ENVR E-140/W Fundamentals of Ecology

Instructor: Mark Leighton Teaching Assistants:Katherine McAuliffeleighton@fas.harvard.edu mcauliff@fas.harvard.edu

markleighton9@yahoo.com & Alexander Georgiev

georgiev@fas.harvard.edu

• This course introduces basic concepts in the ecology of individual organisms, their populations, and the biological communities in which they live. • Emphasis is on terrestrial plant and animal ecology. • The historical, evolutionary, and ecological processes determining the distribution of ecosystems, habitats, and species are introduced. • Evolutionary processes responsible for the adaptations of individuals are examined to understand the diversity of species and their features. • Theories of competition, predation, disease, and mutualism help explain the functioning of biological communities. •These fundamentals establish a basis for examining the challenges imposed by humans on the functioning of natural ecosystems. The sustainable harvesting and use of natural resources, the implications of human population growth and size, and the transformation of ecosystems through human activities and policies are examined in this ecological context.

Grades are assigned on the basis of performance on: Undergraduate credit

Graduate creditin-class midterm examination 25%

25%essay I: field trip write-up 15%15%essay II: assigned topic 25%term paper 25%in-class final examination 35%35%• The two in-class exams will be a mixture of short answer,

essay questions & graphs.

• The first written assignment is a lab write-up for data collected on the field trip; those unable to attend will have a slightly different assignment.

• The second essay is for undergraduates and will be limited to five double-space pages.

• Those taking the course for graduate credit are instead required to write a 10-15 page term paper that will allow you to explore a topic of your choice, requiring some outside literature review from library and/or internet research.

• A Saturday field trip to a nearby forest will examine ecological methods and concepts; data collected will be presented and discussed in the first written assignment.

• For all written assignments, drafts are to be handed in for suggested improvements before the final version is submitted for grading.

Writing-intensive courses at Harvard Extension, such as Fundamentals of Ecology, offer students the opportunity to develop their writing skills in the context of a particular academic discipline, and they all feature common elements.Students will:--develop core writing skills, as defined by the instructor, in the discipline of the course;(Field trip write up & scientific essay or term paper)

--complete multiple writing assignments of varying lengths, at least 2 of which must be revised; (Drafts of both these assignments are required)

--produce a minimum of 10-12 pages of writing, exclusive of the required revisions, over the course of the term;

--meet at least once in individual conference (in person, by phone, or electronically) with the instructor or TA to discuss writing in progress; (Schedule with your TA)

--and receive detailed feedback on their drafts and revisions, on both content and expression. (These will be annotated on drafts and revisions)

Textbooks and Readings

• The required textbook (available at the Harvard Coop or Amazon.com) is Essentials of Ecology, 3rd edition, by Townsend, C. R., M. Begon & J. L. Harper.

(Note that students wishing a slightly more advanced, longer and expensive treatment can elect to substitute Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems, the same authors but in different order (Begon, Townsend & Harper), and available at the same two sources. The organization of the two books and the concepts and examples closely mimic each other, but note that reading will only be assigned from Essentials of Ecology. Note that this substitution is not recommended, but very easily done if a student so wishes.)

• In addition, expect a few short journal articles to be assigned as required reading to illustrate some relevant field research studies & for essay assignments. These will be available as PDF files and placed on the class web site in advance of the

lecture for which they are relevant. • Some supplementary readings and materials of interest may also be posted on the website

ENVR E-140: Fundamentals of Ecology Course OutlineDate Topic Assigned ReadingSep 18 Introduction: Case Study on Ecology of Bornean RainforestsT,B&H: chap. 1

Sep 25 The Ecological Context of Evolution & AdaptationT,B&H: chap. 2

Oct 2 Adaptations to Environmental Conditions and ResourcesT,B&H: chap. 3Oct 4 or 11 Saturday field trip to Estabrook Woods, Concord, MA (approx. 8am-5pm)

(Note: rain make-up on Sunday Oct 5th or 12th)

Oct 9 Distribution of Earth’s BiomesT,B&H: chap. 4

Oct 16 Population Ecology & Demography T,B&H: chap. 5

Oct 23 Population Ecology (cont.) / Competition TheoryT,B&H: chap. 6

Essay I: draft of field trip write-up due

Oct 30 Ecology of Predation, Grazing & DiseaseT,B&H: chap. 7

Essay I drafts returned for revision

Nov 6 Evolutionary Ecology and Coevolution T,B&H: chap. 8

Essay I: final version of field report due

Nov 9 Sunday afternoon review session for midterm exam (1-4 pm)Nov 13 Midterm Exam

ENVR E-140: Fundamentals of Ecology Course OutlineDate Topic Assigned Reading Nov 20 Community Ecology T,B&H: chap. 9

Proposed term paper topics submitted by graduate students

Nov 27 Thanksgiving Holiday

Dec 4 Sustainability/Human Population EcologyT,B&H: chap. 12Essay II assigned to undergraduates

Dec 11 Resource & Energy Cycling & Anthropogenic Pollution T,B&H: chap. 11, 13

Draft of term paper due from graduate students

Dec 18 Patterns & Determinants of Species Richness T,B&H: chap. 10

Essay II draft due

Jan 8 Conservation Ecology and Spatial PlanningT,B&H: chap. 14

Essay II final copy due from undergraduatesFinal version of term paper due from graduate students

Jan 15 Make-up lecture (if needed)

Jan 17 Sunday afternoon review session for final exam (1-4 pm)Jan 22 Final Examination

The Field Trip & Assignment

Oct 4th/11th Saturday field trip to Estabrook Woods, Concord, MA (8am-5pm)

(note: rain make-up on Sunday Oct 5th/12th, or following weekend)

• Field review of ecology of forest types 20 miles west of Boston

• Field exercise: Sampling Forest Vegetation at Estabrook Woods

– sample trees by both plot and plotless methods– identify using floristic keys – map & measure dbh (diameter at breast height)– calculate density, dominance and importance value

• Data collected by student teams will be collated into tables; summary statistics calculated and presented (use of Excel spreadsheet format recommended, but not required)

• Write up comprised of Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion;• <= 5 double-spaced pages of text (not including tables)

Assignment for those who do not attend the field trip Choose one of two options:

• Write up the data collected by classmates attending the field trip

– extra Results and Discussion section will focus on analyzing and interpreting species diversity

• Sample local vegetation where you live!– Incorporate same research design we will use at Estabrook Woods, or can modify according to local vegetation– Identify species, measure dbh, etc.– Can be modified if your local habitats are treeless, so need to characterize vegetation dominated by shrubs or forbs+grasses

Ecology in PracticeObservations, Experiments and Modeling

Brown trout in New Zealand

Old field succession in Minnesota

Nutrient dynamics in New Hampshire forest

Primates in Bornean rainforest

Brown Trout vs. Galaxias in New Zealand Streams

Waterfalls Waterfalls restrict restrict trout to low trout to low elevations…elevations…cobbles allow cobbles allow coexistencecoexistence

Brown Trout reduce herbivorous invertebrates,…Brown Trout reduce herbivorous invertebrates,… allowing higher algal biomass on stream bottom allowing higher algal biomass on stream bottom

Cascading trophic effects of Brown Trout Cascading trophic effects of Brown Trout introductionsintroductions

Old Field Succession at Cedar Creek,

Minnesota

Abandoned 1935, Abandoned 1935, dominated by native dominated by native perennialsperennials

Abandoned 1957, many Abandoned 1957, many exotic agricultural exotic agricultural weedsweeds

Trends with ecological succession

but field age and nitrogen content are both correlated with changes in species composition

Convergence in species composition:

Experimental fertilization with nitrogen reveals both are important

17 g N/m2/yr 1 g N/m2/yr

* Note that 1 g N/m2/yr is typical annual input from atmospheric pollution!

Hubbard Brook Ecosystem, NH

Case study of spatial & temporal variation in rainforest fruit

resources from Gunung Palung National Park,

Indonesia

Borneo

Forest habitats at Gunung Palung

habitat elevation (m) drainage soil fertility

Peat Swamp 5-10 poorly-drained peat (over sand) very low

Freshwater Swamp 10-20 poorly-drained gleyic high

Alluvial Bench 10-40 well-drained alluvium high

Lowland Sandstone 20-120 well-drained sedimentary moderate

Lowland Granite 100-400 well-drained granite-derived low

Lower Montane 400-700 well-drained granite-derived very low

Submontane (=Cloud) >700 well-drained peat (over granite) very low

See Cannon & Leighton (J. Veg. Sci. 2002) for floristic comparisons among habitats

Because Gunung Palung is a coastal tropical mountain, altitudinal zonation is compressed and lower compared to interior mountains

Plot locationsPlot locations

Measuring distribution & Measuring distribution & abundance of fruit abundance of fruit

Fruiting Phenology mast fruiting (=synchronized, supraannual

peaks ) is a feature of Bornean rainforests

u l a s o nd j f may u l a s o nd j f may u l a s o nd j f may u l a s o nd j f may u l a s o nd j f ma0

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1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

fruiting trees >15 cm dbh /0.1 ha

Preferred Preferred foodsfoods

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vsvs..

Fallback Fallback foodsfoods

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PS FS AB LS LG UG MO

Habitat type

adult m2/ha

Mast (H & M)

Fallback (H & M)

Annual (H & M)

Measuring food availability Measuring food availability in spacein space

Peat swamp forest: high availability of fallback fruitsPeat swamp forest: high availability of fallback fruitsLowland forest types: mast fruiting commonLowland forest types: mast fruiting commonMontane forest: low fruit availabilyMontane forest: low fruit availabily

Establishing habitat-specific densities of Establishing habitat-specific densities of vertebratesvertebrates

7 matched pairs 7 matched pairs of censusesof censuses

Freshwater swamp

MontaneUplandgranite

Lowlandgranite

Lowlandsandstone

AlluviumAlluvium

Peat swamp

Orangutan distribution and abundance at Gunung

Palung

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s7 o n d j6 f m p y u l a s o n d j7 f m p y u l a s o n d j8 f m p y u l a s o n d j9 f m p y u l a s o n d j0 f m p y u l a s o n d j1 f m

density

LGLM

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density (indivs/km2)

ABLS

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months

density (indivs/km2)

PS

FS

Orangutan density peaks are not correlated between

habitats

High density correlated with mast-fruiting events in LS &

AB habitats

Density in peat less variable

Mean orangutan density in six Mean orangutan density in six forest typesforest types

(n= 4830 censuses over 72 months)(n= 4830 censuses over 72 months)

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Density per km2

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Forest type

All habitats are important in All habitats are important in some monthssome months

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# of times with > 30 % total pop.

PS FS AB LS LG UG

Habitat

Habitat shifts in relation to fruit Habitat shifts in relation to fruit availabilityavailability

Asynchrony in fruit production Asynchrony in fruit production indicates phenological complementarity indicates phenological complementarity

between habitatsbetween habitats

u l a s o nd j f may u l a s o nd j f may u l a s o nd j f may u l a s o nd j f may u l a s o nd j f ma0

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1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

u l a s o nd j f may u l a s o nd j f may u l a s o nd j f may u l a s o nd j f may u l a s o nd j f ma0

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1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

PeatPeat

LowlanLowlandd

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are needed to see this picture.

Peat forest phenology is uncorrelated with the five other habitats

Conservation Conservation ImplicationsImplications1) ALL HABITATS ARE IMPORTANT!1) ALL HABITATS ARE IMPORTANT!2) OVERALL POPULATION DENSITY HIGHER 2) OVERALL POPULATION DENSITY HIGHER BECAUSE OF HABITAT MOSAICBECAUSE OF HABITAT MOSAIC