk of heart attacks, stroke, etc. (Mahan & Escott-Stump, 2007, p. 835). One of the factors
that cause enthothelial dysfunction, which initiates atherosclerosis, would be a diet high in
saturated fat (Mahan & Escott-Stump, 2007, p. 835). The relationship to atherosclerosis and a
high saturated fat intake is so strong that the American Heart Association told time magazine that
“if everyone went along with the low fat idea we’d have atherosclerosis conquered by the year
2006” (Leas, 2008, p88). It is no question that low fat diets appear to be effective in preventing
heart disease and in reversing atherosclerosis (Anderson, Rolls, & Steffen, 1997, p. 222).
The Need for Fat Substitutions
Because modifying the amount of saturated fat in a diet will help decrease the risk of or
reverse cardiovascular disease by decreasing the risk of atherosclerosis through endothelial
dysfunction which is the most common cause of cardiovascular disease and related mortality as
well as a major cause of angina, heart attack and sudden death the need for creating fat
substitutes is important in maintaining a healthy population that craves high fat foods. Therefore,
reducing saturated fat intake will play a significant role in reducing mortality especially in
regards to atherosclerosis in cardiovascular disease through endothelial dysfunction. According
to Anderson, Rolls, & Steffen, “The data are very strong that macronutrient substitution for fat
results in lipid lowering and an elevation in LDL cholesterol is considered to be one of the major
risk factors for the development of atherosclerosis (1997, p. 221)”. Among these data, “two early
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primary prevention trials…showed that lipid lowering in patients with cardiovascular disease has
been shown recently to reduce mortality from heart disease” (Anderson, Rolls, & Steffen, 1997,
p. 222).
Dairy is a Prominent Source of Fat in the Diet
Dairy products are major contributors of saturated fat in the diet. This fact may be partly
because “Consumers have heard the message that animal fat is bad and the consumption of red
meat, whole milk, butter and eggs has decreased. Paradoxically, however, the consumption of
heavy cream, cheese, frozen desserts, full fat yogurt and vegetable oil has increased” (Anderson,
G.H., Rolls, B. J., & Steffen, D. G. , 1997, p. 4). In other words, people may be less likely to
associate dairy foods such as sour cream as an animal product and therefore in attempts to avoid
animal products for reducing saturated fat intake people are consuming saturated fat through
dairy products in proportionately higher amount in their overall diet compared to more obvious
meat sources like bacon as a significant source of saturated fat. This information is confirmed by
Michael Hutjens, writer for the University of Illinois who is quoted as saying “Americans are
consuming more cream, sour cream, ice cream, cottage cheese, yogurt and flavored milk”
(2005). Therefore, being able to replace dairy foods with fat free versions can make a significant
impact in the prevention of Atherosclerosis, and thus CHD and thus death in general.
High Fat Dairy Products
In order to reduce saturated fat intake it is useful to look at high fat ingredients in foods,
ingredients which disproportionately contribute to a high fat recipe and remove them by
substituting similar ingredients which will give a similar function to the recipe. Being that dairy
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consumption is increasing, it would be interesting to look at examples of high fat dairy products
which could be substituted into low fat versions. Various cheeses, especially cream cheese,
whole milk or derivatives from whole milk like butter, and various creams, namely sour cream
are all excellent examples of high fat dairy foods that can be replaced with low fat or reduced fat
versions.
Desired Characteristics in High Fat Dairy Products
Fat plays an important role in making high fat dairy foods desirable. When fat is present
both the excellence of eating and the deliciousness of dining increases (Padley, Podmore, Brun,
Burt, & Nicols, 1985, p. 183). By imparting a pleasing texture to food, fat increases the
lusciousness of food and thus makes such foods more enjoyable and satisfying (WHO, 1978, p.
7). Fats influence textural characteristics in several different ways, depending on the type of fat
examined and the kind of recipe that the fat is used in (McWilliams, p. 267). The functional
characteristics that fat accomplishes further influence the textural characteristics of the food that
the fat is used in. As fat is being baked, for example, it accomplishes several different chemical
functions which include: tenderizing, leavening, aiding in moisture retention, and creating a
flaky or crumbly texture. In addition, fat plays other important roles in cooking which include:
transferring heat, maintaining heat, emulsifying or thickening sauces, and creating a crisp texture
from frying (CIA, 2006). In the case of high fat dairy foods, fat creates a “silky mouth feel or
texture” which is considered desirable in such foods as sour cream, ice-cream, cream cheese and
yogurt (CIA, 2006).
In addition to texture, fats also assist in giving fried and baked foods a pleasing color on
their surface (McWilliams, p. 267). More specifically, fat provides an appealing visual element
when a food appears to be moist, creamy, fluffy, or shiny, among other things (CIA, 2006).
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Most importantly, fats establish a rich flavor when incorporated into a wide variety of
food products, including high fat dairy products and provide unique flavor qualities
(McWilliams, p. 267). Fats ability to provide unique flavor qualities can be explained both
through the ability of fat to carry and blend with other flavors present in different foods, and also
the ability of fat to carry important fat-soluble flavor compounds and nutrients (CIA, 2006).
The Effect of Fat Substitutes on Dairy Products
One of the most active areas of food research recently has been the development of fat
replacers that can mimic the desired qualities contributed by fat (McWilliams, p. 273). In the
1940s and early 1950s, cream products first became a natural target for substitution (Jacobson &
Outlaw, 1995, p. 5). There is no question that manufacturers are well able to find fat substitutes,
however, the real question is, “are these as palatable or as acceptable to the average consumer as
the normal product (Padley, Podmore, Brun, Burt, & Nicols, 1985, p. 183)?”
When taking the fat away from a product it is important to note the changes that take
place in that product, and these changes can be further described and explained by going back to
the role that fat has in that food.
For example, fat provides a richness of flavor when used in a variety of food products
(McWilliams, p. 267), which could mean that lower fat products may have a dull flavor.
Furthermore, because fat is hydrophobic, low fat food may have a greater moisture content due
to the reduction in fat “which is more conductive to the growth of natural bacteria (Brown, A. C.,
2007, p. 211).” Thus, having high moisture content can produce compounds yielding flavors that
are brothy, meaty, and bitter (Brown, A. C., 2007, p. 211). Additionally, “removing fat in a
product can result in either no flavor or off-flavors because fat helps to masks certain off-flavors
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such as the bitter compounds produced from protein breakdown; which is detected when fat is
reduced” (Brown, A. C., 2007, p. 211). In other words, bitter and sour substances are more
noticeable in low-fat foods because those foods do not contain fat which helps to mask those
flavors. Another important role that fat plays in flavor can include effects from flavors from any
fat soluble flavors that may be present that it provides (Marshall, Goff, & Hartel, 2003 p. 73).
Therefore, reducing fat will also reduce any flavors that may be present in that fat. Clearly, fat
plays a big role in contributing to the flavor of a food and there are several problems that can
come about if these fats are taken away. The question is, will fat substitutes do a good enough
job in helping to solve some of these problems?
In addition to flavor, mouth feel is another important characteristic that fat helps to
contribute to in a food. Fat is known for increasing foods smoothness, creaminess, and in some
cases crispiness. Can a fat substitute achieve these desirable textural characteristics?
Fat Free Sour Cream as a Fat Substitute
According to Jessie Shafer, replacing fat free sour cream with regular sour cream can
save 20 calories as well as save 25 calories from fat for every tablespoon used (2008).
Drawbacks with replacing fat free sour cream with regular sour cream, however, would be a
higher price and compromised mouth feel (Shafer, 2008). According to Shafer, the rich, creamy,
and thick texture of sour cream is not paralleled with fat free sour cream which is noticeably less
thick and less rich than regular sour cream; but it is however comparable in regards to
creaminess (2008). Jessie Shafer makes claim that fat free sour cream can be substituted for any
recipe that calls for sour cream. The question is: how successful is it able to do this?
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Yogurt as a Fat Substitute
Because yogurt is fermented milk and sour cream is a fermented cream, yogurt is
naturally lower in fat than sour cream is (Ian, 2011). In addition to naturally being lower in fat
than sour cream, yogurt is also made in fat free versions which would further magnify the
difference in fat content between yogurt and sour cream. Yogurt, like sour cream, is also a
fermented dairy product and thus, due to the fermentation process, also possesses the sour taste
also found in sour cream (Ian, 2011). One difference between the making of sour cream and
yogurt however, would be that yogurt and sour cream are fermented with different bacteria (Ian,
2011). The bacteria used to ferment yogurt includes: Lactobacillus bugaricus, Lactobacillus
lactis, Lactobacillus helveticus, and Streptococcus thermophilus whereas the bacteria used to
ferment sour cream is Streptococcus diacetilactis, Streptococcus lactis, Streptococcus cremoris,
Leuconostoc citrovorum, and Leuconostoc dextranicum (Ian, 2011). As one can see, the bacteria
introduced to make sour cream are quite different from the ones used in yogurt. One question
that could arise when comparing the two fermented dairy products like sour cream and yogurt in
a recipe would be which ingredient produces a sourer product? Being that the sourness in both
yogurt and sour cream is due to the fermentation of bacteria, and that there are different bacteria
fermented in the two dairy products, it would be good to know taste differences, especially in
regard to sourness, between these two ingredients which are commonly substituted against each
other. Also, being that yogurt is fermented milk and sour cream is a fermented cream, yogurt has
sugars present in it from the milk which are not present in the sour cream (Ian, 2011). Does the
sweetness in yogurt also affect other flavors present in the recipes used that contain these
ingredients? For example: sourness and saltiness? For this experiment, differences in sourness
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and saltiness will be measured both in sour cream chicken enchiladas made with sour cream and
also sour cream chicken enchiladas made with yogurt.
Tofu as a Fat Substitute
According to Toni Tipton, tofu can still provide the same silky satisfaction as high fat
dairy products. She further states that “Its mild flavor makes it easy to incorporate in recipes as a
replacement for higher fat dairy products (Tipton, 1989).” Not everyone agrees. According to
Susan Mills-Gray, using tofu to replace fat gives the product a more rubbery rather than creamy
texture and it can give off a "beany" flavor which could be detrimental in some recipes (n.d.).
Silky or rubbery, mild or “beany”, using tofu as a possible alternative for sour cream in sour
cream chicken enchiladas is worth a try.
Conclusion
While cardiovascular disease continues to be the leading cause of death in the United
States (CDC, 2011), more research is being done in creating low fat alternatives in high fat foods
(McWilliams, p. 273). This research is especially important because association between the
intake of saturated fat and cardiovascular disease has been well documented in research
(Anderson, Rolls, & Steffen, 1997, p. 222). One area in fat substitution research is with the use
of high fat dairy foods like sour cream, which are growing in popularity (Anderson, G.H., Rolls,
B. J., & Steffen, D. G. , 1997, p. 4). This research has great relevance because there are endless
possibilities for substituting in high fat dairy products like sour cream with lower fat alternatives.
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CHAPTER III: METHODS
Introduction
Altering recipes using sour cream (a high fat dairy product), with low fat dairy foods
(including fat free sour cream, fat free Greek yogurt, and silken tofu) is a great way to have
firsthand experience in learning about the effect that substituting low fat dairy foods with high
fat dairy foods has on the creaminess, sourness and saltiness of sour cream chicken enchiladas.
More generally speaking, this experiment will also help in learning how well fat substitutes can
mimic the ingredients that they are supposed to be replacing.
Trial Week
The purpose of having a trial week was to determine if any changes needed to be made in
the preparation, testing, or evaluation in the experimental process before actual data was
calculated for the results. Basically, trial week was the time to practice performing the
experiment without getting punished for making mistakes.
Time Span
This experiment lasted 4 weeks long (including trial week) and included 4 separate trials
which included trial 1 or trial week which took place on February 10, 2011, trial 2 which took
place on February 17, 2011, trial 3 which took place on February 24, 2011, and the final trial or
trial 4 which took place at March 3, 2011. Data was collected for each week excluding trial
week. In order to save time during lab period, many of the students signed up to come to class an
hour early to set up, which means instead of coming at 3:30pm which was when the usual class
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period was scheduled for, the students came at 2:30 pm or even earlier. At arrival, Professor
Seybold allowed the students to get to work right away.
Laboratory Attire
Each student was required to dress in specific attire during the experimental process.
Rules regarding the laboratory attire which the students participating in the experiment had to
follow included: no earrings, face piercings, rings, necklaces, bracelets, and other jewelry worn
on the hands and face, clean, short fingernails with no fingernail polish or acrylic nails, as well as
no exposed skin between the neck and feet. This was done to ensure professionalism in the
kitchen and also to protect the students from getting injured, losing their valuable jewelry and
also for sanitation purposes.
In addition to the prohibition of items used in the laboratory, the uniform that had to be
worn by students working in the kitchen included: a white chef’s coat or white apron which had
to be clean and pressed, a white crew neck T-shirt which had to be clean and worn loosely, black
pants which could either be cotton or twill, either a IUP white baseball cap which was specified
during lab or a hair net, and also clean, skid proof, white or black all-leather shoes. If the
experimental chef’s hair was not able to be pulled all the way back, bobby pins were also
included as part of the uniform so that hair would not get inside of the foods being made, for
sanitation purposes.
Materials
Before starting on the recipe itself, it was important to have all of the ingredients in the
recipe gathered which include: sour cream, fat free sour cream, fat free Greek yogurt, silken tofu,
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canned boned chicken, canned mushroom stems and pieces, canned green chilies, onion flakes,
chili powder, salt, garlic powder, pepper, salad oil, corn tortillas, and shredded cheddar cheese
(Levine, E, 1989, pg 332). If one of these ingredients was missing, it was reported to the
professor right away so that the ingredient(s) would be picked up at Martin’s, which was the
grocery where all of the ingredients for the experiment were bought through IUP’s (Indiana
University of Pennsylvania) funding.
In addition to having to collect the correct amounts of all of the ingredients in the recipe
that would be needed, it was also vital to make sure that all of the equipment needed for the
recipe was there as well. The equipment needed for this experiment included: an oven and stove
top for heating purposes, four 13" by 9" glass baking pans (the students were directed to use
glass baking pans because glass baking pans do not affect the flavor like other pans), 1 8-inch
skillets to fry the tortillas, two larger skillets to mix the ingredients for the filling the enchiladas,
2 wooden spoons to stir the ingredients in the filling together, a can opener to open up the canned
ingredients, scissors to open the silken soft tofu, several bowls to hold all of the measured
ingredients until they were needed, measuring devices to measure out ¼ of the filling mixture
and 1 cup of the sour cream to be separated from the filling and topping, spoons to take the
ingredients out of their containers and into the skillets, a timer to measure how long the sour
cream chicken enchiladas were being baked in the oven, masking tape to indicate which pan
contains what variable, oven mitts for taking the pans out of the oven, and forks and knives to
take the finished product out of the pans and into the plates for serving to the panelists (Levine,
E, 1989, pg 332).
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Pre-weighing
Once all of the ingredients for the recipe were gathered, they had to be pre-measured. The
ingredients that were premeasured and put into the bowls included the sour cream, fat free sour
cream, fat free Greek yogurt, silken tofu, canned boned chicken, canned mushroom stems and
pieces, canned green chilies, onion flakes, chili powder, salt, garlic powder, pepper, and
shredded cheddar cheese. In other words, all of the ingredients were pre-measured except for the
salad oil and corn tortillas. It is also important to note that all of the ingredients were measured in
metric units by weighing instead of by being measured volumetrically, in order to get more
accurate measurements. US measurements of ingredients, as noted in the recipe, converted to
metric units to be used for weighing is noted below in table one.
Table 1
US Measurements of Ingredients
Converted to metric units
Ingredient US Measurement
Metric conversion
Sour Cream 3.5 cups 402.5 g
Fat Free Sour Cream 3.5 cups 402.5 g
FAGE, Fat Free Greek Yogurt 3.5 cups 392.57 g
MORI-NU, Tofu, silken, soft 3.5 cups 392.57 g
Cheddar Cheese, shredded 0.33 pound 75.6 g
Chicken, canned, meat only, with broth
15 ounce 213 g
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Canned Mushroom stems & pieces 8 ounce 113.40 g
De-hydrated Onion Flakes 0.33 teaspoon 9.38 g
Salad Oil Not given Not given
Corn Tortillas 12 items 12 items
Salt 0.5 teaspoon 1.5 g
Pepper 0.25 teaspoon 0.558 g
Spices, chili powder 1 teaspoon 1.35 g
Spices, garlic powder 0.5 teaspoon 0.775 g
Green chili powder 0.25 ounce 56.76 g
Once the metric units for each of the ingredients were taken, each of those ingredients
was ready to be weighed in grams. Weighing was accomplished through the use of an electronic
scale where the recordings were rounded off to the nearest hundredth. This was done by putting
containers on the scale, pushing the button that says “TARE” and waiting for "0.00" to show up
on the display screen.
This is done so that the weight of the container would not be counted as part of the
weight of the item that was supposed to be measured (Francis, 2003). Once the scale said "0.00"
on the display screen after the container was put on the scale, meaning that the weight of the
24
container would not be used in the weight of the ingredient that would be measured, the
ingredient that was supposed to be measured was slowly added to the container until the scale
stopped shifting and was sets on the number it was suppose to the most. Once the desired
measurement was the same as that on the display screen, the container with whatever was put
inside of it was taken away from the scale, and the number on the display screen, which was
negative in order to cancel out the weight of the container was put back to zero, and this process
was repeating for measuring the remaining ingredients (Francis, 2003). All of the pre-weighed
ingredients would be put in bowls and plates and set aside to be used later that day while starting
each variation of the recipe. Additionally, ingredients were pre-weighed during the class period
instead of once class started so that the students would have more time to finish and evaluate
each other’s recipes. All of the ingredients were pre-weighed four times each in order to
accompany the 4 separate recipe variations where everything was measured the same for each
recipe except for the three ingredients used to substitute the sour cream, namely the fat free sour
cream, silken tofu and fat free Greek yogurt which would only be measured once each during
each trial. Because how much of each ingredient needed was already measured in bowls and
plates, it was allowable to use a cup to measure out how much sour cream would be needed to
make the filling since the recipe wanted the sour cream to be added to the recipe two different
times, both in the filling and on top of the enchilada before it was put in the oven.
Recipe Preparation
Before making the tortillas, the filling had to be prepared in the pan for filling up the
tortillas. The ingredients needed for the filling part of the enchiladas included: canned chicken,
canned mushroom stems and pieces, canned green chilies, onion flakes, chili powder, salt, garlic
25
powder, and pepper which were already measured out in different sized bowls and plates. Also,
the sour cream, fat free sour cream, fat free Greek yogurt, and silken tofu were also measured in
large bowls both for the filling and for the topping. The only ingredient in the recipe that will be
changed is the sour cream, that way, any change in the recipe could be attributed to the sour
cream alone and it would not be confused with any other variable. Therefore, it would be
possible to make a direct cause effect relationship between the item in the recipe being changed
and the characteristic of that recipe that it is thought to be altered.
Since there was not enough room and also because it would have been difficult to handle
all four pans at the same time, there was just two pans going on at the same time, which was
much easier to manage than four. Therefore, just two variations of the recipe were made at once
and then the other two variations of the recipes were made later. For each week the recipes using
sour cream and fat free sour cream were made first and the recipes using silken tofu and fat free
Greek yogurt were used for the next round after the first two were prepared over the stovetop.
Once all of these ingredients were put into two pans a wooden spoon was used to stir together the
ingredients so it would not scrape the bottom of the pan while the stove top was set to medium
heat.
Once all of the ingredients for the filling were mixed together and warmed, it was time to
get the tortillas ready. Then in an 8-inch skillet over medium-low heat, in about 1/2 inch hot oil,
tortillas were fried one by one for a few seconds on each side until softened. Once the tortillas
were ready, a ¼ volumetric cup was used to take ¼ a cup of the mixture of the filling to be
placed into the tortillas. Once put into the tortillas with both sides folded over the filling and then
placed, seam side down, on the glass baking pan. This was done until there were 6 enchiladas for
each recipe for each variation of the recipe. The leftover filling not put inside of the tortillas was
26
set aside and used for the line spread test and cone penetrometer which will be discussed later.
Once enough filling was set aside for objective testing and also enough was used to fill up the
enchiladas the remaining filling was thrown away. Then, the enchiladas were spread with the
remaining sour cream, and sprinkled with the shredded cheddar cheese.
When all four sour cream chicken enchilada recipes were prepared using all four
variables, the oven was preheated to 450 degrees Fahrenheit, which was indicated on the oven by
the red light coming off. With professor Seybold’s help, the four variations in the recipe sour
cream chicken enchiladas were placed in the oven for 5-10 minutes; just enough to melt the
cheese, with labels using masking tape to indicate what variation of the recipe was in each pan.
Once the sour cream chicken enchiladas looked ready, they were taken out of the ovens all at
once with professor Seybold’s help and placed on a nearby table or countertop ready to be used
for testing.
Gathering Materials for Testing
In addition to the items needed to follow through with the experiment additional items
were needed to both subjectively and objectively evaluate the recipes. Equipment needed for
objectively measuring the sour cream chicken enchiladas included a cone penetrometer as well
as the equipment needed for the line spread test which included line-spread sheets, a glass pie
plate, the metal reservoirs, a rubber spatula and a timer.
Equipment needed for subjectively measuring the sour cream chicken enchiladas
included tri-fold cardboard pop-ups, score cards where the week was assigned to each scorecard
depending on the week that the trial would take place as well as the random out-of-order
numbers that were given for each variable so that the testers for the different variations of the
27
recipe would not be given any hints on which recipe was for which order or number, labeled
plates with random numbers assigned to each variation, glasses of water so that the students
could clean out their mouths in between each recipe variation (this technique was used to ensure
an accurate evaluation) and of course, people who would be subjectively judging differences in
saltiness, sourness and creaminess in the 4 separate recipes, which were students participating in
the experimental foods class in the assigned lab section which was A03.
Labeling
Once the Sour Cream Chicken Enchiladas were ready to be served, all four of the recipe
variations including the control recipe were cut in half in their glass pans. Then paper plates were
labeled and divided into four separate sections where each section would be labeled with a
random, out-of-order number where each number indicated a different variation of the recipe.
For example, for the first week, the original recipe (or the recipe with the original sour cream)
was labeled with the number 645, the recipe using the fat free sour cream was labeled with the
number 109, the recipe using the fat free Greek yogurt was labeled with the number 342 and the
recipe using tofu was labeled with the number 786. These numbers changed every week the
experiment was conducted and the numbers used for the variations in the sour cream chicken
enchilada was constantly random and out-of-order each week.
Once the plates were labeled and divided into four separate sections, a knife and fork
were used to take the sour cream chicken enchiladas, which were already cut in half, so they
could be placed onto paper plates in generous servings. Care was taken to make sure the labels
were not covered which helped the panelists to see the numbers right beside each enchilada.
Information regarding what variation of the recipe each of the random and out-of-order numbers
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represented was recorded in a lab notebook long before the actual experiment took place so that
the numbers would make sense on the scorecard when they were calculated and reviewed.
Panelists
For each trial, 5 members from the FDNT 362 Experimental Foods class were selected to
taste and then evaluate the four recipe variations and their level of saltiness, sourness and
creaminess using the scorecards provided by the student conducting the experiment. Scorecards
would be changed weekly so that no hint would be given to the panelists regarding what number
was indicated by what recipe. The panelists tried and tested five samples of foods a week. In
order to get a variety of judges, the students selected to evaluate the sour cream chicken
enchiladas were changed weekly in order to diversify and increase the sample size as much as
possible so that the results would be more accurate. Rotating panelists also ensured that the
panelists tasted all the samples at least one time. In order to not influence the decision of those
participating in the experiment, tri-fold cardboard pop-ups would hide the participant’s answers
from one another and talk about the evaluation process of each other’s recipes would not be
allowed. Also, all of the samples were numbered differently with three digit numbers so that the
panelists did not know what variable they were testing. The panelists were in a quiet, well lit,
comfortable room.
In addition, to increase the accuracy of the participant’s evaluations, rules were given for
the evaluation process. Before the experimentation began, the members from the FDNT 362
Experimental Foods class were given training on taste testing techniques and conducting sensory
evaluation on food. Some of the rules surrounding taste testing and food evaluation included: (1)
washing out ones mouth with water in between each sample so that the taste from the first
29
sample would not influence the taste from the next sample, (2) making sure the food being
sampled reached all corners of the mouth so that as many taste buds as possible could be used for
the evaluation and (3) chewing on the food sample for as long as possible to ensure that the
flavor and mouth feel are assessed as much as they possibly could.
Scorecards
A total of 5 scorecards were handed out every week for four weeks (a total of 20
scorecards). These were used for evaluating the differences between the modified recipes against
the control recipe in regards to saltiness, sourness and creaminess. Each of these variables were
graded on a 5 point scale, where 0 equaled to one extreme and 5 equaled to the opposing
extreme. For example, for my first variable, which was saltiness, bland was equal to 0, Salty was
equal to 3, and 5 was equal to Very Salty. Possible numbers that could be given for this variable
included: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 where numbers closer to 5 resembled a product which was higher in
saltiness and numbers closer to zero resembled a product with a blander flavor. This same
method was used for the other two variables which were sourness vs. Umami flavor, and
creaminess vs. wateriness. An example of one of the scorecards used in this experiment was
presented below.
Week: ________________________ Judging Seat ____________
Sour Cream Chicken Enchiladas
Directions: The following scored card is to be used in evaluating sour cream chicken enchiladas.
30
1. First, read the scorecard and look at the scale for each of the characteristics being evaluated.
2. Fill in the numerical value in the appropriately labeled box from each of the sensory characteristics which are being scaled.
3. Double check your scorecard before returning it to the investigator.
Scorecard:
Characteristic 462 219 083 674
Saltiness a
Sourness b
Creaminess c
a Saltiness
1________ 2_______ __3_____ ____4________ _5
Bland Salty Very Salty
b Sourness
1________ 2_______ __3_____ ____4________ _5
*Umami Sour Very Sour
c Creaminess
1________ 2_______ __3_____ ____4________ _5
Watery Creamy Very Creamy
Line Spread Test
To objectively evaluate the viscosity for the filling of the sour cream chicken enchiladas, a
line-spread test was conducted. This objective test was measured directly after the fillings were
made so that the sour cream chicken enchilada filling variations would be equally warm and thus
flow more easily onto the glass pie plate over the line-spread sheet. In order to conduct the line
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*Note: Umami = Savory
spread test for the sour cream chicken enchiladas, line-spread sheets, a glass pie plate, the metal
reservoirs, a rubber spatula and a timer were needed. Once gathered, the glass pie plate was
placed over the line-spread sheet and the metal reservoir was placed on top of the glass pie plate.
Once all of the materials for the line spread test were gathered and the apparatus was set up, the
line spread test was ready to be conducted. The first step in conducting the line spread test was
taking ¼ a cup of the sour cream chicken enchilada filling leveled off to the top and placing it in
the reservoir on top of the glass pie plate over the line-spread sheet. To do this, a rubber spatula
was used to help scrape out all of the contents of the cup into the metal reservoir. Once all ¼ of
a cup of the sour cream chicken enchilada filling was emptied out into the reservoir, the reservoir
was lifted allowing the sour cream chicken enchilada filling to move out onto the glass pie plate
over the line-spread sheet. As soon as the reservoir was lifted to allow the sour cream chicken
enchilada filling to flow, the timer was set for two minutes. After those two minutes were up, the
number indicated on the line-spread sheet under the glass pie plate where the sour cream chicken
enchilada filling stopped at was recorded in the directions from north, south, east and west.
After all 4 numbers were recorded; they were added up and divided by four which equaled to the
mean line-spread value. After the line-spread test was conducted, and the data was recorded, the
glass pie plate, rubber spatula and metal reservoirs were washed and put back along with the
line-spread sheets and timer in their designated areas.
Cone- Penetrometer Test
In addition to using the line spread test to objectively measure the viscosity of the
filling for the sour cream chicken enchiladas, the cone penetrometer was also used to objectively
evaluate the viscosity for the filling of the sour cream chicken enchiladas. Unlike the line spread
32
test, the filling for the sour cream chicken enchiladas was not objectively measured until after the
fillings for each of the variations that were set aside were cooled to room temperature at the end
of the lab period. Then, ¼ a cup of the sour cream chicken enchilada filling mixture was emptied
out onto the penetrometer platform. To do this, a rubber spatula was used to help scrape out all of
the contents of the cup onto the penetrometer platform. Once all ¼ of a cup of the sour cream
chicken enchilada filling was emptied out into the penetrometer platform, the tip of the cone was
lowered just on top of the filling for the sour cream chicken enchiladas to be measured. Once
lowered just right, the knob for releasing the needle was held for one minute. After the minute
was up, the lever was let go and the top of the cone penetrometer was tapped until it stopped at
the number that was suppose to measure the viscosity of the filling. This number was then
recorded. This process was repeated with all the different variations for the filling for the sour
cream chicken enchiladas.
Data Analysis
SPSS was used for measuring significance between judges and between variables for the
subjective data. The P-value for determining significance was set at .05.
Conclusion
Through this experiment, a great deal was learned about the functional aspects of low fat
dairy foods, namely, in the substitution of sour cream. In the process, more was understood
regarding fat free sour cream, fat free Greek yogurt, and silken tofu in the preparation of sour
cream chicken enchiladas and the subjective and objective evaluation processes needed for
analyzing those differences between the different substitutions and the control.
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CHAPTER IV: RESULTS
Introduction
Subjectively and objectively evaluating differences among the recipes using sour cream
(a high fat dairy product), with low fat dairy foods (including fat free sour cream, fat free Greek
yogurt, and silken tofu) was a great way to learn if fat free sour cream, fat free Greek yogurt, and
silken tofu make acceptable substitutes in recipes that call for sour cream. Criteria used to
determine the acceptability that substituting low fat dairy foods has with high fat dairy foods will
be determined by analyzing data that subjectively measures creaminess, sourness, and saltiness
among the different variables as well as objectively measuring the viscosity in sour cream
chicken enchiladas. The following information provides the answers to these questions.
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Saltiness
The above table is a summary of the mean scores given to the different recipe variations
for saltiness. As seen, the variation measured as being the most salty would be the sour cream
chicken enchiladas made with the fat free sour cream then with yogurt and then with regular sour
cream following thereafter. Tofu was scored to be significantly less salty than the remainder of
the recipe variations. It is important to note that the higher numbers represent a more salty sour
cream chicken enchilada and the lower scores represent a more bland sour cream chicken
enchilada.
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Sourness
The above table is a summary of the mean scores given to the different recipe variations
for sourness. As seen, the recipe made using fat free sour cream was rated as having the highest
score for sourness with regular sour cream not falling too far behind. It is also important to note
that, according to the scorecards, there was a great deal of disagreement between whether sour
cream or yogurt contributed to a sourer sour cream chicken enchilada. While many panelists
marked yogurt as being significantly more sour than sour cream, many other panelists market
sour cream as being more sour. The recipes using yogurt and tofu in place of the sour cream was
scored as being less sour with the recipe using tofu being even less sour than the recipe made
with the yogurt. It is important to note that the higher numbers represent a more sour sour cream
36
chicken enchilada and the lower scores representing a sour cream chicken enchilada with a more
umami flavor.
Creaminess
The above table is a summary of the mean scores given to the different variables for
creaminess. As seen, the control recipe using sour cream was scored as being the creamiest, with
fat free Greek yogurt showing comparable results. The fat free sour cream was also voted as
being less creamy, although not by a significant degree. The tofu, out of all of the variables, had
the lowest score for creaminess. It is important to note that the higher numbers represent a more
creamy sour cream chicken enchilada and the lower scores representing a more watery sour
cream chicken enchilada.
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Standard Deviation
Table 2
Table of Means
Dependent Variable Condition Mean
Standard Deviation
Saltiness Sour Cream 2.53 1.02
Fat Free Sour Cream
2.67 0.79
Fat free Greek Yogurt
2.60 1.02
Silken tofu 1.73 0.57
Sourness Sour Cream 2.87 1.26
Fat Free Sour Cream
2.93 1.00
Fat free Greek Yogurt
3.33 1.14
Silken tofu 2.00 0.63
Creaminess Sour Cream 3.20 0.91
Fat Free Sour Cream
2.87 1.20
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Fat free Greek Yogurt
Silken Tofu
3.13
2.26
0.96
0.77
With the high level of standard deviations, it is also important to realize that many people
may have different opinions concerning which variable is the most desirable in regards to
saltiness, sourness, and creaminess. This difference in opinion is also obvious through observing
the scorecards. Because the standard deviations are rather high, it is important to note the
accuracy of this data is impaired and that there was a lot of disagreement in the way the subjects
tasted the variables for saltiness, sourness and creaminess. In data with higher standards of
deviation there is more of an indication that there is more disagreement in the results in the
overall reading. In variables with a lower standard deviation therefore, there is a stronger
indication that the result of those calculations are stronger.
Fat free sour cream was rather consistently rated as being more salty than competing
variables with a standard deviation of only 0.79 and the recipe using tofu was rather consistently
rated as being less salty with a standard deviation of only 0.57. There was more disagreement in
the scoring of the recipes using fat free Greek yogurt and sour cream.
Sourness was the sensory characteristic whose variables had the highest amount of
standard deviations which indicates a lot of disagreement in which variables are scored to be the
sourest. Looking at the scorecards, students had very different views as to whether sour cream or
yogurt had a sourer flavor with slightly more students agreeing that the recipe using yogurt was
sourer. The exception regarding the differences in judging regarding sourness was with the
39
recipe that used tofu, which was consistently scored as being less sour with a standard deviation
of only 0.63.
The standard deviations for creaminess indicate that there is not so much disagreement
underlining the fact that sour cream really is creamier than the variable using tofu with a standard
deviation of only 0.77.
Viscosity – Cone Penetrometer
The above table is a summary of the mean scores given to the different variables for
viscosity using the cone penetrometer. As seen, the control recipe using sour cream was scored
as being the most viscous, with fat free Greek yogurt, fat free sour cream and silken tofu being
scored as less viscous.
40
Viscosity – Line Spread Test
The above table is a summary of the mean scores given to the different variables for
viscosity using the line spread test. As seen, the control recipe using sour cream was scored as
being the most viscous, with fat free Greek yogurt, fat free sour cream and silken tofu being
scored as less viscous.
41
Significance
Table of Significance
P significance >.05
Significance between variables
Significance between judges
Saltiness .314 .959
Sourness .504 .880
Creaminess .091 .879
SPSS was used for measuring significance between judges and between variables. The
information from the above table is taken from ANOVA, in accordance with the multiple
comparisons tables shown in appendix D on page 66. The above table indicates that there was no
significant difference either among judging or among variables indicating that there were no
significant differences in saltiness, sourness or creaminess among the sour cream chicken
enchiladas made with the sour cream, fat free sour cream, fat free Greek yogurt or silken tofu as
substitutes. The P-value for determining significance was set at .05. Although there was no
significance among variables or judges, there was more significance between variables than there
was between judges. Furthermore, the variable that showed the greatest amount of significance
was creaminess, especially between the variables.
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Conclusion
Overall, the results conclude that the lower fat alternatives used in the experiment,
namely the fat free sour cream, the fat free Greek yogurt, and the silken tofu, are comparable in
regards to saltiness, sourness and creaminess to sour cream in sour cream chicken enchiladas,
with tofu having the least comparable results. An important thing to note while analyzing this
data is that there was no significance among variables or judges, although there was more
significance among variables than there was among judges. Furthermore, among the variables,
the variable creaminess, although insignificant, had the most significance out of all of the
variables measured. In other words, out of saltiness, sourness and creaminess, the variable
judged with the biggest consistent difference among the variables compared to the control in sour
cream chicken enchiladas was creaminess, and that differences in sourness and saltiness was
consistently less obvious to the judges. Based on subjective data both for the line spread test as
well as the cone penetrometer, it was observed that the control recipe, which used sour cream,
was noticeable more viscous than the other three variations used in the recipe. Also, according to
the scorecards, there was a significant amount of difference of opinion in the variables, meaning
that there is a wide range of opinion in how well the fat substitutes used in this experiment did at
replacing sour cream. According to the objective data, sour cream is the most viscous of the
variations for the sour cream chicken enchiladas.
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CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION
In accordance with the data outlined from the results section, fat free Greek yogurt and
fat free sour cream, although there are some small differences, are very successful in substituting
the control recipe using regular sour cream with the desire to lower the amount of saturated fat
while enjoying sour cream chicken enchiladas. There is also some success with using the
variable silken tofu, although not as much as the other two variables. Being that there was so
much disagreement in the scorecards for the variables of saltiness and sourness this means there
was plenty of individual differences between perceptions in flavor of the sour cream chicken
enchiladas as well, meaning that although the variables were generally regarded as acceptable, it
cannot be said that they were acceptable to everyone. Although all three variables were judged as
being acceptable, the variable with the least acceptability was creaminess, which although
insignificant, had the most significance as well. According to the objective data, sour cream is
the most viscous of the variations for the sour cream chicken enchiladas indicating that the other
variables were thinner.
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CHAPTER VI: DISCUSSION
Introduction
It can be said that the recipe modifications “worked”, meaning that fat free sour cream,
fat free Greek yogurt, and silken tofu make acceptable substitutes in recipes that call for sour
cream. Why? Perhaps because like sour cream, fat free sour cream and fat free Greek yogurt also
come from a dairy source and also because they all rely on bacteria for their sour flavor. Tofu,
which was the least acceptable of the three substitutes so to speak, also “worked” although not as
well as the fat free sour cream and fat free Greek yogurt. Nonetheless, these results should be
taken without skepticism due to the limitations of the study, because this experiment is not
without its flaws.
Limitations of Study
One limitation of the study was that there was a small sample size. Every week, there
were only 5 people evaluating the sour cream chicken enchiladas. Although the sensory panel
rotated every week, meaning that not the same people sampled the recipe each week, there was
still people who sampled the same food repeatedly due to limitations in the sample size.
Furthermore, although these panelists had training, they were by no means experts in taste testing
or food evaluating techniques. In addition, all of the panelists were roughly the same age, were
the same race (Caucasian) and grew up in the same area. Having a more diverse sample size as
well as a bigger sample size would have resulted in having more accurate results for subjective
evaluation of the sour cream chicken enchiladas. Also, the panelists were not only sampling sour
cream chicken enchiladas, but they were sampling several other recipes as well. In order to get
45
more accurate results, it would have been better to have the panelists fast several hours before
sampling the sour cream chicken enchiladas, so that no possible conflicting flavors would have
influences their evaluations.
Another possible limitation in the study was that the kitchen and the evaluation room
were in the same room, meaning that the different smells being emitted from the kitchen may
have influenced the taste perception of the sour cream chicken enchiladas in the testing room,
which was right next to the kitchen.
Confounding Variables
Because the panelists had their own experiments to attend to, and not everyone was ready
to sample the sour cream chicken enchiladas when they were ready, not all of the panelists
sampled the sour cream chicken enchiladas at the same time and thus some of the panelists did
not sample them at their intended temperature, which was warm. Temperature could have
influences the perception of the variables used on the scorecards in evaluating the saltiness,
sourness and creaminess in the sour cream chicken enchiladas. Also due to the busy atmosphere
in the kitchen, the panelists may have felt rushed in evaluating the sour cream chicken enchiladas
and have thus been less careful in their evaluations among the different variables.
For the objective evaluation, this may have been off due to the fact that the sour cream
chicken enchilada filling was not homogeneous and thus the mushrooms, chicken and other
ingredients in the filling may have influenced the numbers recorded from the cone penetrometer.
Furthermore, the ovens that the sour cream chicken enchiladas were cooked in were
influenced by the surrounding ovens, which were directly next to them, which caused the sour
cream chicken enchiladas cooked in one oven to be more cooked than the ones cooked in another
46
oven due to the higher temperature there was in surrounding ovens next to them, even though all
four pans of sour cream chicken enchiladas were put in at the same time.
Recommendations for Future Research
In order to fully understand which fat substitutes used in the sour cream chicken
enchiladas are the most effective and why, more research is needed in the substitution of these
and possibly other fat substitutes in creating healthier alternatives of popular and loved recipes,
such as sour cream chicken enchiladas.
In addition to measuring creaminess, saltiness and sourness between the different variables,
several other variables could be measured as well. Since yogurt contains sugar, sweetness could also be
another factor subjectively evaluated for experiments using yogurt as a fat substitute in high fat recipes.
Moistness vs. dryness may also be another good element to add to a scorecard for sensory evaluation
being that fat also affects the moistness of a product. Other characteristics in foods attributed to fat not
incorporated in this experiment include: thickness, silkiness, richness, smoothness, and lubricacy as
well as many others. It will also be good to look into more of the functions of fat in different types of
products as well, including baked goods, desserts, soups, ice cream, salads, smoothies and many others
for the prevention of cardiovascular disease since fat has different functions in different foods.
Also, other possible substitutes for sour cream could be explored. Other good fat
substitutes that are just gaining popularity that were not used in this experiment but could be
used include: “Okra, beans and pawpaws (2001, Welcome to the World of Fat Substitutes).”
Furthermore, additional possibilities for sour cream substitutes are needed in creating lower fat
alternatives in recipes using sour cream.
47
Conclusion
By looking into other possible fat substitutes, other foods that fats can be substituted for, and also
other functions and characteristics that fat contributes to in food, the ability to form acceptable fat
substitutions is expected to only increase in the exciting field of fat substitutions. Due to several
limitations in this study, it would be helpful for more accurate experiments to be conducted in measuring
the acceptability of several different fat substitutes in several different foods as well.
48
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Ian. (2011). Difference between yogurt and sour cream. Retrieved April
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difference-between-yogurt-and-sour-cream/
Jacobson R. E. & Outlaw J. L. (1995). Dairy product consumption and demand. Retrieved April
20, 2011, from http://www.cpdmp.cornell.edu/CPDMP/Pages/Publications/Pubs/M3.pdf
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49
Levine, E., Wolf-Cohen, E., Somerscales, J., Adams, M., Gunzi, C., Lyford, I., Young,
H. C., Storey, S., Carroll, A. and Brown, D. (1989). Good Housekeeping Illustrated
Cookbook Revised and Expanded Edition. New York, NY: Hearst Books.
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Academic/ Plumer Publishers.
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50
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genMakeUp/nutrition/fatSubs.pdf
51
Appendix A: Nutrient Analyses info
Sour Cream Chicken Enchiladas – Control – (Sour Cream)
Sour Crea
mor
Cream, sour,
cultured
Canned Boned
Chicken cut up or
Chicken, canned,
meat only, with broth
Canned Mushroom stems & pieces Mushroom’sCannedDrained solids
CannedGreen Chiles
Onion Flakes
Or Onions
De-hydrate
d flakes
Chili Powder
or Spices,
chili powder
Saltor
Salt, table
Garlic Powder
orSpices, garlic
powder
Pepper salad oil
OrSalad
dressingpeppercorn
dressingcommercial
regular
Corn Tortillas
OrTortillasready-to-bake or -fry, corn
Cheddar Cheese,
shredded or Cheese, cheddar
Total
TotalServing
Amount needed
402.5 g
213 g 113.40 g 56.70 g 9.38 g 1.35 g 1.5 g
0.775g 0.558 g 144 g 75.6 g 1018.363 g
339.0877 g
Energy (kcal)
777 kcal3256 kJ
351 kcal1470 kJ
2835 kcal or 11907 kJ
12 kcal 33 kcal or 137 kJ
4 kcal or 16 kJ
0.0 kcal and kJ
3 kcal or 11 kJ
3 kcal13 kJ
314 kcal or 1313 kJ
305 kcal or 1273 kJ
4637 kcal 1545.6
kcal
Protein 8.33 g 46.37 g 212.05 g 0.4 g 0.84 g 0.18 g 0 g 0.13 0.01 g 8.21 g 18.82 g 295.34 g
98.446g
Total lipid 79.41 g
16.93 g 32.89 g 0.16 g 0.04 g 0.19 g 0 g 0.01 g 0.34 g 4.1g 25.02 g 159.09
g53.03
g
Saturated fat
46.316 g
4.686 g 4.31g 0.016 g 0.007 g
0.033 g
0 g 0.002 g
0.059 g 0.65 g 15.95 g 72.029 g
24.009g
Monounsaturated fat
20.399 g
6.709 g 0.57 g 0.01 g 0.006 g
0.043 g
0 g 0.001 g
0.083 g 1.00 g 7.1 g 35.921 g
11.973g
Polyunsaturated fat
3.381 g
3.728 g 12.81 g 0.086 g 0.017 g
0.108 g
0 g 0.001 g
0.184 g 2.04 g 0.71 g 23.065 g
7.6883g
CHO by difference
11.59 g
0.00 g 577.2 g 2.6 g 7.81 g 0.67 g 0 g 0.56 g 0.02 g 64.28 g 0.97 g 665.7 g
221.9 g
Fiber 0.0 g 0.0 g 272.2 g 1 g 0.9 g 0.5 g 0 g 0.1 g 0 g 9.1 g 0 g 283.8 g 94.6 g
Sugars, total
14.09 g
0.00 g 265.35g 0.0 g 3.51 g 0.1 g 0 g 0.02 g 0.01 g 1.27g 0.39 g 284.67 g
94.89 g
Sucrose 0.00 g 0.00 g Not given Not given Not given
0.01 g 0 g 0.02 g Not given Not given 0.18 g 0.21 g 0.07 g
Glucose 0.00 g 0.00 g Not given Not given Not given
0.03 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given Not given 0.03 g 0.01 g
Fructose 0.00 g 0.00 g Not given Not given Not given
0.06 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given Not given 0.06 g 0.02 g
Lactose 14.09 g
0.00 g Not given Not given Not given
0 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given 0.17 g 14.26 g
4.7533g
52
Maltose 0.00 g 0.00 g Not given Not given Not given
0 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given 0.11 g 0.11 g
0.0366g
Galactose 0.00 g 0.00 g Not given Not given Not given
0 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given Not given 0 g 0 g
Starch 0.00 g 0.00 g Not given Not given Not given
Not given
0 g 0 g Not given Not given Not given 0 g 0 g
Calcium 443 mg
30 mg 1247 mg 10 mg 24 mg 4mg 0 mg
1 mg 0 mg 117 mg 545 mg 2421
mg807 mg
Iron 0.68 mg
3.37 mg 89.58 mg 0.36 mg 0.15 mg
0.23 mg
0 mg
0.04 mg
0 mg 1.77 mg 0.51 mg 96.69
mg32.23
mg
Magnesium 40 mg 26 mg 1701 mg Not given 9 mg 2 mg 0 mg
1 mg 0 mg 104 mg 21 mg 1904
mg634.6667 mg
Phosphorus 463 mg
236 mg 7884 mg Not given 28 mg 4 mg 0 mg
3 mg 0 mg 452 mg 387 mg 9457
mg3152.333 mg
Potassium 568 mg
294 mg 14628 mg 32 mg 152 mg
26 mg 0 mg
9 mg 1mg 268 mg 74 mg 16051 mg
5350.333 mg
Sodium 322 mg
1071 mg 48894 mg 113 mg 2 mg 22 mg 581 mg
0 mg 6mg 65 mg 469 mg 51539 mg
17179.67 mg
Zinc 1.53 mg
3.00 mg 81.65 mg Not given 0.18 mg
0.06 mg
0 mg
0.02 mg
0 mg 1.89 mg 2.35 mg 90.68
mg30.22667 mg
Copper 0.076 mg
0.098 mg 26.6 mg Not given 0.039 mg
0.014mg
0 mg
0.004 mg
0 mg 0.22 mg 0.023 mg 27.074 mg
9.024667 mg
Manganese 0.044 mg
0.032 mg 9.75 mg Not given 0.13 g mg
0.023mg
0 mg
0.002 mg
0 mg 0.47mg 0.008 mcg 10.329
mcg3.443
mcg
Selenium 10.5 mcg
33.7 mcg 464.9 mcg Not given 0.5 mcg
0.3mcg
0 mcg
0.2 mcg
0 mcg 8.8 mcg 10.5 mcg 529.4
mcg
176.4667
mcg
Vitamin C 3.6 mg 4.3 mg 0 mg 9.6 mg 7.0 mg 0 mg 0 mg
0 mg 0 mg 0 mg 0 mg 24.5 mg
8.166667 mg
Thiamin 0.145 mg
0.032 mg 9.64 mg Not given 0.047 mg
0.003mg
0 mg
0.003 mg
0 mg 0.135 mg 0.02 mg 10.025 mg
3.341667 mg
Riboflavin 0.692 mg
0.275 mg 2.38 mg Not given 0 mg 0.013mg
0 mg
0.001 mg
0 mg 0.094 mg 0.28 mg 3.735
mg1.245
mg
Niacin 0.439 mg
13.481 mg 186.65 mg Not given 0.093 mg
0.157mg
0 mg
0.006 mg
0 mg 2.16 mg 0.06 mg 203.046
67.682
53
mg mg
Pantothenic acid
1.352 mg
1.810 mg 91.97 mg Not given 0.129 mg
0.012mg
0 mg
0.006 mg
0 mg 0.16 mg 0.312 mg 95.751 mg
31.917 mg
Vitamin B-6 0.229 mg
0.745 mg 6.92 mg Not given 0.150 mg
0.028mg
0 mg
0.013 mg
0 mg 0.32 mg 0.056 mg 8.461
mg2.820
mg
Folate, total 28 mcg
9 mcg 1361 mcg Not given 16 mcg
0 mcg 0 mcg
0 mcg 0 mcg 7 mcg 14 mcg 1435
mg478.33
mg
Vitamin B-12
1.13 mcg
0.62 mcg 0 mcg Not given 0 mcg 0 mcg 0 mcg
0 mcg 0 mcg 0 mcg 0.63 mcg 2.38 mg
0.7933mg
Vitamin A, IU
2508 IU
249 IU 0 IU 50 IU 0 IU 400 IU 0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 3 IU 758 IU 3968 IU
1322.6IU
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)
1.77 mg
0.55 mg 1.13 mg Not given 0.02 mg
0.51mg
0 mg
0.01 mg
0.02 mg 0.4 mg 0.22 mg 4.63 mg
1.5433g
Vitamin D 56 IU 11 IU 907 IU Not given 0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 18 IU 992 IU
330.66IU
Vitamin K 7.2 mcg
3.8 mcg 0 mcg Not given 0.4 mcg
1.4 mcg
0 mcg
0 mcg 0.7 mcg 0 mcg 2.1 mcg 295.34
mcg98.446
mcg
54
Sour Cream Chicken Enchiladas – Variable 1 – (Fat Free Sour Cream)
Fat Free Sour Crea
m
Canned Boned
Chicken cut up or
Chicken, canned, meat
only, with broth
Canned Mushroom stems & pieces Mushroom’sCannedDrained solids
Canned
Green Chiles
Onion Flakes
Or Onions
De-hydrated
flakes
Chili Powder
or Spices,
chili powder
Saltor
Salt, table
Garlic Powder
orSpices, garlic
powder
Pepper salad oil
OrSalad
dressingpeppercorn
dressingcommercial
regular
Corn Tortillas
OrTortillasready-to-bake or -fry, corn
Cheddar Cheese, shredded
or Cheese, cheddar
Total TotalServing
Amount needed
402.5 g
213 g 113.40 g 56.70 g
9.38 g 1.35 g 1.5 g
0.775g 0.558 g 144 g 75.6 g 1018.4 g 339.08
77 g
Energy (kcal)
298 kcal or
1248 kJ
351 kcal1470 kJ
2835 kcal or 11907 kJ
12 kcal
33 kcal or 137 kJ
4 kcal or 16 kJ
0.0 kcal and kJ
3 kcal or 11 kJ
3 kcal13 kJ
314 kcal or 1313 kJ
305 kcal or 1273 kJ
3562 kcal 1187.3
33 kcal
Protein 12.48 g
46.37 g 212.05 g 0.4 g 0.84 g 0.18 g 0 g 0.13 0.01 g 8.21 g 18.82 g 299.49 g
99.83 g
Total lipid 0.00 g 16.93 g 32.89 g 0.16 g 0.04 g 0.19 g 0 g 0.01 g 0.34 g 4.1g 25.02 g 79.68 g
26.56 g
Saturated fat
0.00 g 4.686 g 4.31g 0.016 g
0.007 g 0.033 g
0 g 0.002 g
0.059 g 0.65 g 15.95 g 25.713 g
8.571 g
Monounsaturated fat
0.00 g 6.709 g 0.57 g 0.01 g 0.006 g 0.043 g
0 g 0.001 g
0.083 g 1.00 g 7.1 g 15.522 g
5.174 g
Polyunsaturated fat
0.00 g 3.728 g 12.81 g 0.086 g
0.017 g 0.108 g
0 g 0.001 g
0.184 g 2.04 g 0.71 g 19.684 g
6.561333 g
CHO by difference
62.79 g
0.00 g 577.2 g 2.6 g 7.81 g 0.67 g 0 g 0.56 g 0.02 g 64.28 g 0.97 g 716.9 g
238.9667 g
Fiber 0.0 g 0.0 g 272.2 g 1 g 0.9 g 0.5 g 0 g 0.1 g 0 g 9.1 g 0 g 283.8 g 94.6 g
Sugars, total
1.57 g 0.00 g 265.35g 0.0 g 3.51 g 0.1 g 0 g 0.02 g 0.01 g 1.27g 0.39 g 272.15 g
90.716g
Sucrose Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given 0.01 g 0 g 0.02 g Not given Not given 0.18 g 0.21 g 0.07 g
Glucose Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given 0.03 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given Not given 0.03 g 0.01 g
Fructose Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given 0.06 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given Not given 0.06 g 0.02 g
Lactose Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given 0 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given 0.17 g0.17 g
0.0566g
Maltose Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given 0 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given 0.11 g0.11 g
0.036667
Galactose Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given 0 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given Not given 0 g 0 g
Starch Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given Not given
0 g 0 g Not given Not given Not given 0 g 0 g
55
Calcium 503 mg
30 mg 1247 mg 10 mg 24 mg 4mg 0 mg
1 mg 0 mg 117 mg 545 mg 2481 mg
827 mg
Iron 0.00 mg
3.37 mg 89.58 mg 0.36 mg
0.15 mg 0.23 mg
0 mg
0.04 mg
0 mg 1.77 mg 0.51 mg 96.01 mg
32.00333 mg
Magnesium 40 mg 26 mg 1701 mg Not given
9 mg 2 mg 0 mg
1 mg 0 mg 104 mg 21 mg 1904 mg
634.6667 mg
Phosphorus 382 mg
236 mg 7884 mg Not given
28 mg 4 mg 0 mg
3 mg 0 mg 452 mg 387 mg 9376 mg
3125.333 mg
Potassium 519 mg
294 mg 14628 mg 32 mg 152 mg 26 mg 0 mg
9 mg 1mg 268 mg 74 mg 16002 mg
5334 mg
Sodium 568 mg
1071 mg 48894 mg 113 mg
2 mg 22 mg 581 mg
0 mg 6mg 65 mg 469 mg 51785 mg 17261.
67 mg
Zinc 2.01 mg
3.00 mg 81.65 mg Not given
0.18 mg 0.06 mg
0 mg
0.02 mg
0 mg 1.89 mg 2.35 mg 91.16 mg
30.38667 mg
Copper 0.064 mg
0.098 mg 26.6 mg Not given
0.039 mg 0.014mg
0 mg
0.004 mg
0 mg 0.22 mg 0.023 mg 27.062 mg
9.020667 mg
Manganese Not given
0.032 mg 9.75 mg Not given
0.13 g mg
0.023mg
0 mg
0.002 mg
0 mg 0.47mg 0.008 mcg 31.585
mcg
10.52833
mcg
Selenium 21.3 mcg
33.7 mcg 464.9 mcg Not given
0.5 mcg 0.3mcg
0 mcg
0.2 mcg
0 mcg 8.8 mcg 10.5 mcg518.9
mcg
172.9667
mcg
Vitamin C 0.0 mg 4.3 mg 0 mg 9.6 mg 7.0 mg 0 mg 0 mg
0 mg 0 mg 0 mg 0 mg 21.061 mg
7.020333 mg
Thiamin 0.161 mg
0.032 mg 9.64 mg Not given
0.047 mg 0.003mg
0 mg
0.003 mg
0 mg 0.135 mg 0.02 mg 9.88 mg
3.293333 mg
Riboflavin 0.604 mg
0.275 mg 2.38 mg Not given
0 mg 0.013mg
0 mg
0.001 mg
0 mg 0.094 mg 0.28 mg 3.647 mg
1.215667 mg
Niacin 0.282 mg
13.481 mg 186.65 mg Not given
0.093 mg 0.157mg
0 mg
0.006 mg
0 mg 2.16 mg 0.06 mg 202.889 mg
67.62967 mg
Pantothenic acid
Not given
1.810 mg 91.97 mg Not given
0.129 mg 0.012mg
0 mg
0.006 mg
0 mg 0.16 mg 0.312 mg 94.399 mg
31.46633 mg
Vitamin B-6 0.081 mg
0.745 mg 6.92 mg Not given
0.150 mg 0.028mg
0 mg
0.013 mg
0 mg 0.32 mg 0.056 mg 8.313 mg
2.771 mg
Folate, total 44 mg 9 mcg 1361 mcg Not given
16 mcg 0 mcg 0 mcg
0 mcg 0 mcg 7 mcg 14 mcg1451 mcg
483.6667
mcg
Vitamin B-12
1.21 mg
0.62 mcg 0 mcg Not given
0 mcg 0 mcg 0 mcg
0 mcg 0 mcg 0 mcg 0.63 mcg 2.46 mcg
0.82 mcg
Vitamin A, IU
1026 mg
249 IU 0 IU 50 IU 0 IU 400 IU 0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 3 IU 758 IU 2486 828.66
56
IU 67 IU
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)
0 mg 0.55 mg 1.13 mg Not given
0.02 mg 0.51mg
0 mg
0.01 mg
0.02 mg 0.4 mg 0.22 mg 2.86 mg
0.953333 mg
Vitamin D 0 IU 11 IU 907 IU Not given
0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 18 IU 936 IU 312 IU
Vitamin K 0 mcg 3.8 mcg 0 mcg Not given
0.4 mcg 1.4 mcg
0 mcg
0 mcg 0.7 mcg 0 mcg 2.1mcg 8.4 mcg
2.8 mcg
57
Sour Cream Chicken Enchiladas – Variable 2 – (Fat Free Greek Yogurt)
Fat Free
Greek Yogurt
Canned Boned
Chicken cut up or
Chicken, canned, meat
only, with broth
Canned Mushroom stems & pieces Mushroom’sCannedDrained solids
Canned
Green Chiles
Onion Flakes
Or Onions
De-hydrated
flakes
Chili Powder
or Spices,
chili powder
Saltor
Salt, table
Garlic Powder
orSpices, garlic
powder
Pepper salad oil
OrSalad
dressingpeppercorn
dressingcommercial
regular
Corn Tortillas
OrTortillasready-to-bake or -fry, corn
Cheddar Cheese, shredded
or Cheese, cheddar
Total TotalServing
Amount needed
397.25 g
213 g 113.40 g 56.70 g
9.38 g 1.35 g 1.5 g
0.775g 0.558 g 144 g 75.6 g 1012.0g
338.84g
Energy (kcal)
210 kcal
351 kcal1470 kJ
2835 kcal or 11907 kJ
12 kcal
33 kcal or 137 kJ
4 kcal or 16 kJ
0.0 kcal and kJ
3 kcal or 11 kJ
3 kcal13 kJ
314 kcal or 1313 kJ
305 kcal or 1273 kJ 3474
kcal1158 kcal
Protein 35 g 46.37 g 212.05 g 0.4 g 0.84 g 0.18 g 0 g 0.13 0.01 g 8.21 g 18.82 g 322.01 g
107.34 g
Total lipid 0 g 16.93 g 32.89 g 0.16 g 0.04 g 0.19 g 0 g 0.01 g 0.34 g 4.1g 25.02 g 79.68 g
26.56 g
Saturated fat
0 g 4.686 g 4.31g 0.016 g
0.007 g 0.033 g
0 g 0.002 g
0.059 g 0.65 g 15.95 g 25.713 g
8.571 g
Monounsaturated fat
0 g 6.709 g 0.57 g 0.01 g 0.006 g 0.043 g
0 g 0.001 g
0.083 g 1.00 g 7.1 g 15.522 g
5.174 g
Polyunsaturated fat
0 g 3.728 g 12.81 g 0.086 g
0.017 g 0.108 g
0 g 0.001 g
0.184 g 2.04 g 0.71 g 19.684 g
6.5613g
CHO by difference
15.75 g
0.00 g 577.2 g 2.6 g 7.81 g 0.67 g 0 g 0.56 g 0.02 g 64.28 g 0.97 g 669.86 g
223.29g
Fiber 0 g 0.0 g 272.2 g 1 g 0.9 g 0.5 g 0 g 0.1 g 0 g 9.1 g 0 g 283.8 g 94.6 g
Sugars, total
15.75 g
0.00 g 265.35g 0.0 g 3.51 g 0.1 g 0 g 0.02 g 0.01 g 1.27g 0.39 g286.33
95.44333
Sucrose Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given 0.01 g 0 g 0.02 g Not given Not given 0.18 g 0.21 g 0.07 g
Glucose Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given 0.03 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given Not given 0.03 g 0.01 g
Fructose Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given 0.06 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given Not given 0.06 g 0.02 g
Lactose Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given 0 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given 0.17 g0.17 g
0.057 g
Maltose Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given 0 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given 0.11 g0.11 g
0.0366g
Galactose Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given 0 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given Not given 0 g 0 g
Starch Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given Not given
0 g 0 g Not given Not given Not given 0 g 0 g
Calcium 700 30 mg 1247 mg 10 mg 24 mg 4mg 0 1 mg 0 mg 117 mg 545 mg 2678 g 892.66
58
mg mg g
Iron 0 g 3.37 mg 89.58 mg 0.36 mg
0.15 mg 0.23 mg
0 mg
0.04 mg
0 mg 1.77 mg 0.51 mg 96.01 g
32.003g
Magnesium Not given
26 mg 1701 mg Not given
9 mg 2 mg 0 mg
1 mg 0 mg 104 mg 21 mg1864 g
621.33g
Phosphorus Not given
236 mg 7884 mg Not given
28 mg 4 mg 0 mg
3 mg 0 mg 452 mg 387 mg8994 g 2998 g
Potassium 927.5 g
294 mg 14628 mg 32 mg 152 mg 26 mg 0 mg
9 mg 1mg 268 mg 74 mg 16410.5 g
5470.167 g
Sodium 113.75 g
1071 mg 48894 mg 113 mg
2 mg 22 mg 581 mg
0 mg 6mg 65 mg 469 mg 51330.75 g
17110.25 g
Zinc Not given
3.00 mg 81.65 mg Not given
0.18 mg 0.06 mg
0 mg
0.02 mg
0 mg 1.89 mg 2.35 mg 89.15 g
29.71667 g
Copper Not given
0.098 mg 26.6 mg Not given
0.039 mg 0.014mg
0 mg
0.004 mg
0 mg 0.22 mg 0.023 mg 26.998 g
8.9993g
Manganese Not given
0.032 mg 9.75 mg Not given
0.13 g mg
0.023mg
0 mg
0.002 mg
0 mg 0.47mg 0.008 mcg
10.285 g
3.4283g
Selenium Not given
33.7 mcg 464.9 mcg Not given
0.5 mcg 0.3mcg
0 mcg
0.2 mcg
0 mcg 8.8 mcg 10.5 mcg 518.9 g
172.969 g
Vitamin C 4.2 g 4.3 mg 0 mg 9.6 mg 7.0 mg 0 mg 0 mg
0 mg 0 mg 0 mg 0 mg25.1 g
8.3667 g
Thiamin Not given
0.032 mg 9.64 mg Not given
0.047 mg 0.003mg
0 mg
0.003 mg
0 mg 0.135 mg 0.02 mg9.88 g
3.2933g
Riboflavin Not given
0.275 mg 2.38 mg Not given
0 mg 0.013mg
0 mg
0.001 mg
0 mg 0.094 mg 0.28 mg 3.043 g
1.0143g
Niacin Not given
13.481 mg 186.65 mg Not given
0.093 mg 0.157mg
0 mg
0.006 mg
0 mg 2.16 mg 0.06 mg 202.61 g
67.536 g
Pantothenic acid
Not given
1.810 mg 91.97 mg Not given
0.129 mg 0.012mg
0 mg
0.006 mg
0 mg 0.16 mg 0.312 mg 94.399 g
31.466g
Vitamin B-6 Not given
0.745 mg 6.92 mg Not given
0.150 mg 0.028mg
0 mg
0.013 mg
0 mg 0.32 mg 0.056 mg 8.232 g
2.744 g
Folate, total Not given
9 mcg 1361 mcg Not given
16 mcg 0 mcg 0 mcg
0 mcg 0 mcg 7 mcg 14 mcg1407 g 469 g
Vitamin B-12
Not given
0.62 mcg 0 mcg Not given
0 mcg 0 mcg 0 mcg
0 mcg 0 mcg 0 mcg 0.63 mcg1.25 g
0.4167 g
Vitamin A, IU
0 g 249 IU 0 IU 50 IU 0 IU 400 IU 0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 3 IU 758 IU1460 g
486.67 g
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)
Not given
0.55 mg 1.13 mg Not given
0.02 mg 0.51mg
0 mg
0.01 mg
0.02 mg 0.4 mg 0.22 mg2.86 g
0.9533g
Vitamin D Not 11 IU 907 IU Not 0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 18 IU 936 g 312 g
59
given given
Vitamin K Not given
3.8 mcg 0 mcg Not given
0.4 mcg 1.4 mcg
0 mcg
0 mcg 0.7 mcg 0 mcg 2.1mcg 1012.0g
337.34 g
60
Sour Cream Chicken Enchiladas – Variable 3 – (Silken Tofu, soft)
Silken
Tofu, softor
MORI-NU,
Tofu, silken,
soft
Canned Boned
Chicken cut up or
Chicken, canned, meat
only, with broth
Canned Mushroom stems & pieces Mushroom’sCannedDrained solids
Canned
Green Chiles
Onion Flakes
Or Onions
De-hydrated
flakes
Chili Powder
or Spices,
chili powder
Saltor
Salt, table
Garlic Powder
orSpices, garlic
powder
Pepper salad oil
OrSalad
dressingpeppercorn
dressingcommercial
regular
Corn Tortillas
OrTortillasready-to-bake or -fry, corn
Cheddar Cheese, shredded
or Cheese, cheddar
Total TotalServing
Amount needed
397.25 g
213 g 113.40 g 56.70 g
9.38 g 1.35 g 1.5 g
0.775g 0.558 g 144 g 75.6 g 1013.5 g
337.3377 g
Energy (kcal)
218Kcal or 918 kJ
351 kcal1470 kJ
2835 kcal or 11907 kJ
12 kcal
33 kcal or 137 kJ
4 kcal or 16 kJ
0.0 kcal and kJ
3 kcal or 11 kJ
3 kcal13 kJ
314 kcal or 1313 kJ
305 kcal or 1273 kJ
4078 kcal
1359.333
kcal
Protein 19.07 g
46.37 g 212.05 g 0.4 g 0.84 g 0.18 g 0 g 0.13 0.01 g 8.21 g 18.82 g 306.08 g
102.02 g
Total lipid 10.73 g
16.93 g 32.89 g 0.16 g 0.04 g 0.19 g 0 g 0.01 g 0.34 g 4.1g 25.02 g 90.41 g
30.136 g
Saturated fat
1.418 g
4.686 g 4.31g 0.016 g
0.007 g 0.033 g
0 g 0.002 g
0.059 g 0.65 g 15.95 g 27.131 g
9.0436 g
Monounsaturated fat
2.074 g
6.709 g 0.57 g 0.01 g 0.006 g 0.043 g
0 g 0.001 g
0.083 g 1.00 g 7.1 g 17.596 g
5.8653 g
Polyunsaturated fat
6.157 g
3.728 g 12.81 g 0.086 g
0.017 g 0.108 g
0 g 0.001 g
0.184 g 2.04 g 0.71 g 25.841 g
8.6136 g
CHO by difference
11.52 g
0.00 g 577.2 g 2.6 g 7.81 g 0.67 g 0 g 0.56 g 0.02 g 64.28 g 0.97 g 665.63 g
221.87 g
Fiber 0.4 g 0.0 g 272.2 g 1 g 0.9 g 0.5 g 0 g 0.1 g 0 g 9.1 g 0 g 284.2 g
94.733 g
Sugars, total
5.2 g 0.00 g 265.35g 0.0 g 3.51 g 0.1 g 0 g 0.02 g 0.01 g 1.27g 0.39 g 275.78 g
91.926 g
Sucrose Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given 0.01 g 0 g 0.02 g Not given Not given 0.18 g 0.21 g 0.07 g
Glucose Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given 0.03 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given Not given 0.03 g 0.01 g
Fructose Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given 0.06 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given Not given 0.06 g 0.02 g
Lactose Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given 0 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given 0.17 g0.17 g
0.0566 g
Maltose Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given 0 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given 0.11 g0.11 g
0.0366 g
Galactose Not given
0.00 g Not given Not given
Not given 0 g 0 g 0 g Not given Not given Not given 0 g 0 g
Starch Not 0.00 g Not given Not Not given Not 0 g 0 g Not given Not given Not given 0 g 0 g
61
given given given
Calcium 123 mg
30 mg 1247 mg 10 mg 24 mg 4mg 0mg 1 mg 0 mg 117 mg 545 mg 2101 mg
700.3333 mg
Iron 3.26 mg
3.37 mg 89.58 mg 0.36 mg
0.15 mg 0.23 mg
0 mg
0.04 mg
0 mg 1.77 mg 0.51 mg 99.27 mg
33.09 mg
Magnesium 115 mg
26 mg 1701 mg Not given
9 mg 2 mg 0 mg
1 mg 0 mg 104 mg 21 mg 1979 mg
659.66 mg
Phosphorus 246 mg
236 mg 7884 mg Not given
28 mg 4 mg 0 mg
3 mg 0 mg 452 mg 387 mg 9240 mg
3080 mg
Potassium 715 mg
294 mg 14628 mg 32 mg 152 mg 26 mg 0 mg
9 mg 1mg 268 mg 74 mg 16198 mg
5399.333 mg
Sodium 20 mg 1071 mg 48894 mg 113 mg
2 mg 22 mg 581 mg
0 mg 6mg 65 mg 469 mg 51237 mg
17079 mg
Zinc 2.07 mg
3.00 mg 81.65 mg Not given
0.18 mg 0.06 mg
0 mg
0.02 mg
0 mg 1.89 mg 2.35 mg 91.22 mg
30.406 mg
Copper 0.822 mg
0.098 mg 26.6 mg Not given
0.039 mg 0.014mg
0 mg
0.004 mg
0 mg 0.22 mg 0.023 mg 27.82 mg
9.273333 mg
Manganese Not given
0.032 mg 9.75 mg Not given
0.13 g mg
0.023mg
0 mg
0.002 mg
0 mg 0.47mg 0.008 mcg 10.285
mcg
3.428333
mcg
Selenium Not given
33.7 mcg 464.9 mcg Not given
0.5 mcg 0.3mcg
0 mcg
0.2 mcg
0 mcg 8.8 mcg 10.5 mcg 518.9 mcg
172.9667 mg
Vitamin C 0.0 mg 4.3 mg 0 mg 9.6 mg 7.0 mg 0 mg 0 mg
0 mg 0 mg 0 mg 0 mg 20.9 mg
6.966667 mg
Thiamin 0.397 mg
0.032 mg 9.64 mg Not given
0.047 mg 0.003mg
0 mg
0.003 mg
0 mg 0.135 mg 0.02 mg 10.277 mg
3.425667 mg
Riboflavin 0.159 mg
0.275 mg 2.38 mg Not given
0 mg 0.013mg
0 mg
0.001 mg
0 mg 0.094 mg 0.28 mg 3.202 mg 0 mg
Niacin 1.192 mg
13.481 mg 186.65 mg Not given
0.093 mg 0.157mg
0 mg
0.006 mg
0 mg 2.16 mg 0.06 mg 203.799 mg
1.067333 mg
Pantothenic acid
Not given
1.810 mg 91.97 mg Not given
0.129 mg 0.012mg
0 mg
0.006 mg
0 mg 0.16 mg 0.312 mg 94.399 mg
67.933 mg
Vitamin B-6 0.044 mg
0.745 mg 6.92 mg Not given
0.150 mg 0.028mg
0 mg
0.013 mg
0 mg 0.32 mg 0.056 mg 8.276 mg
31.46633 mg
Folate, total Not given
9 mcg 1361 mcg Not given
16 mcg 0 mcg 0 mcg
0 mcg 0 mcg 7 mcg 14 mcg1407 mcg
2.758667
mcg
Vitamin B-12
0.0 mcg
0.62 mcg 0 mcg Not given
0 mcg 0 mcg 0 mcg
0 mcg 0 mcg 0 mcg 0.63 mcg 1.25 mcg
469 mcg
62
Vitamin A, IU
0.0 IU 249 IU 0 IU 50 IU 0 IU 400 IU 0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 3 IU 758 IU 1460 IU
0.416667 IU
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)
Not given
0.55 mg 1.13 mg Not given
0.02 mg 0.51mg
0 mg
0.01 mg
0.02 mg 0.4 mg 0.22 mg 2.86 mg
486.6667 mg
Vitamin D Not given
11 IU 907 IU Not given
0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 0 IU 18 IU936 IU
0.953333 IU
Vitamin K Not given
3.8 mcg 0 mcg Not given
0.4 mcg 1.4 mcg
0 mcg
0 mcg 0.7 mcg 0 mcg 2.1mcg 8.4 mcg
312 mcg
63
Appendix B: Original recipe
Begin 1 hour ahead6 servings808 cals per servingGood source of calcium, iron, vitamin A
Ingredients 3 1/2 cups sour cream3 5-ounce cans boned chicken, cut up (about 2 cups)2 4-ounce cans mushroom stems and pieces, drained1 4-ounce can green chilies, drained1/3 cup onion flakes1 teaspoon chili powder1/2 teaspoon salt1/2 teaspoon garlic powder1/4 teaspoon pepper salad oil12 Corn Tortillas (page 431)1/3 pound Cheddar cheese, shredded
1. In 13" by 9" baking pan, spread 1 cup sour cream. In 2-quart saucepan with fork, flake chicken; add 1/2 cup sour cream, mushrooms and next 6 ingredients. Cook over low heat, stirring occasionally, just until heated through.2. In 8-inch skillet over medium-high heat, in about 1/2 inch hot oil, fry 1 tortilla, a few seconds on each side, until it softens. For an enchilada, along center of tortilla, spread 1/4 cup chicken mixture; fold sides over filling and place, seam side down, in pan. Repeat.3. Preheat oven to 450 degrees F. Spread enchiladas with remaining sour cream, then sprinkle with cheese.
Bake 8 minutes or until cheese is melted.
64
Appendix C: Market order
Amount Ingredient402.5 g* Sour Cream213 g Chicken, canned, meat only, with broth 113.40 g Canned Mushroom stems & pieces , drained solids
56.70 g Canned Green Chiles9.38 g De-hydrated Onion Flakes1.35 g Spices, chili powder1.5 g Salt, table0.775 g Spices, garlic powder0.558 g Pepper salad oil, peppercorn dressing, commercial
regular6 each = 144 g Corn Tortillas
75.6 g Cheddar Cheese, shredded Variables (* = control ingredient)397.25 g MORI-NU, Tofu, silken, soft*402.5 g Fat Free Sour Cream*397.25 g Fat Free Greek Yogurt *
Metric IngredientMarket Order Sheet
Ingredient Amount NeededProduceMORI-NU, Tofu, silken, soft* 397.25 gMeats/seafoodChicken, canned, meat only, with broth
852 g
Cold/Frozen/Dairy/ BreadFAGE, Fat Free Greek Yogurt* 397.25 gCorn Tortillas 24 each = 576 gFat Free Sour Cream* 402.5 gSour Cream* 402.5 gCheddar Cheese, shredded 302.4 gBaking/CannedSalt 6 gSpices, chili powder 5.4 gSpices, garlic powder 3.1 gCanned Green Chiles 226.8 gCanned Mushroom stems & pieces 453.6 g
65
De-hydrated Onion Flakes 37.53 gPepper salad oil, peppercorn dressing
2.232 g
Appendix D: SPSS output
Between Judges
ANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Sensory1Ave Between Groups .256 4 .064 .153 .959
Within Groups 6.250 15 .417
Total 6.506 19
Sensory2Ave Between Groups .756 4 .189 .291 .880
Within Groups 9.750 15 .650
Total 10.506 19
Sensory3Ave Between Groups .744 4 .186 .291 .879
Within Groups 9.583 15 .639
Total 10.328 19
Between Variables
ANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Sensory1Ave Between Groups 1.261 3 .420 1.282 .314
Within Groups 5.244 16 .328
Total 6.506 19
Sensory2Ave Between Groups 1.394 3 .465 .816 .504
Within Groups 9.111 16 .569
Total 10.506 19
Sensory3Ave Between Groups 3.350 3 1.117 2.561 .091
Within Groups 6.978 16 .436
Total 10.328 19
66
Appendix E: Pictures
a. Sour Cream Chicken Enchilada Filling Made with Tofu
67
b. Sour Cream Chicken Enchilada Filling Made with Fat Free Sour Cream
68
c. Sour Cream Chicken Enchilada Filling Made with Sour Cream
69
d. Sour Cream Chicken Enchilada Filling Made with Fat Free Greek yogurt.
70