etp nuclear & hydro 2014

Nuclear & Hydro

Energy Technology & Policy

Fred C. Beach, Ph.D.

Spring, 2014

Dr. Fred Beach Energy Technology & Policy

Spring 2014 2

Nuclear History •  1939: Nuclear fission discovered

•  1942: First nuclear chain reaction takes place in Chicago as part of the wartime Manhattan Project

•  1945: The first nuclear weapons test at Alamagordo, NM

•  1951: Electricity was first generated from a nuclear reactor in Idaho –  EBR-I produced about 100 kW

•  1970s: Nuclear power grows rapidly (averaging 30% annually from ’70 –’75)

•  1987: Nuclear power now generates ~15% of global electricity

•  1980s: Nuclear expansion slows because of environmentalist opposition, high interest rates, energy conservation prompted by the 1973/1979 oil shocks, and Three Mile Island (1979, USA) and Chernobyl (1986, Ukraine, USSR)


Spring 2014 3

Nuclear Power Is Surrounded by Ironies

•  Nuclear power helps mitigate climate change –  Republicans like nuclear, but don’t care about climate change –  Democrats care about climate change, but don’t like nuclear

•  Nuclear power is compatible with strong government –  Democrats are ok with gov’t, but not nuclear power –  Republicans are ok with nuclear power, but not gov’t

•  Professional Discipline –  France (run by engineers) has a lot of nuclear power –  USA (run by lawyers) has relatively less


Spring 2014 4

Nuclear Technology Overview


Spring 2014 5

235U Chain Reaction


Spring 2014 6

Atomic Energy

• Energy is stored in the nucleus of atoms –  Radioactive molecules release that energy

during nuclear reactions

• Mass and energy are the same: E = mc2

c = speed of light = 3×1010 cm/s –  Small changes in mass yield a lot of energy

• Burning a tonne of coal: 0.3 mg disappears

• Reacting a tonne of 235U: 6.6 g disappears 20,000 times better energy density than coal


Spring 2014 7

Uranium Resources Are Distributed Across “Friendly Countries”


Spring 2014 8

Natural Uranium, Enriched Uranium

• Naturally-occurring uranium consists of two isotopes: 235U (0.71%) and 238U (99.29%)

• LEU = low-enriched Uranium –  Less than 20% 235U –  Commercial reactors in the U.S. need uranium

enriched to around 3-5% 235U

• HEU = high-enriched Uranium –  More than 20% 235U –  Weapons-grade is more than 80% 235U


Spring 2014 9

235U Is A Better Reactor Fuel Than 238U

• Enrichment is achieved by taking advantage of the small mass difference between 235U and 238U

–  Use centrifuges to spin uranium gas (UF6)

•  It also means that most (85%) of the uranium we mine never even sees the inside of a reactor


Spring 2014 10

Centrifuges Are Used to Enrich Uranium

Every time you spin a salad dryer, you see that, when subjected to rotation, heavier materials in a mixture will concentrate near the outer wall, outside of the lighter stuff. The same principle is operative in a centrifuge. UF6 gas is rotated at very high angular speeds, with the result that the heavier 238UF6 is concentrated near the wall while the lighter 235UF6 is relatively more prevalent near the center of the chamber.

ω


Spring 2014 11

Thousands of Centrifuge Units, Connected in Series and Parallel, Form a Cascade

i

i+1 i+2

N N-1

i-1

2 1

( ……. )

( ……. )

Feed

Product

Tails

Stage


Spring 2014 12

Enriching Uranium with Centrifuges Is Energy-Intensive

• Primarily electricity needed for enrichment

• During WWII, at its peak, fuel enrichment consumed ~15% of all electrical power in the USA

–  TVA dams powered the original centrifuges in TN •  Oak Ridge National Laboratory

–  Columbia River dams powered centrifuges in WA •  Pacific Northwest National Labs

• Leaves a detectable signature


Spring 2014 13

Nuclear Fuel Cycles Are “Open” or “Closed”

• Open Fuel Cycle: what the US uses –  Ore mining, refining/enriching, reacting, disposing/

storing (end-to-end) –  Generates vast volumes of radioactive waste

• Closed Fuel Cycle: what France uses –  After reacting, turn depleted uranium into

plutonium to burn again (close the loop) –  Create more plutonium than they burn

•  Aka “breeder reactors” –  Smaller volumes of waste –  Proliferation concerns because of plutonium


Spring 2014 14

Today’s Nuclear Fuel Cycle Is Open Uranium Mining, Milling, Refining

Ore Tailings

Yellowcake (U3O8)

Conversion

UF6 (gas)

Enrichment

Depleted Uranium

Enriched UO2

Fuel Fabrication

Fuel Assemblies

Reactor

e- Irradiated

Fuel Onsite Cooling Storage

Transportation

Disposal


Spring 2014 15

Closed Fuel Cycles with Breeding Create More Fuel and Less Waste

•  “breeder reactors” turn depleted uranium into plutonium

•  they create more plutonium than they burn.


Spring 2014 16

PWR


Spring 2014 17

BWR


Spring 2014 18

Pressurized Water Reactors Are the Most Common in the US and Globally

Reactor Type Main Countries # GW Fuel Coolant Moderator

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

US, France, Japan, Russia

252 235 Enriched UO2 Water Water

Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

US, Japan, Sweden

92 83 Enriched UO2 Water Water

Gas-cooled Reactor (Magnox & AGR)

UK 34 13 Natural U (metal), enriched UO2

CO2 Graphite

Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor “CANDU” (PHWR)

Canada 33 18 Natural UO2 Heavy water

Heavy water

Light Water Graphite Reactor (RBMK)

Russia 14 14.6 Enriched UO2 Water Graphite

Fast Neutron Reactor (FBR)

Japan, France, Russia

4 1.3 PUO2 and UO2 Liquid sodium

None

Total 434 365

Source: Nuclear Engineering International handbook 1999, but including Pickering A in Canada (via Prof. Biegalski).


Spring 2014 19

Nuclear Power In The World


Spring 2014 20

Nuclear Energy is a Global Phenomenon

•  29 countries worldwide have nuclear power

•  437 nuclear reactors –  370 GW –  14% of electricity generation globally

•  55 nuclear plants under construction in 15 countries

As of January 2010 (Source: NEI)


Spring 2014 21

Most Nuclear Reactors Are Concentrated in the West, Japan, and Former Soviet Union

437 nuclear units, 370 GW of capacity, 14% of world electricity generation


Spring 2014 22

While France Generates The Greatest Percentage of Its Electricity From Nuclear…


Spring 2014 23

…the United States Generates The Greatest Amount of Electricity From Nuclear


Spring 2014 24

Main Points About Nuclear Power

• Nuclear is a major part of our fuel mix

• Nuclear has many advantages and disadvantages

• Nuclear power has improved with time

• Nuclear economics are tricky

• The future of nuclear power is unclear


Spring 2014 25

Nuclear Energy Provides ~9% of Our Total Energy Consumption


Spring 2014 26

Nuclear Power Provides One-fifth Of Our Electricity

Total Energy Consumption for Electricity: 39.3 Quads


Spring 2014 27

Nuclear Energy is Only Used for Electricity


Spring 2014 28

In Total, 132 Nuclear Power Plants Have Been Built in the United States

Source: EIA, AER (2009)


Spring 2014 29

1996 Was The Last Year A Nuclear Power Plant Came Online

Source: EIA, AER (2009) Watts Bar (TVA) began construction in 1973, and came online in 1996


Spring 2014 30

Nuclear Power Was Ramped Up in the 1970s and 1980s


Spring 2014 31

Nuclear Capacity Has Increased, Even After Power Plants Were No Longer Built


Spring 2014 32

Nuclear Power Has Several Advantages and Drawbacks

•  Advantages –  Supreme energy density [energy output per unit mass of fuel] –  Minimal waste generation per kWh

•  all waste is captured –  Excellent capacity factor, maintenance & safety records –  Domestic or friendly sources of uranium

•  Disadvantages –  Waste is radioactive and long-lived –  Public safety (accidents, attacks) –  Concerns about weapons proliferation


Spring 2014 33

Nuclear Energy Density is Remarkable

Fuel Gravimetric Energy Density [MJ/kg] Nuclear Fission 77,000,000

Hydrogen 120

Natural Gas 59 Gasoline 44

Ethanol 24

Wood 16


Spring 2014 34

Nuclear Capacity Factors Have Improved Over Time


Spring 2014 35

The Total Generation Provided by Nuclear Power Has Increased for Decades, Despite

Fewer Power Plants


Spring 2014 36

O&M20% O&M, 7%

O&M74%

Fuel80% Fuel

93%

Fuel26%

Coal Gas Nuclear Nuclear Fuel Component Cost

Fuel as a Percentage of Electric Generation Costs 2008

Conversion Fabrication

Waste Fund

Enrichment

Uranium

Source: Ventyx Velocity Suite; Energy Resources International, Inc. Updated: 7/09 (Via NEI)

Fuel Costs Are Relatively Low for Nuclear Power Plants


Spring 2014 37

Nuclear Power Financing Is complicated

• Nuclear power has low fuel costs, high capital costs

• Banks and insurers –  Worry about liability –  Don’t understand the technology –  Charge a high rate or won’t offer financing/coverage

• Government helps overcome financing problems –  Price-Anderson Act (1957) offers $10B of no-fault

indemnity to help secure financing •  Extended for 20 years in 2005

–  Loan Guarantees: $8.3B in 2010, growing to $54B


Spring 2014 38

Levelized Nuclear Power Costs Vary from $0.03 to $0.14 per kWh

• Proponents cite the low number

• Opponents cite the high number

Source: Hultman, Koomey and Kammen, ES&T, 2007


Spring 2014 39

Radiation Risks For Nuclear Power Are Low…Unless There’s An Accident


Spring 2014 40

Nuclear Power Must Consider Waste Disposal In Its Economics

• Funds Committed for the Nuclear Waste Fund –  $0.001/kWh for waste disposal

•  Included in the fuel costs –  $33.2 billion plus interest since 1983 –  $10.8 billion already spent

• Estimated Cost of Decommissioning –  $300-500 million/plant (~$31 billion at low end) –  Decommissioning not included in production costs.

•  Same is true for dams, coal plants, etc.


Spring 2014 41

Designs for Waste Repositories Have Been Proposed, but Yucca Mountain Has Been Killed

Politically


Spring 2014 42

Energy Policy Act of 2005 Encourages Nuclear

• Specific provisions to encourage the development of nuclear in the United States

• Some specific examples: – Liability limits – Cost-overrun support – Tax credits – Research and development – Steps up DoE work to address high-level

waste problem.


Spring 2014 43

Gen III Reactors Prioritize Safety

Source: Westinghouse Electric (via WSJ)


Spring 2014 44

Gen IV Reactors Prioritize Proliferation Resistance

• Hydrogen Production

• Breeding and Transmutation

• Proliferation Resistance

• Closed Fuel Cycle

• Simplification

•  Increased safety


Spring 2014 45

Small Nuclear Is Growing As A Possibility

–  Babcock & Wilcox –  <125 MW –  Factory-Built –  Ship via train –  Easier permitting –  Easier waste

handling


Spring 2014 46

Small Nuclear Is Growing As A Possibility

–  Enough waste in US to run 3000 of these reactors

–  ~240 MW –  Factory-Built –  Ship via train/truck –  Easier permitting –  Easier waste

handling


Spring 2014 47

Obama Administration Is Supporting Small, Modular Nuclear Reactors


Spring 2014 48

A Nuclear Renaissance Is Imminent…and Has Been for Years

Sep 8, 2007

May 19, 2001

March 29, 2009

May 29, 2009


Spring 2014 49

The End of Nuclear Power


Spring 2014 50

The Future of Nuclear Is Unclear

•  Many have declared a nuclear renaissance is underway, but –  Dozens of nuclear plants are being built –  Dozens are planned –  Hundreds are proposed

•  Will industrialized nations –  allow nuclear permits to expire? –  build more nuclear to mitigate CO2 emissions?


Spring 2014 51

Megatons To Megawatts: Russian Warheads Fuel U.S. Power Plants

•  Here's a remarkable fact: For the past two decades, 10 percent of all the electricity consumed in the United States has come from Russian nuclear warheads.

•  It was all part of a deal struck at the end of the Cold War. That deal wraps up today, when the final shipment of fuel arrives at a U.S. facility.

•  this deal will go down in history as one of the greatest diplomatic achievements ever.

•  20,000 bombs' worth of nuclear material, destroyed forever, Bombs that will never threaten anybody ever again.

NPR Dec 11, 2013 Geoff Brumfiel


Spring 2014 52

Hydroelectric Power


Spring 2014 53

Hydroelectric Power Is Robust and Efficient

Source: Army Corps of Engineers


Spring 2014 54

Hydroelectric Power Is a Function of Height and Volume

• Power production requires –  height differences –  large volumes of water

• P ∝ 10 × H × Q [kW] –  H = head (m) (height of water) –  Q = flow rate (m3/s)

Source: Army Corps of Engineers


Spring 2014 55

Dams Can Be Massive Powerplants

Grand Coulee Dam (6.5 GW, Columbia River) Hoover Dam (2.1 GW, Colorado River)


Spring 2014 56

Austin’s Dam Used To Be The World’s Largest

The Great Dam Across the Colorado River, At Austin Texas

Scientific American September 1892


Spring 2014 57

Austin’s Dam Used To Be The World’s Largest


Spring 2014 58

Hydroelectric Power Has Many Benefits

• Reliable

• Very efficient

• Quick start-up/turn-off times

• Low emissions during generation


Spring 2014 59

Dams Serve Several Purposes

• Flood control

• Water storage

•  Irrigation

• Recreation

• Navigation


Spring 2014 60

Hydroelectric Power Has Many Drawbacks •  Disturbs ecosystems (fish migration, etc.)

–  salmon ladders to go upstream –  “fish-friendly” turbines to go downstream

•  Creates evaporation from lakes

•  About half of national capacity is already built

•  Silting might limit lifetimes to ~100 years –  maybe not renewable?

•  Source of GHGs (CO2 and CH4 from decaying vegetation) –  hard to quantify

•  End-of-life planning not built into project development –  how do you decommission a dam?


Spring 2014 61

Dams Disturb Vast Expanses of Land and Sometimes Collapse

•  Johnstown, PA 1869 2,209 people killed

• Santa Clarita, CA 1928 600 people killed

• Austin’s has failed twice –  formed Red Bud Isle


Spring 2014 62

Austin’s Dam Has Collapsed Multiple Times


Spring 2014 63

The Army Corps of Engineers and Bureau of Reclamation Have Responsibility for Most

Dams in the US


Spring 2014 64

Much of the Hydroelectric Buildout Occurred in From the 1930s to the 1970s


Spring 2014 65

Large Dams in the 1930s & 1940s Were Built For Economic Development and for WWII

Questions?


Spring 2014 67

Course Schedule


Spring 2014 68

Fred C. Beach, Ph.D.

[email protected]

etp nuclear & hydro 2014

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