The eutrophication of the PotomacRiver is evident from the bright greenwater, caused by a dense bloom ofcyanobacteria.

Eutrophication in a canal

EutrophicationEutrophication (from Greek eutrophos, "well-nourished"),[1] orhypertrophication, is when a body of water becomes overlyenriched with minerals and nutrients which induce excessive growthof algae.[2] This process may result in oxygen depletion of the waterbody.[3] One example is an "algal bloom" or great increase ofphytoplankton in a sandy body as a response to decreased levels ofnutrients. Eutrophication is often induced by the discharge of nitrateor phosphate-containing detergents, fertilizers, or sewage into anaquatic system.

Mechanism of eutrophicationCultural eutrophicationLakes and riversNatural eutrophicationCoastal waters

Terrestrial ecosystemsEcological effects

Decreased biodiversityNew species invasionToxicity

Sources of high nutrient runoffPoint sourcesNonpoint sources

Soil retentionRunoff to surface waterAtmospheric deposition

Other causes

Prevention and reversalShellfish in estuaries: unique solutionsSeaweed farmingMinimizing nonpoint pollution: future work

Riparian buffer zonesPrevention policyNitrogen testing and modelingOrganic farming

Geo-engineering in lakes

See alsoReferences

Contents

Sodium triphosphate, once acomponent of many detergents, wasa major contributor to eutrophication.

External links

Eutrophication most commonly arises from the oversupply of nutrients, most commonly as nitrogen orphosphorus, which leads to overgrowth of plants and algae in aquatic ecosystems. After such organisms die,bacterial degradation of their biomass results in oxygen consumption, thereby creating the state of hypoxia.

According to Ullmann's Encyclopedia, "the primary limiting factor for eutrophication is phosphate." Theavailability of phosphorus generally promotes excessive plant growth and decay, favouring simple algae andplankton over other more complicated plants, and causes a severe reduction in water quality. Phosphorus is anecessary nutrient for plants to live, and is the limiting factor for plant growth in many freshwaterecosystems. Phosphate adheres tightly to soil, so it is mainly transported by erosion. Once translocated tolakes, the extraction of phosphate into water is slow, hence the difficulty of reversing the effects ofeutrophication.[4] However, numerous literature reports that nitrogen is the primary limiting nutrient for theaccumulation of algal biomass.[5]

The sources of these excess phosphates are phosphates in detergent, industrial/domestic run-offs, andfertilizers. With the phasing out of phosphate-containing detergents in the 1970s, industrial/domestic run-offand agriculture have emerged as the dominant contributors to eutrophication.[6]

Cultural eutrophication is the process that speeds up naturaleutrophication because of human activity.[7] Due to clearing of landand building of towns and cities, land runoff is accelerated and morenutrients such as phosphates and nitrate are supplied to lakes andrivers, and then to coastal estuaries and bays. Extra nutrients are alsosupplied by treatment plants, golf courses, fertilizers, farms(including fish farms), as well as untreated sewage in many

countries.[8]

When algae die, they decompose and the nutrients contained in that organic matter are converted intoinorganic form by microorganisms. This decomposition process consumes oxygen, which reduces theconcentration of dissolved oxygen. The depleted oxygen levels in turn may lead to fish kills and a range ofother effects reducing biodiversity. Nutrients may become concentrated in an anoxic zone and may only bemade available again during autumn turn-over or in conditions of turbulent flow. The dead algae and theorganic load carried by the water inflows in to the lake settle at its bottom and undergoes anaerobic digestionreleasing greenhouse gases like methane and CO2. Some part of methane gas is consumed by the anaerobicmethane oxidation bacteria which in turn works as food source to the zooplankton.[9] In case the lake is notdeficit of dissolved oxygen at all depths the aerobic methane oxidation bacteria like Methylococcuscapsulatus can consume most of the methane by releasing CO2 which in turn aid the production of algae.Thus a self-sustaining biological process can take place to generate primary food source for thephytoplankton and zooplankton depending on availability of adequate dissolved oxygen in the water bodieswhich are subjected to higher organic pollution loads.[10] As algae enhances the dissolved oxygen byreleasing oxygen from photosynthesis during the sunshine and consume oxygen by emitting CO2 from itsrespiration during the absence of sunlight, adequate dissolved oxygen availability in water bodies is very

Mechanism of eutrophication

Cultural eutrophication

Lakes and rivers

1. Excess nutrients are applied to thesoil. 2. Some nutrients leach into thesoil where they can remain for years.Eventually, they get drained into thewater body. 3. Some nutrients run offover the ground into the body ofwater. 4. The excess nutrients causean algal bloom. 5. The algal bloomblocks the light of the sun fromreaching the bottom of the waterbody. 6. The plants beneath the algalbloom die because they cannot getsunlight to photosynthesize. 7.Eventually, the algal bloom dies andsinks to the bottom of the lake.Bacteria begins to decompose theremains, using up oxygen forrespiration. 8. The decompositioncauses the water to becomedepleted of oxygen. Larger life forms,such as fish, suffocate to death. Thisbody of water can no longer supportlife.

The eutrophication of the Mono Lakewhich is a cyanobacteria rich Sodalake.

crucial for fisheries production and elimination of green house gasemissions especially during the absence of sunlight in eutrophicwater bodies. The CO2 released by the algae during the absence ofsunlight is stored in the water by reducing the water alkalinity andpH for its use during the sunshine.

Enhanced growth of aquatic vegetation or phytoplankton and algalblooms disrupts normal functioning of the ecosystem, causing avariety of problems such as a lack of oxygen needed for fish andshellfish to survive. The water becomes cloudy, typically coloured ashade of green, yellow, brown, or red. Eutrophication also decreasesthe value of rivers, lakes and aesthetic enjoyment. Health problemscan occur where eutrophic conditions interfere with drinking watertreatment.[11]

Human activities can accelerate the rate at which nutrients enterecosystems. Runoff from agriculture and development, pollutionfrom septic systems and sewers, sewage sludge spreading, and otherhuman-related activities increase the flow of both inorganic nutrientsand organic substances into ecosystems. Elevated levels ofatmospheric compounds of nitrogen can increase nitrogenavailability. Phosphorus is often regarded as the main culprit in casesof eutrophication in lakes subjected to "point source" pollution fromsewage pipes. The concentration of algae and the trophic state oflakes correspond well to phosphorus levels in water. Studiesconducted in the Experimental Lakes Area in Ontario have shown arelationship between the addition of phosphorus and the rate ofeutrophication. Humankind has increased the rate of phosphoruscycling on Earth by four times, mainly due to agricultural fertilizerproduction and application. Between 1950 and 1995, an estimated600,000,000 tonnes of phosphorus was applied to Earth's surface,primarily on croplands.[12]

Although eutrophication is commonly caused by human activities, itcan also be a natural process, particularly in lakes. Eutrophy occursin many lakes in temperate grasslands, for instance.Paleolimnologists now recognise that climate change, geology, andother external influences are critical in regulating the naturalproductivity of lakes. Some lakes also demonstrate the reverseprocess (meiotrophication), becoming less nutrient rich withtime.[13][14] The main difference between natural and anthropogeniceutrophication is that the natural process is very slow, occurring ongeological time scales.[15]

Eutrophication is a common phenomenon in coastal waters. In contrast to freshwater systems wherephosphorus is often the limiting nutrient, nitrogen is more commonly the key limiting nutrient of marinewaters; thus, nitrogen levels have greater importance to understanding eutrophication problems in salt

Natural eutrophication

Coastal waters

water.[16] Estuaries, as the interface between freshwater and saltwater, can be both phosphorus and nitrogenlimited and commonly exhibit symptoms of eutrophication. Eutrophication in estuaries often results inbottom water hypoxia/anoxia, leading to fish kills and habitat degradation[16]. Upwelling in coastal systemsalso promotes increased productivity by conveying deep, nutrient-rich waters to the surface, where thenutrients can be assimilated by algae. Examples of anthropogenic sources of nitrogen-rich pollution tocoastal waters include seacage fish farming and discharges of ammonia from the production of coke fromcoal.

The World Resources Institute has identified 375 hypoxic coastal zones in the world, concentrated in coastalareas in Western Europe, the Eastern and Southern coasts of the US, and East Asia, particularly Japan.[17]

In addition to runoff from land, fish farming wastes and industrial ammonia discharges, atmospheric fixednitrogen can be an important nutrient source in the open ocean. A study in 2008 found that this couldaccount for around one third of the ocean's external (non-recycled) nitrogen supply, and up to 3% of theannual new marine biological production.[18] It has been suggested that accumulating reactive nitrogen inthe environment may prove as serious as putting carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.[19]

Terrestrial ecosystems are subject to similarly adverse impacts from eutrophication.[20] Increased nitrates insoil are frequently undesirable for plants. Many terrestrial plant species are endangered as a result of soileutrophication, such as the majority of orchid species in Europe.[21] Meadows, forests, and bogs arecharacterized by low nutrient content and slowly growing species adapted to those levels, so they can beovergrown by faster growing and more competitive species. In meadows, tall grasses that can takeadvantage of higher nitrogen levels may change the area so that natural species may be lost. Species-richfens can be overtaken by reed or reedgrass species. Forest undergrowth affected by run-off from a nearbyfertilized field can be turned into a nettle and bramble thicket.

Chemical forms of nitrogen are most often of concern with regard to eutrophication, because plants havehigh nitrogen requirements so that additions of nitrogen compounds will stimulate plant growth. Nitrogen isnot readily available in soil because N2, a gaseous form of nitrogen, is very stable and unavailable directly tohigher plants. Terrestrial ecosystems rely on microbial nitrogen fixation to convert N2 into other forms suchas nitrates. However, there is a limit to how much nitrogen can be utilized. Ecosystems receiving morenitrogen than the plants require are called nitrogen-saturated. Saturated terrestrial ecosystems then cancontribute both inorganic and organic nitrogen to freshwater, coastal, and marine eutrophication, wherenitrogen is also typically a limiting nutrient.[22] This is also the case with increased levels of phosphorus.However, because phosphorus is generally much less soluble than nitrogen, it is leached from the soil at amuch slower rate than nitrogen. Consequently, phosphorus is much more important as a limiting nutrient inaquatic systems.[23]

Eutrophication was recognized as a water pollution problem in European and North American lakes andreservoirs in the mid-20th century.[24] Since then, it has become more widespread. Surveys showed that 54%of lakes in Asia are eutrophic; in Europe, 53%; in North America, 48%; in South America, 41%; and inAfrica, 28%.[25] In South Africa, a study by the CSIR using remote sensing has shown more than 60% ofthe dams surveyed were eutrophic.[26] Some South African scientists believe that this figure might be higher[27] with the main source being dysfunctional sewage works that produce more than 4 billion liters a day ofuntreated, or at best partially treated, sewage effluent that discharges into rivers and dams.[28]

Terrestrial ecosystems

Ecological effects

Eutrophication is apparentas increased turbidity in thenorthern part of the CaspianSea, imaged from orbit.

Many ecological effects can arise from stimulating primary production, butthere are three particularly troubling ecological impacts: decreasedbiodiversity, changes in species composition and dominance, and toxicityeffects.

Increased biomass of phytoplanktonToxic or inedible phytoplankton speciesIncreases in blooms of gelatinous zooplanktonIncreased biomass of benthic and epiphytic algaeChanges in macrophyte species composition and biomassDecreases in water transparency (increased turbidity)Colour, smell, and water treatment problemsDissolved oxygen depletionIncreased incidences of fish killsLoss of desirable fish speciesReductions in harvestable fish and shellfishDecreases in perceived aesthetic value of the water body

When an ecosystem experiences an increase in nutrients, primary producers reap the benefits first. In aquaticecosystems, species such as algae experience a population increase (called an algal bloom). Algal bloomslimit the sunlight available to bottom-dwelling organisms and cause wide swings in the amount of dissolvedoxygen in the water. Oxygen is required by all aerobically respiring plants and animals and it is replenishedin daylight by photosynthesizing plants and algae. Under eutrophic conditions, dissolved oxygen greatlyincreases during the day, but is greatly reduced after dark by the respiring algae and by microorganisms thatfeed on the increasing mass of dead algae. When dissolved oxygen levels decline to hypoxic levels, fish andother marine animals suffocate. As a result, creatures such as fish, shrimp, and especially immobile bottomdwellers die off.[29] In extreme cases, anaerobic conditions ensue, promoting growth of bacteria. Zoneswhere this occurs are known as dead zones.

Eutrophication may cause competitive release by making abundant a normally limiting nutrient. Thisprocess causes shifts in the species composition of ecosystems. For instance, an increase in nitrogen mightallow new, competitive species to invade and out-compete original inhabitant species. This has been shownto occur[30] in New England salt marshes. In Europe and Asia, the common carp frequently lives in naturallyEutrophic or Hypereutrophic areas, and is adapted to living in such conditions. The eutrophication of areasoutside its natural range partially explain the fish's success in colonising these areas after being introduced.

Some algal blooms resulting from eutrophication, otherwise called "harmful algal blooms", are toxic toplants and animals. Toxic compounds can make their way up the food chain, resulting in animalmortality.[31] Freshwater algal blooms can pose a threat to livestock. When the algae die or are eaten, neuro-and hepatotoxins are released which can kill animals and may pose a threat to humans.[32][33] An example ofalgal toxins working their way into humans is the case of shellfish poisoning.[34] Biotoxins created duringalgal blooms are taken up by shellfish (mussels, oysters), leading to these human foods acquiring the

Decreased biodiversity

New species invasion

Toxicity

Characteristics of point and nonpoint sources of chemicalinputs (modified from Novonty and Olem 1994)[12]

Point sources

Wastewater effluent (municipal and industrial)Runoff and leachate from waste disposal systemsRunoff and infiltration from animal feedlotsRunoff from mines, oil fields, unsewered industrial sitesOverflows of combined storm and sanitary sewersRunoff from construction sites less than 20,000 m² (220,000 ft²)

Untreated sewage

Nonpoint sources

Runoff from agriculture due to fertilizers and pesticides /irrigationRunoff from pasture and rangeUrban runoff from unsewered areasSeptic tank leachateRunoff from construction sites >20,000 m² (220,000 ft²)Runoff from abandoned minesAtmospheric deposition over a water surfaceOther land activities generating contaminants

toxicity and poisoning humans. Examples include paralytic, neurotoxic, and diarrhoetic shellfish poisoning.Other marine animals can be vectors for such toxins, as in the case of ciguatera, where it is typically apredator fish that accumulates the toxin and then poisons humans.

In order to gauge how to best preventeutrophication from occurring, specific sourcesthat contribute to nutrient loading must beidentified. There are two common sources ofnutrients and organic matter: point and nonpointsources.

Point sources are directly attributable to oneinfluence. In point sources the nutrient wastetravels directly from source to water. Pointsources are relatively easy to regulate.

Nonpoint source pollution (also known as'diffuse' or 'runoff' pollution) is that which comesfrom ill-defined and diffuse sources. Nonpointsources are difficult to regulate and usually varyspatially and temporally (with season,precipitation, and other irregular events).

It has been shown that nitrogen transport is correlated with various indices of human activity inwatersheds,[35][36] including the amount of development.[30] Ploughing in agriculture and development areactivities that contribute most to nutrient loading. There are three reasons that nonpoint sources areespecially troublesome:[23]

Nutrients from human activities tend to accumulate in soils and remain there for years. It has been shown[37]

that the amount of phosphorus lost to surface waters increases linearly with the amount of phosphorus in thesoil. Thus much of the nutrient loading in soil eventually makes its way to water. Nitrogen, similarly, has aturnover time of decades.

Nutrients from human activities tend to travel from land to either surface or ground water. Nitrogen inparticular is removed through storm drains, sewage pipes, and other forms of surface runoff. Nutrient lossesin runoff and leachate are often associated with agriculture. Modern agriculture often involves theapplication of nutrients onto fields in order to maximise production. However, farmers frequently applymore nutrients than are taken up by crops[38] or pastures. Regulations aimed at minimising nutrient exportsfrom agriculture are typically far less stringent than those placed on sewage treatment plants[12] and other

Sources of high nutrient runoff

Point sources

Nonpoint sources

Soil retention

Runoff to surface water

point source polluters. It should be also noted that lakes within forested land are also under surface runoffinfluences. Runoff can wash out the mineral nitrogen and phosphorus from detritus and in consequencesupply the water bodies leading to slow, natural eutrophication.[39]

Nitrogen is released into the air because of ammonia volatilization and nitrous oxide production. Thecombustion of fossil fuels is a large human-initiated contributor to atmospheric nitrogen pollution.Atmospheric nitrogen reaches the ground by two different processes, the first being wet deposition such asrain or snow, and the second being dry deposition which is particles and gases found in the air.[40]

Atmospheric deposition (e.g., in the form of acid rain) can also affect nutrient concentration in water,[41]

especially in highly industrialized regions.

Any factor that causes increased nutrient concentrations can potentially lead to eutrophication. In modelingeutrophication, the rate of water renewal plays a critical role; stagnant water is allowed to collect morenutrients than bodies with replenished water supplies. It has also been shown that the drying of wetlandscauses an increase in nutrient concentration and subsequent eutrophication blooms.[42]

Eutrophication poses a problem not only to ecosystems, but to humans as well. Reducing eutrophicationshould be a key concern when considering future policy, and a sustainable solution for everyone, includingfarmers and ranchers, seems feasible. While eutrophication does pose problems, humans should be awarethat natural runoff (which causes algal blooms in the wild) is common in ecosystems and should thus notreverse nutrient concentrations beyond normal levels. Cleanup measures have been mostly, but notcompletely, successful. Finnish phosphorus removal measures started in the mid-1970s and have targetedrivers and lakes polluted by industrial and municipal discharges. These efforts have had a 90% removalefficiency.[43] Still, some targeted point sources did not show a decrease in runoff despite reduction efforts.

One proposed solution to stop and reverse eutrophication in estuaries is to restore shellfish populations, suchas oysters and mussels. Oyster reefs remove nitrogen from the water column and filter out suspended solids,subsequently reducing the likelihood or extent of harmful algal blooms or anoxic conditions.[44] Filterfeeding activity is considered beneficial to water quality[45] by controlling phytoplankton density andsequestering nutrients, which can be removed from the system through shellfish harvest, buried in thesediments, or lost through denitrification.[46][47] Foundational work toward the idea of improving marinewater quality through shellfish cultivation was conducted by Odd Lindahl et al., using mussels inSweden.[48] In the United States, shellfish restoration projects have been conducted on the East, West andGulf coasts.[49] See nutrient pollution for an extended explanation of nutrient remediation using shellfish.

Seaweed aquaculture offers an opportunities to mitigate, and adapt to climate change. [50]Seaweed, such askelp, also absorbs phosphorus and nitrogen[51] and is thus useful to remove excessive nutrients frompolluted parts of the sea.[52] Some cultivated seaweeds have a very high productivity and could absorb large

Atmospheric deposition

Other causes

Prevention and reversal

Shellfish in estuaries: unique solutions

Seaweed farming

quantities of N, P, CO2, producing large amount of O2 have an excellent effect on decreasingeutrophication. [53] It is believed that seaweed cultivation in large scale should be a good solution to theeutrophication problem in costal waters.

Nonpoint pollution is the most difficult source of nutrients to manage. The literature suggests, though, thatwhen these sources are controlled, eutrophication decreases. The following steps are recommended tominimize the amount of pollution that can enter aquatic ecosystems from ambiguous sources.

Studies show that intercepting non-point pollution between the source and the water is a successful means ofprevention.[12] Riparian buffer zones are interfaces between a flowing body of water and land, and havebeen created near waterways in an attempt to filter pollutants; sediment and nutrients are deposited hereinstead of in water. Creating buffer zones near farms and roads is another possible way to prevent nutrientsfrom traveling too far. Still, studies have shown[54] that the effects of atmospheric nitrogen pollution canreach far past the buffer zone. This suggests that the most effective means of prevention is from the primarysource.

Laws regulating the discharge and treatment of sewage have led to dramatic nutrient reductions tosurrounding ecosystems,[23] but it is generally agreed that a policy regulating agricultural use of fertilizerand animal waste must be imposed. In Japan the amount of nitrogen produced by livestock is adequate toserve the fertilizer needs for the agriculture industry.[55] Thus, it is not unreasonable to command livestockowners to clean up animal waste—which when left stagnant will leach into ground water.

Policy concerning the prevention and reduction of eutrophication can be broken down into four sectors:Technologies, public participation, economic instruments, and cooperation.[56] The term technology is usedloosely, referring to a more widespread use of existing methods rather than an appropriation of newtechnologies. As mentioned before, nonpoint sources of pollution are the primary contributors toeutrophication, and their effects can be easily minimized through common agricultural practices. Reducingthe amount of pollutants that reach a watershed can be achieved through the protection of its forest cover,reducing the amount of erosion leeching into a watershed. Also, through the efficient, controlled use of landusing sustainable agricultural practices to minimize land degradation, the amount of soil runoff andnitrogen-based fertilizers reaching a watershed can be reduced.[57] Waste disposal technology constitutesanother factor in eutrophication prevention. Because a major contributor to the nonpoint source nutrientloading of water bodies is untreated domestic sewage, it is necessary to provide treatment facilities to highlyurbanized areas, particularly those in underdeveloped nations, in which treatment of domestic waste water isa scarcity.[58] The technology to safely and efficiently reuse waste water, both from domestic and industrialsources, should be a primary concern for policy regarding eutrophication.

The role of the public is a major factor for the effective prevention of eutrophication. In order for a policy tohave any effect, the public must be aware of their contribution to the problem, and ways in which they canreduce their effects. Programs instituted to promote participation in the recycling and elimination of wastes,as well as education on the issue of rational water use are necessary to protect water quality withinurbanized areas and adjacent water bodies.

Minimizing nonpoint pollution: future work

Riparian buffer zones

Prevention policy

Application of a phosphorus sorbentto a lake - The Netherlands

Economic instruments, "which include, among others, property rights, water markets, fiscal and financialinstruments, charge systems and liability systems, are gradually becoming a substantive component of themanagement tool set used for pollution control and water allocation decisions."[56] Incentives for those whopractice clean, renewable, water management technologies are an effective means of encouraging pollutionprevention. By internalizing the costs associated with the negative effects on the environment, governmentsare able to encourage a cleaner water management.

Because a body of water can have an effect on a range of people reaching far beyond that of the watershed,cooperation between different organizations is necessary to prevent the intrusion of contaminants that canlead to eutrophication. Agencies ranging from state governments to those of water resource managementand non-governmental organizations, going as low as the local population, are responsible for preventingeutrophication of water bodies. In the United States, the most well known inter-state effort to preventeutrophication is the Chesapeake Bay.[59]

Soil Nitrogen Testing (N-Testing) is a technique that helps farmers optimize the amount of fertilizer appliedto crops. By testing fields with this method, farmers saw a decrease in fertilizer application costs, a decreasein nitrogen lost to surrounding sources, or both.[60] By testing the soil and modeling the bare minimumamount of fertilizer are needed, farmers reap economic benefits while reducing pollution.

There has been a study that found that organically fertilized fields "significantly reduce harmful nitrateleaching" compared to conventionally fertilized fields.[61] However, a more recent study found thateutrophication impacts are in some cases higher from organic production than they are from conventionalproduction.[62]

Geo-engineering is the manipulation of biogeochemical processes,usually the phosphorus cycle, to achieve a desired ecologicalresponse in the ecosystem.[63] Geo-engineering techniques typicallyuses materials able to chemically inactivate the phosphorus availablefor organisms (i.e. phosphate) in the water column and also blockthe phosphate release from the sediment (internal loading).[64]

Phosphate is one of the main contributing factors to algal growth,mainly cyanobacteria, so once phosphate is reduced the algal is notable to overgrow.[65] Thus, geo-engineering materials is used tospeed-up the recovery of eutrophic water bodies and manage algalbloom.[66] There are several phosphate sorbents in the literature,from metal salts (e.g. alum, aluminium sulfate,[67]) minerals, naturalclays and local soils, industrial waste products, modified clays (e.g. lanthanum modified bentonite) andothers.[68][69] The phosphate sorbent is commonly applied in the surface of the water body and it sinks to thebottom of the lake reducing phosphate, such sorbents have been applied worldwide to manageeutrophication and algal bloom.[70][71][72][73][74][75]

Algal bloom – Rapid increase or accumulation in the population of planktonic algae

Nitrogen testing and modeling

Organic farming

Geo-engineering in lakes

See also

Anaerobic digestion – Processes by which microorganisms break down biodegradablematerial in the absence of oxygenAuxanography – The study of the effects of changes in environment on the growth ofmicroorganisms, by means of auxanogramsBiodilutionBiogeochemical cycle – Cycling of substances through biotic and abiotic compartments ofEarthCoastal fishDrainage basin – Area of land where precipitation collects and drains off into a common outletFish killHypoxia (environmental) – Low environmental oxygen levelsHypoxia in fish – Response of fish to environmental hypoxiaLake ErieLake ecosystemLimnology – The science of inland aquatic ecosystemsNitrogen cycle – Biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into various chemicalformsNo-till farming – Agricultural method which does not disturb soil through tillage.Nutrient pollutionOlszewski tube – A pipe designed to bring oxygen-poor water from the bottom of a lake to thetopOutwelling – Hypothetical process by which coastal salt marshes and mangroves produce anexcess amount of carbon which moves to surrounding areasPhoslockResidual sodium carbonate indexRiparian zoneSoda lake – Lake that is strongly alkalineUpland and lowland (freshwater ecology)

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