EUROPE: AGES OF

REVOLUTIONS

1750 - 1914

COMMERCIAL IDEOLOGIES IN 1750• Industry and Commerce dominate the thinking of this age• Mercantilism

– Limited amount of wealth in the world• If one nation benefited, another suffered• Goal is to maximize nation’s portion of trade• Goal is to exclude competition from markets and monopolize wealth

– Governments pass legislation to support domestic commerce• Trade incentives for local producers• Establish economic, legal barriers to outside trade

– Governments support colonization, imperialism• Colonization: find homes for excess population• Imperialism provides markets, resources for domestic industry• Foreign possessions bring glory, wealth to the nation

– Almost every nation in the world subscribes to this theory– French, Colbert were major proponents of theory

• Free Trade– Wealth is not finite but can be created– To maximize wealth, allow people, industry to compete freely– Governments exist to protect competition, not guarantee success– UK, US (American colonies), Dutch are free traders

• Adam Smith and the Wealth of Nation– Intellectual father of capitalism, free trade– Ideas came to dominate US, Great Britain– By 1914

• UK was 1st in world, US was 3rd

• English, American companies dominated world trade, finance, industry, capital• Even Germany, 2nd practiced the doctrine often

ECONOMIC EXCHANGES IN 1750

• Domestic Trade– Most commerce is internal– Most markets sought autarky: self-sufficiency– Greatest amount of GDP would be internal– Workers, farmers do not generate for export

• International Trade– Conditions of Trade

• Mercantilism predominates• International trade tends to be limited to cash crops, finished luxuries• Western Europe dominates most trade• Only Eastern Asia has the ability to rival, challenge Western Europe

– Trade Markets• Western European exports and imports

– Exports: finished products, finished luxuries– Imports: raw materials, minerals, primary crop luxuries

• Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, Northern Europe, SW Asia– Imports: finished products, finished luxuries– Exports: minerals, primary products, grains

• Americas including Caribbean, South Asia– Imports: finished products, finished luxuries– Exports: minerals, primary products, cash crops

• Eastern Asia– Exports: finished products, finished luxuries, cloths, silks– Imports: minerals (silver), luxuries, luxury food– Note: most economies limit European influence, contacts

• Africa– Imports: finished products, finished luxuries, cash crops– Exports: slaves, ivory, gold, cloves

– Triangular Trade between Americas, Europe, Africa

TRADE IN 1750

ECONOMIC EXCHANGES IN 1914• Saw the rise of international trade

– Trade involved all types of products, goods for first time– Entire world involved: all continents, peoples effected– Some nations traded to exist: made their wealth off of trade– Very few nations produced finished goods for international market (core)– Most nations supplied world markets with raw materials (periphery)– Nations had begun to specialize in trade (we cannot produce everything)

• Terms of Trade– Most items traded were finished goods, industrial products– Wealthy nations tended to trade with each other– Western Colonies, Latin America, all of Asia except Japan

• Only accounted for a small part of trade• Generally exported primary products, imported finished products

– Nations began negotiating trade agreements• The US and later UK came to favor open markets (markets open to all)• Most favored nation status was goal: partners traded as equals

• Rise of international capital markets– Domestic profit needed to be invested, sometimes best opportunities abroad– Money invested abroad to reap benefits at home– Rise of international banks, investment opportunities

• Rise of Multinational Corporations– Corporations had branches, outlets in other nations– Facilitated the transfer of technology, ideas, people between continents

• International Economic Exchanges– Linked the world better than most ideologies– Was an instrument of revolutionary change to traditional societies– Was a threat to traditional societies

• Rise of international communism, socialism as reactions to international wealth

TRADE IN 1914

2ND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION• In 1750 the world was largely subsistence agriculture

– Rhythms of regional agricultural societies based on seasons, surroundings

– Small plots, rural villages, no export: exception were Russia, Baltic• Began in England but also occurred in Western Europe, US, Asia

– Outgrowth of Columbian Exchange– Outgrowth of the Scientific Revolution

• Enclosure Act– Larger landowners begin to enclose lands

• Began with enclosure of public lands• Done legally to increase yields of large landowners• Then took smaller farms, plots away from poor farmers• Done with support of Parliament

– Results• Moved small, inefficient farms into better productivity• Brought new lands under cultivation• Freed labor for factories and swelled population in cities

• The Revolution– New Foodstuffs planted; new styles of crop rotations– Selected breeds of cattle, dairy cattle, sheep– Technology, science applied to farming

• Agricultural Revolution followed European imperialism– Europeans brought their crops, animals with them– Europeans began exploiting cash crops for commercial profit abroad

FROM PEASANTS TO FARMERS• The process, while social, began with technology, science

– Agronomy and animal husbandry replaced herding• Selective breeding, splicing, experimentation• Crop varieties, fertilizers to enrich soil

– Farming machinery introduced• Thrashers, reapers, seed drills, tractors• Muscle , animal power replaced by machines• Barbed wire was a revolution

– Transport, preservation made export possible• Trains, ships with large holds• Grain silos, refrigerator ships, canning, food processors

• Subsistence Agriculture becomes commercial farming– Western Europe, US, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay– Australia, New Zealand, parts of India, China, Japan

• On the other hand, in some countries– Peasants went from masters of their own work– To hands for someone else’s work, or someone else’s work

hands– Russia, Eastern Europe, Africa, parts of Latin America, SE Asia

COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURE• Commercial agriculture was a revolution 1750 – 1914

– Cash crops: crops grown for profitable export– Often luxuries or non-necessities with high profit margins– Two bottlenecks (natural hindrance to profitable production)

• Many are labor intensive: solution – slavery, paid agricultural workers• Many require extensive processing, preservation to be useful: solution –

technology– Commercial agriculture is heavily damaging to the environment, soil

• First arose during 16th century colonialism– Caribbean, Brazilian, SE Asian plantations– Latin American haciendas, rancheros– First export crops: sugar, hides, wool, spices

• Expanded in 18th century– British North American colonies

• Added tobacco, indigo, rice• Naval stores (trees, pitch, tar)

– Asia added tea, coffee, opium, cloves– Americas added cocoa, coffee

• Industrial Revolution made additional possible more– Cotton (seeds); rubber, oil (synthesizing)– Beef, mutton, grains, dairy (long-term preservation, get to market

on time)– The rest of world, especially Africa enormously effected– Many areas of world taken from feeding people to exporting for

profit

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION• The first revolution in an era of change, revolution• 1780s Breakthrough in productivity

– Mechanization of factory, labor– Production of vast quantities of goods– Decreasing costs of goods

• Preceded by other revolutions and changes in attitude– Scientific, Commercial Enlightenment, Agricultural– Change in mindset

• New Ideas• Risk takers

– Massive markets for products– Improved organizational skills– Upsurge in technology

• Inventors apply science to life, work• Many new inventions

– Capitalization and Finance• Profits from trade, colonies• Invested in Europe

– Institutional changes• Limited government of a constitutional democracy• Notion that government should be minimally involved in

economy

FOUNDATIONS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION• Coal critical to the early industrialization of Britain

– Shift from wood to coal in 18TH century; deforestation caused wood shortages – Abundant, accessible coal reserves in Britain

• Overseas colonies provided raw materials, capital – Plantations in the Americas provided sugar and cotton – Colonies also became markets for British manufactured goods – Grain, timber, and beef shipped from United States to Britain after 1830– Profits from sugar funded banks, provided investment capital

• Demand for cheap cotton spurred mechanization of cotton industry

– John Kay invented the flying shuttle, 1733 – Samuel Crompton invented the spinning "mule," 1779 – Edmund Cartwright invented a water-driven power loom, 1785

• James Watt's steam engine, 1765 – Burned coal, which drove a piston, which turned a wheel – Widespread use by 1800 meant increased productivity, cheaper prices

• Iron and steel also important industries, with continual refinement

– Coke (purified coal) replaced charcoal as principal fuel – Bessemer converter (1856) made cheaper, stronger steel

• Transportation improved with steam engines and improved steel – George Stephenson invented the first steam-powered locomotive, 1815 – Steamships began to replace sailing ships in the mid-nineteenth century – Railroads and steamships lowered transportation costs – Created dense transportation networks

IMAGES OF INVENTION

INDUSTRIAL CAUSE & EFFECT

SPINNING <-------------------------------------> WEAVING

(EX: Spinning Jenny)

+(EX: Flying

shuttle)

Machines become heavier, thus

Extra power is needed, thus

Watermills, steam engine invented, thus

Emergence of factory system, replacing cottage industry;

Because production must be concentrated near the power source, and

machines become too expensive to be owned by workers, thus

Profound social transformations, thus

Urban influx, crowding, unprecedented social problems thus

Workers organize, government passes laws and reforms, unions begin to arise

FACTORY SYSTEM• The factory

– Gradually replaced the putting-out system – Factory system required division of labor– Each worker performed a single task – Required a high degree of coordination– Work discipline, close supervision

• Working conditions often harsh – Workers lost status

• Not skilled• Just wage earners

– Harsh work discipline– Fast pace of work– Frequent accidents

• Industrial protest – Saboteurs

• Flemish workers throw wooden shoes into machines• Shoes were called sabots hence saboteur

– Luddites in England • Struck against mills and destroyed machines, 1811 and

1816 • Fourteen Luddites hung in 1813, and the movement

died– Weaver rebellions in Germany against power looms

SPREAD OF INDUSTRIALIZATION• The First Industrial Revolution

– Largely Atlantic based 1750 – 1850 • British industrial monopoly

– 1750 to 1800– Forbade immigration of skilled workers

• Continental System of Napoleon– Abolished internal trade barriers in western Europe, sped up process– Dismantled guilds

• Belgium, France – Moved toward industrialization by mid-nineteenth century– Belgium was first as it most resembled England, closest ports

• Germany– Bismarck sponsored heavy industry, arms, shipping– Built railroads to move German army around, benefiting commerce– Rails required steel, coal– Eventually developed chemicals, electrical industries

• The United States– Slow to start: few laborers, little capital – Cotton and Textiles began revolution

• British craftsmen started cotton textile industry in New England, 1820s• Southern cotton was going to England, diverted to New England factories• New England most resembled Old England conditions

– Civil War led to explosion of steel, iron, armaments, clothing, food production

– Rail networks developed in 1860s• Integrated various regions of United States• Facilitated export markets, development of ports

– Developed electrical, transportation industries

MAPPING THE REVOLUTION

INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM• Mass production

– Provided cheaper goods for all classes of society– Eli Whitney

• Mass production of interchangeable parts for firearms• Cotton Gin made cotton harvesting, production cheaper

– Henry Ford • Introduced assembly line • Applied to automobile production

• Industrialization– Expensive– Required large capital investment

• Structural Changes of Industry– Large-scale corporations with investors – New laws protected investors from liability

• Monopolies, trusts, and cartels– Competitive associations – Vertical organization (Monopoly)

• One company controls all aspects of production within a single industry• One company dominates whole market• Oil: Drilling, processing, refining, by-products• Rockefeller's Standard Oil Co. (Exxon)

– Horizontal organization (Trusts or cartel)• Owns all industries from manufacturing to marketing of a common

product • Group of companies work together to control market, all aspects of

products• IG Farben: world's largest chemical company

– Most countries distrustful of monopolies although cartels tolerated

GENERALIZED EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

• Increased Population• Increased Urbanization• Increased migration, immigration• Increased wealth• Spread of wealth to middle class• New consumerism• New roles for women, poor, minorities• Change in child rearing, childhood• Rise of a technical, managerial class• Invention of leisure time, common culture• Increasing demand for social reform, worker rights• Increased life span, living standard; decreased

death rate• Emancipation of slaves, serfs

WESTERN INDUSTRY & FAMILIES• New social classes created by industrialization

– Captains of industry: a new aristocracy of wealth – Middle class: managers, accountants, new professionals – Working class: unskilled, poorly paid, vulnerable

• Dramatic changes to the industrial family – Sharp distinction between work and family life– Worked long hours outside home – Family members led increasingly separate lives

• Fathers and Sons – Gained increased stature, responsibility in industrial age – Middle- and upper-class men were sole providers – Valued self-improvement, discipline, and work ethic – Imposed these values on working-class men

• Workers often resisted work discipline • Working-class culture: bars, sports, gambling, outlets away from work

• Mothers and daughters – Opportunities narrowed by industrialization – Working women could not bring children to work in mines or factories – Middle-class women expected to care for home and children – Increased opportunities for women to work in domestic service

• Children– Many children forced to work in industry to contribute to family

support – 1840s, Parliament began to regulate child labor – 1881, primary education became mandatory in England

POPULATION GROWTH• The Fruits of Industry

– Industrialization raised material standards of living• Mass production made luxuries into common goods• Workers received pay and able to buy goods, foods

– Better diets and improved sanitation • Reduced death rate of adults and children• Reduced deaths due to childbirth• Increased life span• Decreased infant mortality• Declining birthrate in response to declining mortality • Voluntary birth control through contraception

– Impact on Population• Populations of Europe, America, 1700 to 1900• Asia populations rose due to food supplies• Increasing urbanization especially of

– Port cities– Industrial cities

• World Effects– Change typical of industrialized countries– In Non-Western Nations

• During 19th century very little change• Change confined to port cities• Japan was the exception

DOMESTIC MIGRATION• Industrialization

– Drew migrants from countryside to urban centers – By 1900, In Europe and Anglo-North America

• 50 percent of population of industrialized nations lived in towns • More than 150 cities with over 100,000 people

– Urban problems• Shoddy houses, fouled air, inadequate water • By late 19th century

– Governments passed legislation to clean up cities – Passed building codes, built sewer systems

• Internal Migration– Settlement of Frontiers by population centers

• Existing populations expand into plains, prairies• Facilitated by railroads, technology

– Examples• Westward Movement in USA, Canada, Australia• Settlement of Siberia by Russia• Great Trek by Afrikaaners• Chinese settlement of Yangtze, west, Manchuria• Settlement of Brazilian, Argentine interior plains

ENVIRONMENTAL DEGREDATION• First era in history when environment seriously threatened by humans• Causes of Environmental Stress

– Industrialization• Pollution increased significantly especially in cities, water• Ability to destroy land for resources increased due to technology• Examples: Industrial areas of Western Europe, Eastern USA

– Technology• Iincreased production on land, from resources• Marginal lands could be settled, exploited

– Demographic Stress• Urbanization, expanding cities destroyed habitats• High Population Densities supported by food• Many acres moved to unproductive status• Examples: Western Europe, Asian/Indian port cities

– Environmental Shift• Farming, ranching changed face of landscape

– Ranch animals introduced new fauna, diseases, threats– Farming horticulture introduced new flora– Examples: Americas, Australia, New Zealand, Africa, Hawaii

• Switch from subsistence agriculture to commercial agriculture changed face of environment

• Forests were the most effected by this shift– Extinction, Endangerment of Flora, Fauna

• Overfishing of areas began, overforesting of areas• Many died out due to competition from domestic flora, fauna• Many were exterminated due to hunting: Passenger Pigeon, Dodo• Examples: United States, Australia, New Zealand

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION• Malthusian Economics

– Predicted human population always outpaced food, supplies– Only natural disasters, wars, famine keep population low– Did not figure in technology, inventions, science

• Key Characteristics– Population

• Increased from 900 million (1800) to 1.6 billion (1900)• In Europe, Asia, North America• Scientific, medical advances

– Increase life span, infant survival rate– Decrease death rate, death of mother during childbirth– New hygiene

– Food supply increases• Lightly, uninhabited areas brought under cultivation• World trade allows for foods to reach areas quicker• Staples in world trade due to refrigeration, canning, ships• Agronomy, animal husbandry increase yields, variety, quality

– Fruits of the Columbian Exchange– Many nations begin to export quantities of wheat, meat

– Population Movements• Internal Migration to unsettled lands, international Migrations• Urbanization• End of Slave Trade necessitated labor based migration

GRAPHING MALTHUS & DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION

LIMITS TO REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS• Testing the limits of revolutionary ideals: women's rights

– Enlightenment call for equality not generally extended to women • Women used logic of Locke to argue for women's rights • Mary Astell attacked male dominance in the family • Mary Wollstonecraft: women possessed same natural rights as men

– Women crucial to revolutionary activities • French revolution granted women rights of education, property, no vote • Olympe de Gouges's declaration of full citizenship for women too radical • Women made no significant gains in other revolutions

– Gained ground in the nineteenth century in United States and Europe• Seneca Falls Declaration of Women’s Rights• Women involved in abolitionist, temperance, reform movements

• Testing the limits of revolutionary ideals: slavery – Movements to end slave trade

• Began in 1700s, gained momentum during revolutions • In 1807 British Parliament outlawed slave trade • US ended it in 1807; other states followed • Illegal slave trade to Brazil, in Africa, internal within US continued

– Movements to abolish slavery: difficult because of property rights • In Haiti, much of South America, end of slavery came with independence • In Western society, campaign against slave trade became abolish slavery

– Abolition • In Britain in 1833, France in 1848, the United States in 1865, Brazil in 1888• Last areas to abolish slavery were Africa and Muslim world• Abolition brought legal freedom for slaves but not political equality

CHANGES IN WESTERN SOCIETY AFTER 1850

• Changes for workers– Better wages– Decrease of working hours– Rise of leisure time– Increased health, physical risks

• Growth of white collar work force– Managerial– Entrepreneurial– Bureaucratic workers of government– Secretarial, office workers

• Growth of blue collar work force– Industrial– Technical– Miners

• Decrease in ratio of farmers to whole society– Technology increased productivity– Increased productivity lower prices, reduced need for farmers– Farmers began to migrate to cities, industry; immigrate abroad

• Increased roles for women due to industrialization, education

WOMEN IN SOCIETY• Active in Revolutions, Change but limited results 1750-1914

– Women served as auxiliaries to men– Would not press changes– Women tended to lack mass support

• From legislators• From other women

• Female revolutionaries– Tended to put class interests above gender issues

• Favored social reform, economic relief• Initially very influential in French Revolution

– Women belief that their place was at home, with children– Restoration of Conservative elite often limited any gains by women

• Post-Revolutionary Era Women’s Rights– Industrialization radically altered working women’s roles publicly and

privately• Women moved into the work force in great numbers• Women began to earn some money, independence, began to organize• Women often still held responsible for home, children, family too

– Political activism, issues resurrected by middle class, upper class women– Learned to publish and to organize; promoted education – Political activism tended towards

• Opposition to state supported prostitution• Aide to unwed mothers, orphans, widows with children• Temperance Leagues were largely dominated by women• Women became very active in abolitionism, peace movements

• Suffrage Movement– Women demanded right to vote; strongest in settler countries where

women had major influence– Came slowly: 1 nation in 1900; 3 in 1910; 15 in 1920

CULT OF DOMESTICITY• Gender and Social Changes produced Industrial, Agriculture

Revolutions – Decreased death rate from child birth– Women tend to have fewer children as more survive– Death of women in child birth falls– Raises live span of women over that of men– First time women began to live longer than men

• 19TH Century Social Ideal– Women were expected to take care of family

• Children, home were more important• Women expected to have children, look after the family

– Public roles of women limited• Industrial Revolution changes, threatens ideal

– Women acquire a public role• Women admitted to work force in great numbers• Acquired purchasing power, influence• Acquired increased independence from husbands• Extra income helped family, increased family health

– Reality Was• Female workers not treated same as males• Women with families still had to take care of families

• Child Rearing Changes– Prior to 19th century: 1/3 children die in first year – not much attachment

until one year old– More interest in children as they survive; fewer children in family; more

quality time– Relationship between children, parents now much closer– Tendency to introduce earlier childhood education, compulsory primary

education

THE FIRST “WORLD” WARS• 1750 - 1765

– War of Austrian Succession and Rise of Prussia• France, Spain, England, Portugal, Dutch, Russia, Sweden in wars• Rise of Prussia as a great power, England as a super power• Showed balance of power doctrine at its fullest

– Colonial Wars• Battles fought around the world

– Colonies changed hands, colonials effected– English, French contest for North America– France lost influence in North America, Caribbean, India

• England emerges as world’s super power– British navy rules seas unopposed– Acquires former French North American colonies– Acquires preeminent influence in India– Acquires right to supply slaves to Spanish Americas– Spain, Portugal, Dutch no longer great powers

• American Revolution 1776 – 1783 and the Wider World Impact– British colonists revolt, inspired by Enlightenment– American ships ranged seas attacking English– Dutch, French, Spanish support colonial efforts

• Dispatch aid, ships, troops to fight British in colonies, on seas• Spain invades English colonies to support colonists

– Russians, Prussian, Swedes pledge an armed neutrality against UK– Treaty of Ghent ends war, gives Americans independence– Canada begins to rise as British loyalists immigrate to area– Great impact, influence on Latin Americans, European reformers

• The Economic Impact– UK fought to protect its Caribbean Sugar islands as more important the 13

colonies– Forced British to develop Canada as an alternative to the 13 colonies– Led to bankruptcy of France and French Revolution

REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS• Revolution

– A popular idea, means to an end– A way to restructure society

• Popular sovereignty– Relocating sovereignty in the people – Traditional monarchs

• Claimed a "divine right" to rule• Derived from God, unquestionable• Monarch unanswerable to people

– Constitutional Limitations• Aristocracy, Enlightenment challenged king• Glorious Revolution of 1688

– Made the monarch responsible to the people – John Locke's theory of contractual government– Authority comes from the consent of the governed

• Freedom and equality– Demands for freedom of worship – Freedom of expression, assembly – Demands for political and legal equality

• Condemned legal, social privileges of aristocrats • Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract

– Equality not extended to all• Women, Peasants, laborers, slaves, or people of color• Originally only extended to tax paying males with education

– Ideals of Enlightenment were significant global influence

TYPES OF REVOLUTIONS• Aristocratic Revolution

– Aristocracy fights to preserve privileges• Often against royal absolutism• Rarely for other classes rights• Usually ends with constitution, limits on monarchy

– English Glorious Revolution (1688) is an example

• Bourgeois (liberal) Revolution– Middle class seeks rights equal to nobility

• Extension of franchise, ability to hold office• Issues of taxation often involved• Reforms limited and rarely radical, franchise limited

– American (1776), French (1789)– French Revolutions 1830, 1848

• Mass revolutions– Most of society effected and involved

• Often goals are quite radical• Methods to achieve are often quite violent

– Nationalist Revolutions• Polish Revolutions of 1830, 1863• Belgian Revolution (1830), Greek Revolution (1822)• Italian, German, Austrian, Hungarian Revolutions (1848)

– Socialist Revolutions• Worker-Oriented or Peasant-Oriented• Parisian Communard (1870), Russian Revolution (1905)

REFORM• Often system allowed change without radical means,

violence• Reform was a theme of 1750 – 1914• Reform movements

– Increased, responsive democratic representation, institutions• Expansion of male suffrage was the key issue• One of the hallmarks of a democratic society• Very successful in US, Western Europe, British settler colonies,

Japan• Less so in Latin America, Russia, Eastern Europe, Africa, Asia

– Abolition of slavery, serfdom• Abolition movement was very successful• Other forms of coercive labor replaced them• Racial, social equality did not follow

– Women Rights• One goal was full female franchise• Not achieved until after 1914 but progress

– Reform Movements• Spanish Bourbon Reforms (1780s)• Pombal’s Reforms Portugal (1780s)• Chartist Movement (1820s)• Great Reform Movement (1830s)• Progressive Movement, US (1890s)

FRENCH REVOLUTION & NAPOLEON• Summoning the Estates General

– Financial crisis: half of government revenue went to national debt – King Louis XVI forced to summon Estates General to raise new taxes – Many representatives wanted sweeping political and social reform – First and Second Estates (nobles, clergy) tried to limit Third Estate (commoners)

• National Assembly – Formed by representatives of Third Estate, 17 June 1789 – Demanded a written constitution and popular sovereignty – Angry mob seized the Bastille on 14 July, sparked insurrections in many cities – National Assembly wrote the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen"– "Liberty, equality, and fraternity“: slogan and values of the National Assembly – The Assembly abolished the feudal system, altered the role of church – France became a constitutional monarchy, 1791

• The Convention and the Reign of Terror – Replaced National Assembly under new constitution, 1791 – Austrian and Prussian armies invaded France to restore ancien régime – Convention abolished the monarchy and proclaimed France a republic – King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette executed, 1793 – Radical Jacobins dominated Convention in 1793-94 in "reign of terror" – Revolutionary changes: in religion, dress, calendar, women's rights

• The Directory, 1795-1799 – A conservative reaction against the excesses of the Convention – Executed the Jacobin leader Robespierre, July 1794

• Napoleonic France was Enlightened Despotism– Brought stability: blended monarchy, autocracy, democracy – Made peace with the Roman Catholic church and pope– Reformed French economic, banking system: mercantilism – Extended freedom of religion to Protestants and Jews – Civil Code of 1804: political and legal equality for all adult men– Code Napoleon: becomes one of the world’s great legal traditions – Restricted individual freedom, especially speech and press

THE POLITICAL SPECTRUM

THE FRENCH & NAPOLEON• An Era of Global Conflict from 1792 to 1814• French Revolution as Interaction

– French revolutionary success sparked interest throughout Europe, Americas

– Many revolutionary regimes set up by French armies in Italy, Germany– Haiti rebels during French Revolution– Spanish American colonies achieve independence

• Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) – Brilliant military leader; upset the Balance of Power– Became general in royal army at 24 – Supported the revolution; defended the Directory – His invasion of Egypt was defeated by British army – Overthrew Directory; named himself consul for life

• Napoleon's empire– 1804, proclaimed himself emperor – Dominated the European continent

• Annexed lands in Italy, Netherlands, Germany, Spain; controlled other thrones• Defeated Austria and Prussia, Occupied Spain and Portugal, allied with Scandinavia

– Perennial Enemy: Great Britain who controlled the high seas – Disastrous invasions of Spain, Russia in 1812 destroyed Grand Army

• The fall of Napoleon – Forced by coalition of enemies to abdicate in 1814, exiled on Elba – Escaped, returned to France, raised army– Defeated by British in 1815 at Waterloo, exiled to St. Helena

• Collapse of much of Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, French empires• Great Britain became literally the only surviving major colonial power

EUROPE 1812 & 1815

EMERGENCE OF IDEOLOGIES• Congress of Vienna was a Conservative restoration

– Restored Balance of Power; ruled through great powers– Monarchy was at heart of conservatism

• Conservatism– Called the Ancien Regime– Resisted change, opposed revolutions – Importance of continuity, tradition, aristocracy – Edmund Burke

• Viewed society as organism that changed slowly over time • American Revolution: natural, logical outcome of history • French Revolution: violent and irresponsible

• Liberalism– Welcomed controlled change as an agent of progress– Strongly middle class, support economic reform, education to help

industrialization– Wanted to reform political structure, increase electorate slightly – Championed freedom, equality, democracy, written constitutions– Limits on state power, interference in individual freedoms – John Stuart Mill championed individual freedom and minority rights

• Radicalism – Accepted liberal ideas but wanted universal voting rights– Many wanted outright democracy, social reforms in interests of lower

classes– A few were socialists, attacked all private property, class status– Saw radical solutions (revolution) as only way to status quo – Represented by French Revolution, democracy, early nationalism

• Nationalism often both radical and liberal but largely anti-conservative

NATIONALISM• Born in France (Joan of Arc), spread abroad during French Revolution• Idea began as radical, adopted by liberals, used by conservatives

– An idea which could unify society across social classes– Many aspects similar to religion, faith– Loyalty to state often replaces loyalty to church, monarch– Dominated 19th century

• Cultural nationalism– An expression of national identity – Emphasized common historical experience – Used folk culture, literature, music– Illustrated national spirit, distinctiveness

• Political nationalism more intense in the nineteenth century – Demanded loyalty, solidarity from national group – Minorities sought independence as national community

• European Examples– Belgian independence movement– German, Italian unification movements– Slavic, Greek, Rumanian nationalisms in Central Europe, Balkans

• World-wide spread– Contact with Europeans introduced others to idea of nationalism– Nationalism often brought with it western ideas, structures– Strongest in Middle East, India, Japan

• Zionism – Jewish nationalism as a response to European anti-Semitism – Movement founded by Theodor Herzl to create Jewish state in Palestine – Jewish state of Israel finally created in 1948

IMAGINED COMMUNITIES• Concert of Europe 1815 - 1860

– Congress of Vienna, 1814-15 • Conservative victory: restore old order after defeat of Napoleon • Maintained balance of power in Europe for a century • Failed in repressing nationalist and revolutionary ideas

– Concert of European great powers called Holy Alliance• UK, Russia, Prussia, Austria, France working in “concert”• Attempted to prevent revolutions, change• Intervened militarily to oppose change• Often forced to limit, control changes

• Nationalist rebellions– Against old order throughout nineteenth century – 1800s: Haiti, Latin America– 1820s

• Greek Revolution: rebels overcame Ottoman rule in 1827• Mehmet Ali in Egypt, defeated by French, English, Russians

– 1830/1848• Italy, Belgium, France, Spain, Portugal, Poland, Austria, Germany • Conservatism usually restored but revolutionary ideals persisted

• Imagined Communities– Groups begin to form based on a perceived sense of

community– Each group defined by agreed upon set of values, goals

THE SOCIALIST CHALLENGE• Socialism

– Arose as an outgrowth of the Industrial Revolution– Accelerated by the horrible conditions of the workers in the cities

• Utopian socialists– Charles Fourier, Robert Owen, and their followers – Established model communities based on principle of equality – Stressed cooperative control of industry, education for all children

• Marxian Socialists (Communists)– Marx (1818-1883), Engels (1820-1895), leading socialists – Scorned the utopian socialists as unrealistic, unproductive – Critique of industrial capitalism

• Unrestrained competition led to ruthless exploitation of working class • State, courts, police: all tools of the capitalist ruling class

– The Communist Manifesto, 1848 • Claimed excesses of capitalism would lead to a communist revolution• Revolution would wipe away capitalism and establish a socialist society • “Dictatorship of the proletariat" would destroy capitalism • Socialism would follow; a fair, just, and egalitarian society

– Ideas dominated European, international socialism throughout 19th century• Revisionism: Democratic Socialism and Reform Socialism

– Combined aspects of socialism with democracy• Public ownership of means of production, regulation of industries• Limits to private property, accumulation of wealth• Power achieved democratically through elections, trade unions

– Social reform came gradually, through legislative measures • Regulated hours and restricted work for women and children • Under Bismarck, Germany provided medical insurance and social security

– Trade unions formed to represent interests of industrial workers • Faced stiff opposition from employers and governments • Forced employers to be more responsive to workers' needs; averted violence

• Socialist parties began to compete in elections, seek expanded electorate

UNIFICATION OF ITALY, GERMANY• Italy

– After Congress of Vienna• Italy divided into small states: all states except Sardinia, Papacy ruled by foreign

dynasties• Austria was the preeminent power in Italy • Mazzini, Nationalist, formed Young Italy inspired uprisings against foreign rule

– 1848 Nationalist revolution destroyed by Austrian troops– Sardinia and Cavour

• Italian Sardinia only ethnic Italian state• Prime Minister of Sardinia becomes leader of nationalists• Expelled Austrian authorities in northern Italy, 1859 with French aide

– Garibaldi • Revolutionary nationalist, democrat• Staged revolutions, later seized control of Southern Italy

– 1860-1870: Italian states united under Sardinia• Germany

– After Congress of Vienna Dominated by Austrian von Metternich• German Confederacy a collection of independent states dominated by Austria• Prussia the largest German state but limited in action by Austria• Metternich’s System: preserved conservatism, persecuted liberalism, hated

nationalism– 1848 Revolution

• Destroyed by Austria• Ended hope of liberalism, constitutionalism, national unification• Left Prussia humiliated, looking for revenge

– Prussian and Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) • Created a united Germany through blood and iron• Used conservatism, militarism married with nationalism • Bismarck provoked three wars that swelled German pride• Defeated Austria, France to unify Germany under Prussia

– 1871, Prussian king proclaimed emperor of the Second Reich

MAPS OF UNIFICATION

RUSSIA: EMPIRE UNDER PRESSURE• Post-1812

– Great concern with defense, liberal ideas as threat to old order– Government introduced reforms to improve bureaucracy– Made an alliance with the conservative powers of Europe to maintain order

• December Uprising 1825– Death of Alexander I prompted some western-oriented officers to rebel– Suppressed mercilessly by new tsar

• Nicholas I– Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality– State became very repressive, secret police– Policeman of Europe: used army to suppress revolutions– Suppressed rebellion in Poland– Policy of foreign wars to divert domestic problems

• Serfdom Issue– Russia needed work force in order to industrial

• Serfdom not efficient• Lack of workers in cities an obstacle to economic development

– Gap between western, eastern Europe economic systems– Emancipation of serfs by Alexander II begun in 1863

• Due to loss in Crimean War• Serfs gained right to own land, got most of the land from nobles• Nobles kept best and gave worst to serfs• Serfs had no political rights; had to pay a redemption tax on land: kept them in permanent debt

– Emancipation did not increase agricultural production– Tsar was careful to preserve aristocratic order; serfs received no political rights

• Political and legal reforms followed – 1864: creation of zemstvos

• Local assemblies with representatives from all classes• Tended to only see local interests and not national concerns; legal reform more successful • A weak system: nobles dominated, tsar held veto power

– Small middle class grew; improved corps of army officers; middle class politicians, bureaucrats

– Literacy increased; readership spread; some women enter intellectual community

RUSSIAN EXPANSION• Nineteenth-century Russia

– Collapse of Napoleon left Russia as great power • Russia dominates Eastern Europe (saved both Prussia, Austria)• Russia increased presence in Central Europe, Northern Europe• Russia wants to push into Ottoman SE Europe, SW Asia• Expands into Central Asia, Pacific

– Autocracy, Orthodoxy, Conservatism• Official government policy to uphold conservatism • Pre-destined Russia to oppose revolution, change everywhere

– Rise of Pan-Slavic Nationalism• Sought to control all Orthodox, Slavs• Brought Russia into conflict with Ottoman Empire, Austria in Balkans• Also wanted access to Mediterranean Sea• Hoped to seize control of Constantinople

• War against the Ottoman Empire– Numerous wars to acquire Turkish lands in SE Europe, Caucasus– Supported rise of Christian Balkan states under Russian influence– Crimean War 1853 - 1856

• France, Great Britain, Sardinia supported Ottomans• Crushing defeat; forced tsars to modernize army, industry

• Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905– Russian expansion into China, Korea met Japan– Japanese attack Russia without warning– Defeat two Russian fleets, armies– First defeat of a European by an Asian power– Japan emerges as a world military power

RUSSIAN EMPIRE

RUSSIAN REPRESSION & MARXISM• Cycles of protest and repression

– Peasants • Often landless, no political power• Frustrated by lack of meaningful reform• Peasant uprisings become more common than serf as frustration heightened• Population increased as potato introduced, increasing pressures on society

– Social Protest• Antigovernment protest and revolutionary activity increased in 1870s

– Middle Class, some aristocrats advocated rights, political representation– Radical Intelligentsia advocated socialism and anarchism, recruited in countryside

• Repression by tsarist authorities: secret police, censorship – Russification: sparked ethnic nationalism, attacks on Jews tolerated

• Terrorism emerges as a tool of opposition – Radicals wanted solution to social issue from a Russian perspective

• Young intellectuals went directly to the peasants• Most opposed westernization, autocracy, capitalism• Many became peasant anarchists• Alexander II, the reforming tsar, assassinated by a bomb in 1881

– Nicholas II (1894-1917), more oppressive, conservative ruler• Marxism and the Reality of Russia

– Marx foresaw a revolution by workers– Russia lacked lack worker base; society was largely peasant– Workers tended to be radical but misdirected– Russia lacked a middle class running society prior to revolution

• The Bolsheviks (Russian Marxists) & Vladimir Ilyich Lenin– From middle class bureaucratic family, was an intellectual– Argued that proletariat was developing in advance of revolution

• Felt Russia could have a revolution without a middle class phase• Organized an elite revolutionary party to lead workers, peasants• Organized the Bolsheviks

– Party was secretive as Russian secret police everywhere• Infiltrated unions, workers organizations, peasant groups• Agitated against government, organized secret cells to lead revolution

MARXISM:Workers

will stage arevolution and

overthrowcapitalism, state

LENINISM:Will only succeed

withthe leadership of an

elitegroup of

revolutionaries

RUSSIAN INDUSTRIALIZATION• Russia experienced the 2nd Industrial Revolution

– Financed by exportation of minerals, oil, gas, grains– Development of rail system spurred other industries, exports– Strongest development in coal, steel areas of Ukraine– Rise of industrial cities: St. Petersburg. Moscow, Poland, Ukraine

• Promoted by tsarist government, French government– France needed Russia as a military ally against Germany– Russia needed a modern economy to compete on world stage– Formula: French loans/investment, sale of Russian grain

• Sergei Witte, Minister of finance, 1892-1903 – Top-down Management Style– Supported railway construction

• Military rationale: to move troops to border if attacked• But stimulated other industries including exports

– Remodeled the state bank– Protected infant industries with tariffs, subsidies– Secured foreign loans especially from France

• Industrial discontent intensified – Rapid growth of factories, urban working class– Industrialization fell hardest on working classes – Government reaction

• Outlawed unions, strikes• Workers increasingly radical socialists, Marxists, Populists

– Business class supported autocracy, not reform• By 1900 produced half the world's oil, significant iron,

armaments

TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILROAD

Cities, industry grew up along railroad; mines

farms, opened in area

RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905• Russian Revolution of 1905

– Military defeat, humiliation in Russo-Japanese War was cause• Russia always diverted domestic tension by short, successful wars• In 1870s, 1880s had expanded against Ottoman Empire

– Massive protests followed news of defeat• Workers mounted general strikes in St. Petersburg, Moscow• Peasant insurrections in countryside against landlords• Police repressions ineffective, just upset people

– Bloody Sunday massacre• Poor workers of St. Petersburg march to palace to ask tsar for help• Unarmed workers shot down by government troops

– Peasants seized landlords' property, killed landlords– Workers formed soviets (worker councils) in cities, factories

• Workers tended towards non-Marxist socialists; Marxists marginalized• Sought to achieve ends without full scale revolution

• A Fizzled Revolution– Tsar forced to accept elected legislature, the Duma

• Many parties elected with conflicting interests• Unable, unwilling to cooperate• Rendered ineffective by tsar, bureaucracy

– Stolypin Reforms• Reforms allowed peasants to buy land; end redemptive payments• Small group of very successful peasant landowners began to arise• Rights for workers gradually ignored, cancelled

– Army failed to support revolution• For the Future

– Nicholas II was weak, ill-advised, unwilling to end autocracy– Russian Marxists emboldened, reorganized, radicalized– Peasants, workers radicalized, unlikely to cooperate in future

THE SICK OLD MAN OF EUROPE• The issue of Ottoman State called the Eastern Question

– A central concern of European diplomacy from 1800 to 1914– At issue was whether to preserve or partition Ottoman Empire

• By 1800s, Ottoman Empire a dying state– Central government

• Horribly corrupt, unable to reform, unviable• Central authority breaks down and provinces begin to rebel, break off

– Multinational state• Greeks, Slavs, Albanians, Rumanians, Jews, Arabs, Kurds, Armenians• Conflicting traditions demanding autonomy

– Nationalism affects some subject peoples• Mehmet Ali of Albania seeks independence• Muhammad Ali of Egypt seeks independence• Greek Rebellion in 1820 achieves independence• Serbs, Bulgars, Rumanians, Albanians follow in late 19th century

• Russians, Austrians prey on Ottoman Territory– Russians constantly looking to take over territory– Austrians, Germans, French, English oppose Russian designs– French, English interested in markets, protecting Suez Canal

• Balkan Wars and the Ottoman Empire– Congress of Berlin 1878

• Territory lost to Austria, Russia• Serbia, Montenegro, Rumania, Bulgaria declared independent

– Westerners intervene to protect Christians, economic interests– Often Russia was the loser and it bred Russian resentment– Balkan Wars led to a Russo-France alliance and the Austro-German alliance– England very troubled by late period German interest in Ottoman Empire– World War I was often called the last of the Balkan Wars

THE DECLINE

ANDPARTITION

OF THEOTTOMAN

EMPIRE

A MULTINATIONAL EMPIRE• Austria 1750 – 1814

– A collection of states ruled by the Hapsburg family who were also the Holy Roman Emperors

– The Holy Roman Empire was neither holy, nor Roman nor an empire– No common government, few common institutions (save Catholicism)

• Austria in 1815 – 1860 – One of the victors against Napoleon: extremely conservative and reactionary– The weakest, most threatened of Europe’s great powers

• Prime Minister Metternich dominated German Confederation, Italy– Used force, coercion to prevent German, Italian nationalism– Opposed nationalism, liberalism, democracy

• 1848 Revolution nearly destroyed state• Russia intervened to suppress revolutions• Austria then intervened in Germany, Italy to suppress revolutions

• Prussia fights to isolate Austria, unify Germany w/o Austria• Austria in 1866 – 1870

– Defeated in 1858 by French-Sardinian Alliance; 1866 by Prussia• Driven from German Confederation, Italy• Sees nationalism, German unification triumph under rival Prussia• Sees Italy united under Sardinia; Papal states erased

– 1867 Ausgleich with Hungarians• Hungarians formed resistive group; 2nd largest nationality in empire• Agree to rule jointly with Hungarians; name changed to Austria-Hungary

– Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenians, Serbo-Croats, Poles, Ruthenians, Rumanians disenfranchised– Magyars insist upon assimilation of its peoples

• Austria 1870 – 1914– Industrialization occurs in Czech area but remains largely agrarian– Many citizens immigrate due to hardships, repressive rule of Magyars– State unable to reform as it is blocked by aristocrats, Germans, Magyars– State threatened by Pan-Slavic nationalism

• Russia became a permanent enemy in Balkans along with Serbia• Forms an alliance with Germany to protect state• Opposes any form of national independence for Balkan Slavs, own Slavs

MAP OF CONFUSION

DIPLOMACY: BALANCE OF POWER & HEGEMONY• Century: Era of Western hegemony in all areas

• Balance of Power dominates century– After Napoleon, great powers kept peace– Intervened in European affairs to maintain balance– Goals and Policies

• No one power should dominate• No nation should be eliminated• No permanent ideologies threaten peace• Brokered conferences to decide touchy issues

• International Organizations– Non-governmental Organizations new in history

• Try to promote international accord• Establish cooperation

– Red Cross • Established at end of Crimean War• Provide health care, relief following catastrophes

– Olympics • Resurrected in 1896• Healthy competition

– International Laws • Diplomacy reaches highest level during period• Rules of Peace and War

– Hague Conferences and Conventions– Agreements create standards, rules of war, peace– Neutrality was a key concept– Civilians were not to be touched

PRE-WAR ALLIANCES• Rival systems of alliance

– Germany forms alliances• Bismarck attempts to isolate France• Until 1890, Germany had alliances with all except France• Obligated allies to come to one another's defense

– France and Russia • Found themselves isolated, fearful of Germany• Formed Double Entente to end their isolation

• The Triple Alliance – Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy

• Germany, Austria allied 1879 • Italy joined in 1882 (Triple Alliance)

– Others Allied States• Ottoman Empire: German railroads, reforms of military• Bulgaria and Rumania fearful of Russia and Serbia

• The Double and Later Triple Entente – France, Russia

• Common enemy: Germany, common war plans • Worked together diplomatically

– Why the United Kingdom joined • Due to rivalry with Germany over colonies and German construction of a navy• After German pre-war diplomacy seemed to lead to war • Shifting series of treaties ended with a military pact, 1914• Japan had a separate alliance with Great Britain for Asia Pacific

• War plans: each power poised and prepared for war – Military leaders devised inflexible military plans and timetables – France's Plan XVII focused on offensive maneuvers and attacks – Germany's Schlieffen plan: swift attack on France, defend against Russia

ALLIANCESc. 1914