earth and environmental science - assessment resource centre

Earth and EnvironmentalScience

Stage 6

Syllabus

Approved September 2002

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ISBN 17409 9466 3

2002526

Contents

1 The Higher School Certificate Program of Study...........................................................52 Rationale for Earth and Environmental Science in the Stage 6 Curriculum ....................63 Continuum of Learning for Earth and Environmental Science

Stage 6 Students ............................................................................................................74 Aim ............................................................................................................................85 Objectives .....................................................................................................................86 Course Structure............................................................................................................9

6.1 Preliminary Course ..............................................................................................96.2 HSC Course ....................................................................................................... 106.3 Overview ........................................................................................................... 116.4 Other Considerations.......................................................................................... 15

7 Objectives and Outcomes ............................................................................................ 167.1 Table of Objectives and Outcomes ..................................................................... 16

8 Content: Earth and Environmental Science Stage 6 Preliminary Course ...................... 188.1 Earth and Environmental Science Skills ............................................................. 188.2 Planet Earth and Its Environment – A Five Thousand Million

Year Journey...................................................................................................... 218.3 The Local Environment...................................................................................... 258.4 Water Issues....................................................................................................... 298.5 Dynamic Earth ................................................................................................... 32

9 Content: Earth and Environmental Science Stage 6 HSC Course ................................. 359.1 Earth and Environmental Science Skills ............................................................. 359.2 Tectonic Impacts................................................................................................ 389.3 Environments Through Time.............................................................................. 429.4 Caring for the Country ....................................................................................... 469.5 Option — Introduced Species and the Australian Environment .......................... 509.6 Option — Organic Geology – A Non-renewable Resource................................. 549.7 Option — Mining and the Australian Environment ............................................ 579.8 Option — Oceanography.................................................................................... 61

10 Course Requirements .................................................................................................. 6711 Post-school Opportunities ........................................................................................... 6812 Assessment and Reporting........................................................................................... 69

12.1 Requirements and Advice................................................................................... 6912.2 Internal Assessment ........................................................................................... 7012.3 External Examination......................................................................................... 7012.4 Board Requirements for the Internal Assessment Mark in Board

Developed Courses ............................................................................................ 7112.5 Assessment Components, Weightings and Tasks................................................ 7212.6 HSC External Examination Specifications.......................................................... 7412.7 Summary of Internal and External Assessment................................................... 7512.8 Reporting Student Performance Against Standards............................................. 75

13 Appendix .................................................................................................................... 77

Earth and Environmental Science Stage 6 Syllabus

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1 The Higher School Certificate Program of Study

The purpose of the Higher School Certificate program of study is to:

• provide a curriculum structure which encourages students to complete secondary education;

• foster the intellectual, social and moral development of students, in particular developingtheir:– knowledge, skills, understanding and attitudes in the fields of study they choose– capacity to manage their own learning– desire to continue learning in formal or informal settings after school– capacity to work together with others– respect for the cultural diversity of Australian society;

• provide a flexible structure within which students can prepare for:– further education and training– employment– full and active participation as citizens;

• provide formal assessment and certification of students’ achievements;

• provide a context within which schools also have the opportunity to foster students’ physicaland spiritual development.


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2 Rationale for Earth and Environmental Science inStage 6 Curriculum

Earth and Environmental Science in Stage 6 Science is the study of the Earth and its processes. The courseaims to provide an understanding of systems and processes in both aquatic and terrestrial environments. Itseeks to explore changes that have occurred during Earth’s history, including changes in the lithosphere,atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere and biosphere, and the evolution of organisms since the origin of lifeon Earth.

The study of planet Earth and its environments recognises that while humans are part of nature they continueto have a greater influence on the environment than any other species. Earth and Environmental Science isbuilt on the premise that the natural environment is the host to all local environments and that, therefore, anunderstanding of the natural environment is fundamental to any analysis of more specific localenvironments.

The common factor in all of the environmental hazards that humanity faces is that they are derived frompeoples’ lack of awareness that society is part of an environment that is composed of the interactions of thesub-systems: water, land, air, ice and living things. The history and philosophy of science as it relates to thedevelopment of the understanding, utilisation and manipulation of sub-systems by humans is an integral partof the study of contemporary Earth and Environmental Science.

Earth and Environmental Science is not isolated from the other science disciplines and the multi-disciplinarynature of many aspects of the subject is recognised. Earth and Environmental Science in Stage 6 draws uponand builds onto the knowledge and understanding, skills and values and attitudes developed in Stages 4–5Science. It further develops students’ understanding of science as a continually developing body ofknowledge, the role of experiment in deciding between competing theories, the provisional nature ofscientific explanations, the interdisciplinary nature of science, the complex relationship between evidenceand ideas, and the impact of science on society.

The study of planet Earth and its environments involves students working individually and with others inpractical work, fieldwork and interactive media experiences that are related to the theoretical conceptsconsidered in the course. It is expected that students studying Earth and Environmental Science will applyinvestigative and problem-solving skills, effectively communicate information and appreciate thecontribution that a study of planet Earth and its environments makes to our understanding of the world. Thecourse aims to assist students to recognise and understand our responsibility to conserve, protect andmaintain the quality of all environments for future generations.

The Earth and Environmental Science Stage 6 course is designed for those students who have a substantialachievement level based on the Science Stages 4–5 course performance descriptions. The subject matter ofthe Earth and Environmental Science course recognises the different needs and interests of students byproviding a structure that builds upon the foundations laid in Stage 5 yet recognises that students enteringStage 6 have a wide range of abilities, circumstances and expectations.


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3 Continuum of Learning for Earth and Environmental Science Stage 6 Students

Stages 1–3

Science and Technology

Stages 4–5

Science

Stage 5

Science Life SkillsFor students withspecial education

needs

Stage 6

Earth and EnvironmentalScience Preliminary

Stage 6

Science LifeSkills

Stage 6

Earth andEnvironmentalScience HSC

Stage 6

SeniorScience

HSC

Stag

e 6

Vocational E

ducationand T

raining

Workplace University TAFE Other

Exp

erience in

learnin

g ab

ou

t the n

atural an

d m

ade en

viron

men

t, explo

ring

ph

eno

men

a and

pattern

so

f events, acq

uirin

g scien

tific skills and

relating

science to

everyday life


8

4 Aim

The aim of the Earth and Environmental Science Stage 6 Syllabus is to provide learningexperiences through which students will:

• acquire knowledge and understanding about fundamental concepts related to planet Earth andits environments, the historical development of these concepts and their application to personal,social, economic, technological and environmental situations

• progress from the consideration of specific data and knowledge to the understanding of modelsand concepts and the explanation of generalised Earth and Environmental Science terms; fromthe collection and organisation of information to problem-solving; and from the use of simplecommunication skills to those which are more sophisticated

• develop positive attitudes towards the study of planet Earth and its environments, and towardsthe opinions held by others, recognising the importance of evidence and critically evaluatingdiffering scientific opinions related to various aspects of Earth and Environmental Science.

5 Objectives

Students will develop knowledge and understanding of:

1 the history of Earth and Environmental Science2 the nature and practice of Earth and Environmental Science3 applications and uses of Earth and Environmental Science4 the implications of Earth and Environmental Science for society and the environment5 current issues, research and developments in Earth and Environmental Science6 the resources of the Earth, particularly air, soil, water, minerals, their distribution and their

role in supporting living systems7 the abiotic features of the environment8 models to explain structures and processes of change affecting the Earth and its environments9 Australian resources10 biotic impacts on the environment.

Students will develop further skills in:

11 planning investigations12 conducting investigations13 communicating information and understanding14 developing scientific thinking and problem-solving techniques15 working individually and in teams.

Students will develop positive attitudes about and values towards:

16 themselves, others, learning as a lifelong process, Earth and the environment.


9

6 Course Structure The Earth and Environmental Science Stage 6 Syllabus has a Preliminary course and an HSCcourse. The Preliminary and HSC courses are organised into a number of modules. The Preliminarymodules consist of core content that would be covered in 120 indicative hours. The HSC course consists of core and options organised into a number of modules. The core contentcovers 90 indicative hours and one option covers 30 indicative hours. Students are required tocover one of the options. Practical experiences are an essential component of both the Preliminary and HSC courses.Students will complete 80 indicative hours of practical/field work during both the Preliminary andHSC courses with no less than 35 indicative hours of practical experiences in the HSC course.Practical experiences must include at least one integrated open-ended investigation in both thePreliminary and HSC courses. Practical experiences should emphasise hands-on activities, including: • undertaking laboratory experiments, including the use of appropriate computer-based

technologies • fieldwork • research using the library, the Internet and digital technologies • using computer simulations for modelling or manipulating data • using and reorganising secondary data • extracting and reorganising information in the form of flow charts, tables, graphs, diagrams,

prose and keys • using animation, video and film resources to capture/obtain information not available in other

forms.

6.1 Preliminary Course (120 indicative hours) The Preliminary course incorporates the study of: • Planet Earth and Its Environment – A Five Thousand Million Year Journey

(30 indicative hours) • The Local Environment (30 indicative hours) • Water Issues (30 indicative hours) • Dynamic Earth (30 indicative hours).


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6.2 HSC Course (120 indicative hours) The HSC course builds upon the Preliminary course. The Preliminary course contains content thatis considered assumed knowledge for the HSC course. The HSC course incorporates the study of:

a) the core, which constitutes 90 indicative hours and includes: • Tectonic Impacts (30 indicative hours) • Environments Through Time (30 indicative hours) • Caring for the Country (30 indicative hours) b) ONE option, which constitutes 30 indicative hours and may comprise any one of the

following: • Introduced Species and the Australian Environment • Organic Geology – A Non-renewable Resource • Mining and the Australian Environment • Oceanography.


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6.3 Overview

The following diagram summarises the relationship between the various elements of the course:

Aimstates the overall purpose of the syllabus

Objectivesdefine in broad terms the knowledge and understandings,

skills and values and attitudes

Outcomesdefine the intended results of teaching

Content of each module

Contextschosen to increase motivation,conceptual meaning, relevance,

literacy and/or confidence

Prescribed Focus Areas

identify emphasesthat are applied to whatis being learned

Domain

contains knowledge andunderstanding, skills andvalues and attitudesto be learned

set within a background of ongoing assessment aimed at assisting students to learn

An independent learnercreative, responsible, scientifically literate, confident, ready to take their place as a member

of society


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Context

Contexts are frameworks devised to assist students to make meaning of the Prescribed Focus Areasand Domain. Contexts are culturally bound and therefore communicate meanings that are culturallyshaped or defined. Contexts draw on the framework of society in all aspects of everyday life. Thecontexts for each module encourage students to recognise and use their current understanding tofurther develop and apply more specialised scientific understanding and knowledge.

Prescribed Focus Areas

The Prescribed Focus Areas are different curriculum emphases or purposes designed to increasestudents’ understanding of: Earth and Environmental Science as an ever-developing body ofknowledge, the provisional nature of scientific explanations in Earth and Environmental Science,the complex relationship between evidence and ideas in Earth and Environmental Science, and theimpact Earth and Environmental Science has on society.

The following Prescribed Focus Areas are developed across the modules of the syllabus:

History of Earth and Environmental Science

Knowledge of the historical background of Earth and Environmental Science is important for anadequate understanding of the functioning, origins and evolution of the planet and its environment.Students should develop knowledge of:

• the developmental nature of knowledge about the Earth and its environments• the part that an understanding of the Earth and its environments plays in shaping society• how our understanding of the Earth and its environments is influenced by society.

Nature and practice of Earth and Environmental Science

A study of Earth and Environmental Science should enable students to participate in scientificactivities and develop knowledge of the practice of Earth and Environmental Science. Studentsshould develop knowledge of the provisional nature of explanations and the complex relationshipbetween:

• existing Earth and Environmental Science views and the evidence supporting these• the process and methods of exploring, generating, testing and relating ideas• the stimulation provided by technological advances in understanding Earth and

Environmental Science• the constraints imposed on understanding Earth and Environmental Science by the

limitations of current technology and the stimulation this provides for the development ofthe required technology and technological advances.


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Applications and uses of Earth and Environmental Science

Setting the study of Earth and Environmental Science into broader contexts allows students to dealwith real problems and applications. The study of Earth and Environmental Science should increasestudents’ knowledge of:

• the relevance, usefulness and applicability of concepts and principles related to Earth andEnvironmental Science

• how increases in our understanding of Earth and Environmental Science have led to thedevelopment of useful technologies and systems

• the contributions Earth and Environmental Science has made to society, with particularemphasis on Australian achievements.

Implications for society and the environment

Earth and Environmental Science has an impact on our society and the environment. Students needto develop knowledge of the importance of positive values and practices in relation to society andthe environment. The study of Earth and Environmental Science should enable students to develop:

• understanding about the interrelatedness among people and their surroundings• skills in decision-making about issues concerning society and the environment• an awareness of the social and environmental responsibility of a scientist• an awareness of areas of Earth and Environmental Science that relate to distinctively

Australian environments.

Current issues, research and developments in Earth and Environmental Science

Current issues, research and developments in Earth and Environmental Science are more readilyknown, and more information is available to students than ever before. The Earth andEnvironmental Science Syllabus should develop students’ knowledge of:

• areas currently being researched in Earth and Environmental Science• career opportunities in Earth and Environmental Science and related fields• events reported in the media that require an understanding of some aspect of Earth and

Environmental Science.

Domain

Knowledge and understanding

As a course that focuses on a major discipline of science, Earth and Environmental Science presentsa particular way of thinking about the world. It encourages students to use inference, deductive andinductive reasoning and creativity. It presumes that the interactions within Earth processes,between the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, and between the abiotic and biotic featuresof the environment occur in consistent patterns that can be understood through careful, systematicstudy.


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The Stage 6 courses extend the study developed in the Science Stages 4–5 course, particularly inrelation to students’ knowledge and understanding of the big bang theory, plate tectonics andmodels for the rock cycle. It assumes some elementary knowledge and understanding of processesof evolution of the universe, solar system and Earth as well as Earth systems and structures andinteractions involving the hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere. The interactions between livingthings, including humans and their environment and the fundamentals of the classification,properties and uses of common substances, are assumed knowledge at a fundamental level.

Skills

The Earth and Environmental Science course involves the further development of the skills studentshave developed in the Science Stages 4–5 course through a range of practical experiences in boththe Preliminary and HSC courses.

Practical experiences are an essential component of both the Preliminary and HSC courses.Students will complete 80 indicative hours of practical/field work across both the Preliminaryand HSC courses with no less than 35 indicative hours of practical experiences in the HSCcourse. Practical experiences have been designed to utilise and further develop students’ expertisein each of the following skill areas:

• planning investigations

This involves increasing students’ skills in planning and organising activities, effectively using timeand resources, selecting appropriate techniques, materials, specimens and equipment to completeactivities, establishing priorities between tasks and identifying ways of reducing risks when usinglaboratory and field equipment.

• conducting investigations

This involves increasing students’ skills in locating and gathering information for a plannedinvestigation. It includes increasing students’ skills in performing first-hand investigations,gathering first-hand data and accessing and collecting information relevant to Earth andEnvironmental Science from secondary sources using a variety of technologies.

• communicating information and understanding

This involves increasing students’ skills in processing and presenting information.It includes increasing students’ skills in speaking, writing and using nonverbal communication,such as diagrams, graphs and symbols, to convey information and understanding. Throughout thecourse, students become increasingly efficient and competent in the use of both technicalterminology and the form and style required for written and oral communication in Earth andEnvironmental Science.

• developing scientific thinking and problem-solving techniques

This involves further increasing students’ skills in clarifying issues and problems relevant to Earthand Environmental Science, framing a possible problem-solving process, developing creativesolutions, anticipating issues that may arise and devising appropriate strategies to deal with thoseissues and working through the issues in a logical and coherent way.

• working individually and in teams

This involves further increasing students’ skills in identifying a collective goal, defining andallocating roles and assuming an increasing variety of roles in working as an effective member of ateam within the agreed time frame to achieve the goal. Throughout the course, students are providedwith further opportunities to improve their ability to communicate and relate effectively to eachother in a team.


15

Values and attitudes

By reflecting about past, present and future involvement of Earth and Environmental Science withsociety, students are encouraged to develop positive values and informed critical attitudes. Theseinclude a responsible regard for both the living and non-living components of the environment,ethical behaviour, a desire for critical evaluation of the consequences of the applications of science,and recognising their responsibility to conserve, protect and maintain the quality of allenvironments for future generations.Students are encouraged to develop attitudes on which scientific investigations depend such ascuriosity, honesty, flexibility, persistence, critical thinking, willingness to suspend judgement,tolerance of uncertainty and an acceptance of the provisional status of scientific knowledge.Students should balance commitment, tenacity and, at times, inflexibility with a willingness to takerisks and make informed judgements. As well as knowing something of and/or about Earth andEnvironmental Science, students need to value and appreciate Earth and Environmental Science ifthey are to become scientifically literate persons.

6.4 Other Considerations

Safety Issues

Schools have a legal obligation in relation to safety. Teachers will need to ensure that they complywith the Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000 (NSW), the Occupational Health and SafetyRegulation 2001, the Dangerous Goods Act 1975, the Dangerous Goods Regulation 1978 (NSW)and the Hazardous Substances Regulation 1996 (NSW), as well as system and school requirementsin relation to safety when implementing their programs.

Schools should refer to the resource package Chemical Safety in Schools (DET, 1999) to assist themin meeting their legislative obligations.

Animal Research Act

Schools have a legal responsibility in relation to the welfare of animals. All practical activitiesinvolving animals must comply with the Animal Research Act 1985 (NSW) as described in Animalsin Schools: Animal Welfare Guidelines for Teachers (2002) produced on behalf of the SchoolsAnimal Care and Ethics Committee (SACEC) by the NSW Department of the Education andTraining, available through 3A Smalls Road, Ryde.


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7 Objectives and Outcomes

7.1 Table of Objectives and Outcomes

Objectives Preliminary Course Outcomes HSC Course OutcomesStudents will developknowledge andunderstanding of :

A student : A student :

1 the history of Earthand EnvironmentalScience

P1 outlines the historicaldevelopment of major Earthand Environmental Scienceprinciples, concepts and ideas

H1 evaluates how major advancesin scientific understanding ortechnology have changed thedirection or nature ofscientific thinking

2 the nature and practiceof Earth andEnvironmentalScience

P2 applies the processes that areused to test and validatemodels, theories and laws ofscience with particularemphasis on first-handinvestigations in Earth andEnvironmental Science

H2 analyses the ways in whichmodels, theories and laws inEarth and EnvironmentalScience have been tested andvalidated

3 applications and usesof Earth andEnvironmentalScience

P3 assesses the impact ofparticular technologicaladvances on understanding inEarth and EnvironmentalScience

H3 assesses the impact ofparticular advances in Earthand Environmental Scienceon the development oftechnologies

4 implications forsociety and theenvironment

P4 describes applications ofEarth and EnvironmentalScience which affect societyor the environment

H4 assesses the impact ofapplications of Earth andEnvironmental Science onsociety and the environment

Pre

scri

bed

Foc

us A

rea

5 current issues,research anddevelopments

P5 describes the scientificprinciples employed inparticular areas of Earth andEnvironmental Scienceresearch

H5 identifies possible futuredirections of Earth andEnvironmental Scienceresearch

6 the resources of Earth P6 identifies the origins ofEarth’s resources

H6 evaluates the use of theEarth’s resources

7 the abiotic features ofthe environment

P7 identifies and describes thephysical and chemicalfeatures of the environment

H7 discusses geological,biological, physical andchemical evidence of theevolving Australian and worldenvironments

8 models to explainstructures andprocesses of change

P8 discusses the interplaybetween the internal andexternal forces whichconstantly reshape the Earth’ssurface

H8 describes models which canbe used to explain changingenvironmental conditionsduring the evolution ofAustralia and other continents

9 Australian resources P9 describes and locatesavailable resources inAustralian environments

H9 evaluates the impact ofresources utilisation on theAustralian environment

Dom

ain

: K

now

ledg

e

10 biotic impacts on theenvironment

P10 describes human impact onthe local environment

H10 assesses the effects of currentpressures on the Australianenvironment


17

Objectives Preliminary Course Outcomes HSC Course OutcomesStudents will developknowledge andunderstanding of :

A student : A student :

11 planninginvestigations

P11 identifies and implementsimprovements toinvestigation plans

H11 justifies the appropriatenessof a particular investigationplan

12 conductinginvestigations

P12 discusses the validity andreliability of data gatheredfrom first-hand investigationsand secondary sources

H12 evaluates ways in whichaccuracy and reliability couldbe improved in investigations

13 communicatinginformation andunderstanding

P13 identifies appropriateterminology and reportingstyles to communicateinformation andunderstanding in Earth andEnvironmental Science

H13 uses terminology andreporting styles appropriatelyand successfully tocommunicate informationand understanding

14 developing scientificthinking and problem-solving skills

P14 draws valid conclusions fromgathered data andinformation

H14 assesses the validity ofconclusions drawn fromgathered data andinformation

Dom

ain

: Sk

ills

15 working individuallyand in teams

P15 implements strategies towork effectively as anindividual or as a member ofa team

H15 explains why an investigationis best undertakenindividually or by a team

Dom

ain:

Val

ues

& A

ttit

udes

16 themselves, others,learning as a lifelongprocess, Earth andEnvironmentalScience and theenvironment

P16 demonstrates positive valuesabout, and attitudes towards,both the living and non-livingcomponents of theenvironment; ethicalbehaviour; and a desire forcritical evaluation of theconsequences of theapplications of science

H16 justifies positive values aboutand attitudes towards theliving and non-livingcomponents of theenvironment; ethicalbehaviour; and a desire forcritical evaluation of theconsequences of theapplications of science


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8 Content: Earth and Environmental Science Stage 6 Preliminary Course

8.1 Earth and Environmental Science Skills

During the Preliminary course, it is expected that students will further develop skills in planningand conducting investigations, communicating information and understanding, scientific thinkingand problem-solving and working individually and in teams. Each module specifies content throughwhich skill outcomes can be achieved. Teachers should develop activities based on that content toprovide students with opportunities to develop the full range of skills.

PreliminaryCourse Outcomes

Content

A student:

P11identifies andimplementsimprovements toinvestigation plans

Students:

11.1 identify data sources to:a) analyse complex problems to determine appropriate ways in which each

aspect may be researchedb) determine the type of data that needs to be collected and explain the

qualitative or quantitative analysis that will be required for this data to beuseful

c) identify the orders of magnitude that will be appropriate and theuncertainty that may be present in the measurement of data

d) identify and use correct units for data that will be collectede) recommend the use of an appropriate technology or strategy for data

collection or gathering information that will assist efficient futureanalysis

11.2 plan first-hand investigations to:a) demonstrate the use of the terms ‘dependent’ and ‘independent’ to

describe variables involved in the investigationb) identify variables that need to be kept constant, develop strategies to

ensure that these variables are kept constant, and demonstrate the use of acontrol

c) design investigations that allow valid and reliable data and information tobe collected

d) describe and trial procedures to undertake investigations and explain whya procedure, a sequence of procedures, or the repetition of procedures isappropriate

e) predict possible issues that may arise during the course of aninvestigation and identify strategies to address these issues if necessary

11.3 choose equipment or resources by:a) identifying and/or setting up the most appropriate equipment or

combination of equipment needed to undertake the investigationb) carrying out a risk assessment of intended experimental procedures and

identifying and addressing potential hazards


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c) identifying technology that could be used during investigations anddetermining its suitability and effectiveness for its potential role in theprocedure or investigations

d) recognising the difference between destructive and non-destructivetesting of material and analysing potentially different results of thesetwo procedures

P12discusses thevalidity andreliability of datagathered fromfirst-handinvestigations andsecondary sources

12.1 perform first-hand investigations by:a) carrying out the planned procedure, recognising where and when

modifications are needed and analysing the effect of these adjustmentsb) efficiently undertaking the planned procedure to minimise hazards and

wastage of resourcesc) carefully and safely disposing of any waste materials produced during the

investigationd) identifying and using safe work practices during investigations

12.2 gather first-hand information by:a) using appropriate data collection techniques, employing appropriate

technologies, including data loggers and sensorsb) measuring, observing and recording results in accessible and

recognisable forms, carrying out repeat trials as appropriate

12.3 gather information from secondary sources by:a) accessing information from a range of resources, including popular

scientific journals, digital technologies and the Internetb) practising efficient data collection techniques to identify useful

information in secondary sourcesc) extracting information from numerical data in graphs and tables as well

as from written and spoken material in all its formsd) summarising and collating information from a range of sourcese) identifying practising male and female Australian scientists, the areas in

which they are currently working and information about their research

12.4 process information to:a) assess the accuracy of any measurements and calculations and the

relative importance of the data and information gatheredb) identify and apply relevant mathematical formulae and conceptsc) illustrate trends and patterns by organising data through the selection and

use of appropriate methods, including computer assisted analysisd) evaluate the validity of first-hand and secondary information and data in

relation to the area of investigatione) assess the reliability of first-hand and secondary information and data by

considering information from various sourcesf) assess the accuracy of scientific information presented in mass media by

comparison with similar information presented in scientific journals


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P13identifiesappropriateterminology andreporting styles tocommunicateinformation andunderstanding inEarth andEnvironmentalScience

13.1 present information by:a) selecting and using appropriate text types or combinations thereof, for

oral and written presentationsb) selecting and using appropriate media to present data and informationc) selecting and using appropriate methods to acknowledge sources of

informationd) using symbols and formulae to express relationships and using

appropriate units for physical quantitiese) using a variety of pictorial representations to show relationships and

presenting information clearly and succinctlyf) selecting and drawing appropriate graphs to convey information and

relationships clearly and accuratelyg) identifying situations where use of a curve of best fit is appropriate to

present graphical information

P14draws validconclusions fromgathered data andinformation

14.1 analyse information to:a) identify trends, patterns and relationships as well as contradictions in

data and informationb) justify inferences and conclusionsc) identify and explain how data supports or refutes an hypothesis, a

prediction or a proposed solution to a problemd) predict outcomes and generate plausible explanations related to the

observationse) make and justify generalisationsf) use models, including mathematical ones, to explain phenomena and/or

make predictionsg) use cause and effect relationships to explain phenomenah) identify examples of the interconnectedness of ideas or scientific

principles

14.2 solve problems by:a) identifying and explaining the nature of a problemb) describing and selecting from different strategies those which could be

used to solve a problemc) using identified strategies to develop a range of possible solutions to a

particular problemd) evaluating the appropriateness of different strategies for solving an

identified problem

14.3 use available evidence to:a) design and produce creative solutions to problemsb) propose ideas that demonstrate coherence and logical progression and

include correct use of scientific principles and ideasc) apply critical thinking in the consideration of predictions, hypotheses

and the results of investigationsd) formulate cause and effect relationships


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8.2 Planet Earth and Its Environment – A Five ThousandMillion Year Journey

Contextual Outline

According to currently accepted theory, the Sun formed about 4.7 x 109 years ago from a cloud ofgas and dust whose collapse was triggered by a supernova explosion. The condensing gas and dustthat went to form the Sun contained all its original elements plus the elements formed during thesupernova explosion. Those elements heavier than uranium, from plutonium to californium andbeyond, rapidly split into light elements or decayed into uranium and thorium whose half-lives areso long that they have survived in considerable amounts to the present day.

In addition to the different elements in the collapsing cloud of gas and dust, there would have beenthe many and various types of molecules like those found in interstellar space. As the youngterrestrial planets formed, they would have consisted of a chaotic mixture of silicates, metals,liquids and gases. The metals sank to the centre of the planets leaving the silicates floating above.This raised the core temperature and forced out the gases that had been trapped inside earlier. Thesegases formed the early planetary atmosphere.

In time, Earth had a surface temperature sufficiently low for liquid water to exist and accumulate innatural depressions, forming the primitive oceans. The hydrologic and lithologic cycles removedmethane, ammonia, hydrogen and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, leaving nitrogen as thedominant gas. The evolution of life and the innovation of photosynthesis produced changes in theatmosphere. The Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere have experienced cyclic episodesof cooling and heating and, during this time, the biosphere has been slowly evolving. The presentcycles have been established for many millions of years.

This module increases students’ understanding of the historical background and the nature andpractice of Earth and Environmental Science.

Assumed Knowledge

Domain: knowledge and understanding

Refer to the Science Stages 4–5 Syllabus for the following:

5.9.1a discuss current scientific thinking about the origin of the universe5.9.1b identify that some kinds of electromagnetic radiation are used to provide information

about the universe5.9.3a relate some major features of the universe to theories about the formation of the universe


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Students learn to: Students:

� explain the existence of matter inthe universe using current scientificideas, and describe the process ofaccretion of such matter to formstars and planets

� identify a sequence of eventsdescribed by scientists to outlinethe formation of the solar system

� gather, process and presentinformation that outlines asequence of events that led to theformation of the solar system

1 The solar systemhas evolved froma ball of gasesreleased from asupernovaexplosion

� compare cultural beliefs with theviews of astronomers and otherscientists that may arise indiscussion of the origins of theEarth

� explain the role of gravity in theformation of the Earth

� describe the relationship betweenthe density of Earth materials andthe layered structure of the Earth

� describe the composition of theearly (pre-oxygen) atmosphere andcompare it with the composition ofthe present atmosphere

� gather and process informationthat compares a culturalexplanation with an astronomicalor scientific model of the originof the Earth

� perform a first-hand investigationto measure the density of aselection of earth materialsrepresentative of core, mantle andcrust

� identify data sources, process andpresent information fromsecondary sources to compareEarth’s earliest atmosphere withthe present atmosphere

2 The early Earthand its evolution


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� summarise the experiments of Ureyand Miller and consider theimportance of their findings todeveloping an understanding ofhow amino acids may haveoriginated on Earth

� outline the evidence that indicateshow the first cellular organisms(Archaea) may have developedand describe their mode ofrespiration (anaerobicfermentation)

� discuss the impact of photolysis onthe composition of the early (pre-oxygen) atmosphere

� outline the role of chemosynthesisin providing a suitable energysource for early organisms

3 Living cellsoriginated at atime when theatmosphere andenvironmentswere different tothose presentlyfound on Earth

� explain how the existence ofArchaea near fumaroles andsubmarine vents can be used tosupport ideas on early developmentof life

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources about thesynthesis of amino acids causedby discharging an electric sparkin mixtures of methane, ammonia,hydrogen and water

� perform a first-hand investigationto demonstrate fermentation ofsugar by yeast and use anappropriate chemical test toidentify the produced gas ascarbon dioxide

� gather and process second-handinformation about both ancientArchaea and present day Archaeathat live near fumaroles andsubmarine vents known as blacksmokers


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� identify photosynthetic bacteria asthe first organisms to releaseoxygen into the environment

� discuss the roles of precipitationand photosynthesis in the removalof carbon dioxide from the earlyatmosphere

� predict and explain the differencesin composition of the oceans beforeand after the evolution ofphotosynthesis

� explain that reactions betweenoxygen and other elements wouldreadily occur producing oxideminerals and thus moderate therelease of oxygen into the oceansand atmosphere

� describe the forms in which carbonis now ‘locked up’ in thelithosphere and biosphere

� perform a first-hand investigationto gather information about theconditions under which ironreacts with oxygen to form ironoxides

� perform a first-hand investigationto demonstrate the precipitationof carbonate minerals in solutionby bubbling carbon dioxidethrough limewater

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources and useavailable evidence to analysedifferences in the composition ofthe oceans before and after theevolution of photosynthesis

� process and present informationfrom secondary sources to list anddescribe the forms in whichcarbon is now ‘locked up’ in thelithosphere and biosphere

4 The evolution ofphotosynthesisshifted thebalance of gasesin the atmosphere

� outline the links between theconcentration of atmosphericcarbon dioxide and average globaltemperature over geological time

� identify data, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources and use availableevidence to assess claims of arelationship between changingcarbon dioxide concentrationsand changes in average globaltemperatures

5 The evidenceprovided bygeological recordssuggests thatthere have beenclimaticvariations overEarth’s history

� identify that evidence from marineand lake sediments, ice cores andsea level changes suggests averageglobal temperatures have decreasedover the last sixty million years � gather, process and analyse

information from secondarysources on the varying climate ofthe Earth since the end of theCretaceous, sixty million yearsago


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8.3 The Local Environment

Contextual Outline

The immediate environment has an impact on all people in ways that an Earth and EnvironmentalScience student will learn to recognise and explain. This module allows students to draw onexisting knowledge of their own local area and expand on their understanding of geological andclimatic concepts through careful analysis of the area. Study of this module must include fieldexperience in the investigation of landforms, rock and soil types as well as biological factors andhow all of these interact to form the local environment.

Students will be able to identify the physical and chemical features of their local environment andrelate those features to the hydrologic, lithologic and atmospheric cycles in operation. They need tobe able to identify and relate landforms, rock types and soils to the resultant natural environments inwhich they, the plants and other animals of the area, live. In order to judge the impact of humansettlement in the area, students will need to investigate the history of the local environment asevident in the rocks, soils and fossils of the area. Where practicable, they could also seek theassistance of local Indigenous people in tracing the history of the area before the advent ofEuropean settlement.

Finally, students should be encouraged to analyse those aspects of the local environment that havebeen affected by people, describe the impacts, identify the causes of these impacts and proposerealistic solutions to any problems that exist by emphasising ecologically sustainable developmentstrategies. At least one field study will be necessary to identify the features of the landscape.

This module increases students’ understanding of the nature and practice, the implications forsociety and the environment, and the current issues, research and developments in Earth andEnvironmental Science.

Assumed Knowledge



5.10a distinguish between biotic and abiotic features of the local environment5.10c describe some impacts of human activities on ecosystems5.10d discuss strategies used to balance human activities and needs in ecosystems with conserving,

protecting and maintaining the quality of the environment


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� identify common rock formingminerals

� distinguish between igneous,sedimentary and metamorphic rockgroups in terms of their origins andcommon mineral composition

� identify and describe the geologicalfeatures of the local environmentthat determine its natural landforms

� perform a first-handinvestigation and use secondhand data to classify severalcommon igneous, sedimentaryand metamorphic rocks usinga key, with particularreference to those rocks in thelocal environment

� identify data, gather, processand present information as areport that identifies anddescribes:

– the geological features ofthe local landscape

– the past geological historyof the area that can bededuced from evidence inthe local rocks, soils orfossils

1 Rocks are formedfrom differentmaterials

� summarise the processes thatproduce soil

� analyse the ways in which thevegetation of an area can beinfluenced by soil composition andclimate

2 The properties oflocal soils affectthe local biologicalenvironment

� relate the presence of particularanimals in the local environment totheir requirements within the localenvironment

� choose equipment, plan andperform first-handinvestigations during a localfield study to:

– identify the main parentrock types (if present)

– analyse the soil in eacharea for:- organic content- pH- moisture content- presence of salts

(chlorides)

� identify, gather and processfirst-hand or secondary data toidentify the dominant types ofplants and animals in the areastudied


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� summarise and assess the changesin the local environment in the lastfifty years in terms of:

– vegetation cover and diversity– animal diversity and

abundance– water flow and quality

� explain why different groups in thelocal society have different viewsof the impact of human activity onthe local environment

� gather and processinformation from secondarysources to describe changingvegetation cover, plant andanimal diversity andabundance, and water flowand quality in the localenvironment over the last fiftyyears

� identify data, gather, processand analyse first-handinformation and use availableevidence to assess currenthuman impact on the localbiotic and abiotic environment

3 The impact ofhumans on localaquatic andterrestrialenvironments willdiffer withlocality

� identify one environmental issuethat requires some governmentregulation or management, such as:

– sustainable development– exploration– mining– environmental planning– air and water quality

management– land use and rehabilitation

4 The need forgovernments andlocal councils todesign and enactlaws to protectthe biotic andabioticenvironment

� identify an appropriate localenvironmental document that aimsto address one of the issues above(eg environmental impact study,catchment management plan)

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources to identify and discussthe scientific basis of theissues in the chosen localenvironmental document

� gather information fromsecondary sources to discussone government regulationbased on ecologicallysustainable developmentprinciples on land use


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� assess the impact of humanalterations to the environment,including land clearing, in terms ofsome specific consequences, suchas increased runoff, increased soilerosion, changes in river flows, in-stream sedimentation

� describe, using examples from thelocal environment if possible, waysin which artificial structures candisrupt natural surface processes

5 The activities ofhumans can causesystematic habitatalteration

� explain how habitat disturbancefrom soil degradation canadvantage introduced species ofplants and lead to the reduction orelimination of native flora andfauna species in affected areas

� gather, process and presentinformation about theconsequences of land clearingin a particular catchment

� process and analyse secondaryinformation to prepare a casestudy on the impact of anartificial structure on naturalsurface processes

� gather, process and presentinformation from secondarysources on two Australianspecies that have beendeclared endangered and useavailable evidence to outlinethe reasons why the specieshave become endangered andthe measures taken to ensuretheir survival

� use examples to describe andexplain what is meant bybiodiversity

6 Biodiversityassists in keepinga dynamic balancein the biosphere

� outline the potential effects of aloss of biodiversity in destabilisedecosystems

� gather information fromsecondary sources to identifysignificant sites of biodiversityin the local area


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8.4 Water Issues

Contextual Outline

Planet Earth has been called ‘Planet Ocean’, ‘Planet Water’ or the ‘Blue Planet’, because of theabundant water on its surface. Liquid water, which is taken for granted on Earth, is a rarecommodity in the cosmos. Abundant liquid water can only be found on a planet of the right massand chemical composition and the right distance from its sun.

Surface and groundwaters on Earth can range from essentially pure to highly saline. These differentwaters are found in different geological environments. It has taken over four thousand million yearsto form our current interacting subsystems comprising the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere andbiosphere that together form the biome of planet Earth. As water moves between these spheres itacts as an agent of change and transportation.

Water is important in maintaining Australian environments. The protection of water quality againstthe potential effects of contamination is important in guarding the integrity of those environments.

This module increases students’ understanding of the applications and uses and the implications forsociety and the environment of Earth and Environmental Science.

Assumed Knowledge



5.9.4f explain some impacts of natural events including cyclones, volcanic eruptions andearthquakes on the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and/or biosphere

5.10a distinguish between biotic and abiotic features of the local environment5.10c describe some impacts of human activities on ecosystems5.11.2a relate pollution to contamination by unwanted substances


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� outline an estimate of Earth’s totalwater budget and the percentageavailable for terrestrial organisms

1 Interacting sub-systems of theEarth thattogether producea unique biome � identify factors, including

geographic position, climate andtopography, that determine thepresent distribution of water on theplanet

� identify data and gatherinformation from secondarysources to construct diagramsrepresenting:– the distribution of the

atmosphere, hydrosphere,lithosphere and biosphere

– the distribution of Earth’stotal water budget

� explain the importance of water asa solvent in biological systems

� compare the relative solubility ofoxygen and carbon dioxide inwater and how the solubility ofeach changes with temperature

� predict the potential impact ofexcessive water evaporation andsubsequent increase in salinity oncommon terrestrial and inlandaquatic organisms

� plan and perform first-handinvestigations to gatherinformation that demonstratesthe effect of varying saltconcentrations on plant growth

� gather and analyse informationfrom secondary sources toevaluate the effect of commonpollutants, including detergentsand fertilisers, on growth ofalgae in ponds

� identify common water pollutantsthat can affect the growth ofplankton

2 Water is animportantingredient in themaintenance ofAustralianenvironment

� describe the water cycle in terms ofthe physical processes involved

3 Water plays animportant partin weatheringand thesubsequentproduction ofsoils

� distinguish between chemical andmechanical weathering

� gather information from localfield examples to investigate theeffects of one form of chemicalweathering and one form ofmechanical weathering


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� discuss methods used to conservewater including the re-use of waterafter treatment

� assess efficiency of water usageboth locally and in Australia

4 Water resources

� outline problems that may occur inground water systems, such aspollution, salt water intrusion andground salinity, and give examplesof these problems occurring inAustralian environments

� gather, process and presentinformation to illustrate theeffect on an ecosystem of achange in water availability

� gather information and analyseone method of waste watermanagement and outline thescientific principles involvedthat allow the re-use of thewater


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8.5 Dynamic Earth

Contextual Outline

The Earth’s landscapes result from the interplay of forces, internal and external, that continuallyreshape the Earth’s surface. These landscapes often show the effect of the most dramatic of theforces such as those internal tectonic forces responsible for the movement of the crustal plates overthe surface of the Earth.

The impact of crustal movements through earthquakes and volcanoes has been regularly recordedthroughout human history. Although the Australian continent is now relatively stable, thegeological record provides insight into its sometimes violent history.

This module examines the evidence of present Earth structures resulting from tectonic forces andcompares this evidence with the features of the Australian landscape with a view to understandinghow the Australian continent came to its present shape and form.

This module increases students’ understanding of the historical background, the nature and practice,the applications and uses, and the current issues, research and developments in Earth andEnvironmental Science.

Assumed Knowledge


Refer to the Science Stages 4–5 Syllabus for the following:5.7.1d describe an appropriate model that has been developed to describe atomic structure5.9.2a discuss the evidence that suggests crustal plates move over time5.9.4d relate movements of Earth’s plates to convection currents in the asthenosphere and to

gravitational forces5.9.4e explain how earthquakes, volcanic activity and new landforms result from the

interactions at plate boundaries


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� outline the process of radioactivedecay of atomic nuclei

� explain how the relative percentageof remnant radio-isotopes can beused to measure absolute ages ofmaterials, including rocks

� analyse information fromsecondary sources todetermine the age of rocks andcrystals based on data fromradiometric (isotopic) methods

� identify evidence for the age of theoldest rocks in Australia

1 Evidence that theAustraliancontinental landmass begandeveloping 4.1thousand millionyears ago

2 Crustal platesmove and theiredges are markedby tectonicactivity

� describe similarities anddifferences between oceanic andcontinental crust

� gather information fromsecondary sources to identifythe major world plates, theirpositions and boundaries, on amap

� explain how the alignment ofmagnetic fields of minerals incooling igneous rocks provides anindication of the rocks’ positionrelative to the magnetic poles

� assess the significance of apparentpolar wandering paths as evidenceof continental mobility

� explain the significance of thediscovery of magnetic fieldreversals on the development of atime scale

� explain how the palaeomagnetictime scale provides evidence forsea floor spreading

� gather, process and presentinformation from secondarysources on the use ofmagnetism in minerals as anindicator of crustal platemovement

� gather information fromsecondary sources to identifyand describe the main featuresof igneous rocks associatedwith effusive volcanic activityat mid-ocean ridges

� identify regions where sea floorspreading is now occurring anddescribe the composition ofigneous rocks formed at mid-oceanridges

3 Magnetic patternsand volcanicactivity providefurther evidenceof platedivergence

� describe the characteristics ofvolcanic activity associated withsea floor spreading


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� describe the processes that mayoccur when two plates collide

� define the term ‘subduction zone’and identify the geological featuresthat are characteristic of asubduction zone

� describe the characteristics ofigneous rocks and volcanic activityassociated with subduction zones

� process information to plotthe occurrence of explosivevolcanic activity around theworld and relate the patternproduced to crustalmovements

� analyse the inferences aboutprocesses occurring at subductionzones using data collected fromearthquakes

� explain how granites and andesitesare formed.

4 The interaction ofplates duringsubduction,collision andbreakup

� describe the plate tectonic modeland use it to explain thedistribution and age of continentsand oceans

� summarise the evidence found onthe Australian-Indian plate thatsupport hypotheses of crustalmovements (ie plate tectonics andsea floor spreading)

5 Australia hasbeen separatedfrom othercontinents byplate tectonicmotion

� identify continents andsubcontinents that formed part ofGondwana and describe evidenceinferring their origins inGondwana

� process and analyseinformation from secondarysources that shows thehistorical development oftheories to explain themovement of continents

� process and analyseinformation from secondarysources to model areconstruction of Gondwanafrom its componentlandmasses and use availableevidence to discuss itsrelationship with Pangaea


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9 Content: Earth and Environmental Science Stage 6HSC Course

9.1 Earth and Environmental Science Skills

During the HSC course, it is expected that students will further develop skills in planning andconducting investigations, communicating information and understanding, scientific thinking andproblem-solving and working individually and in teams. Each module specifies content throughwhich skill outcomes can be achieved. Teachers should develop activities based on that content toprovide students with opportunities to develop the full range of skills.

HSC CourseOutcomes

Content

A student:

H11justifies theappropriatenessof a particularinvestigation plan

Students:

11.1 identify data sources to:a) analyse complex problems to determine appropriate ways in which each

aspect may be researchedb) determine the type of data which needs to be collected and explain the

qualitative or quantitative analysis that will be required for this data to beuseful

c) identify the orders of magnitude that will be appropriate and theuncertainty that may be present in the measurement of data

d) identify and use correct units for data that will be collectede) recommend the use of an appropriate technology or strategy for data

collection or gathering information that will assist efficient future analysis

11.2 plan first-hand investigations to:a) demonstrate the use of the terms ‘dependent’ and ‘independent’ to describe

variables involved in the investigationb) identify variables that need to be kept constant, develop strategies to

ensure that these variables are kept constant, and demonstrate the use of acontrol

c) design investigations that allow valid and reliable data and information tobe collected

d) describe and trial procedures to undertake investigations and explain why aprocedure or a sequence of procedures or the repetition of procedures isappropriate

e) predict possible issues that may arise during the course of an investigationand identify strategies to address these issues if necessary

11.3 choose equipment or resources by:a) identifying and/or setting up the most appropriate equipment or

combination of equipment needed to undertake the investigationb) carrying out a risk assessment of intended experimental procedures and

identifying and addressing potential hazardsc) identifying technology that could be used during investigations and

determining its suitability and effectiveness for its potential role in theprocedure or investigations

d) recognising the difference between destructive and non-destructive testingof material and analysing potentially different results of these twoprocedures


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H12evaluates waysin whichaccuracy andreliability couldbe improved ininvestigations

12.1 perform first-hand investigations by:a) carrying out the planned procedure, recognising where and when

modifications are needed and analysing the effect of these adjustmentsb) efficiently undertaking the planned procedure to minimises hazards and

wastage of resourcesc) carefully and safely disposing of any waste materials produced during the

investigationd) identifying and using safe work practices during investigations

12.2 gather first-hand information by:a) using appropriate data collection techniques, employing appropriate

technologies, including data loggers and sensorsb) measuring, observing and recording results in accessible and recognisable

forms, carrying out repeat trials as appropriate

12.3 gather information from secondary sources by:a) accessing information from a range of resources, including popular

scientific journals, digital technologies and the Internetb) practising efficient data collection techniques to identify useful information

in secondary sourcesc) extracting information from numerical data in graphs and tables as well as

from written and spoken material in all its formsd) summarising and collating information from a range of sourcese) identifying practising male and female Australian scientists, the areas in

which they are currently working and information about their research

12.4 process information to:a) assess the accuracy of any measurements and calculations and the relative

importance of the data and information gatheredb) identify and apply relevant mathematical formulae and conceptsc) illustrate trends and patterns by organising data through the selection and

use of appropriate methods, including computer assisted analysisd) evaluate the validity of first-hand and secondary information and data in

relation to the area of investigatione) assess the reliability of first-hand and secondary information and data by

considering information from various sourcesf) assess the accuracy of scientific information presented in mass media by

comparison with similar information presented in scientific journals


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H13usesterminology andreporting stylesappropriatelyand successfullyto communicateinformation andunderstanding

13.1 present information by:a) selecting and using appropriate text types or combinations thereof, for oral

and written presentationsb) selecting and using appropriate media to present data and informationc) selecting and using appropriate methods to acknowledge sources of

informationd) using symbols and formulae to express relationships and using appropriate

units for physical quantitiese) using a variety of pictorial representations to show relationships and

presenting information clearly and succinctlyf) selecting and drawing appropriate graphs to convey information and

relationships clearly and accuratelyg) identifying situations where use of a curve of best fit is appropriate to

present graphical information

H14assesses thevalidity ofconclusionsdrawn fromgathered dataand information

14.1 analyse information to:a) identify trends, patterns and relationships as well as contradictions in data

and informationb) justify inferences and conclusionsc) identify and explain how data supports or refutes an hypothesis,

a prediction or a proposed solution to a problemd) predict outcomes and generate plausible explanations related to the

observationse) make and justify generalisationsf) use models, including mathematical ones, to explain phenomena and/or

make predictionsg) use cause and effect relationships to explain phenomenah) identify examples of the interconnectedness of ideas or scientific principles

14.2 solve problems by:a) identifying and explaining the nature of a problemb) describing and selecting from different strategies those that could be used to

solve a problemc) using identified strategies to develop a range of possible solutions to a

particular problemd) evaluating the appropriateness of different strategies for solving an

identified problem

14.3 use available evidence to:a) design and produce creative solutions to problemsb) propose ideas that demonstrate coherence and logical progression and

include correct use of scientific principles and ideasc) apply critical thinking in the consideration of predictions, hypotheses and

the results of investigationsd) formulate cause and effect relationships


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9.2 Tectonic Impacts

Contextual Outline

Throughout the history of the Earth, the movement of plates has resulted in continual globalenvironmental change. This unit allows students to examine the scale of change by gathering andanalysing information that indicates past tectonic activity and by considering the effects ofearthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Current research suggests that throughout Earth history, global tectonics has followed a cyclicpattern resulting in the formation and breakup of supercontinents. The processes of continentalagglomeration and sea floor spreading have resulted in the development of mountain beltscharacterised by distinctive lithologies and geological structures. Interpretation of the broadgeological patterns on the Australian continent indicate how Australia has evolved.

On a smaller time scale, the impacts of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions that have occurred in therecorded history of humans provide insight into the slow but inexorable change brought upon landmasses by tectonic activity. Students have the opportunity to examine how new technologies arefacilitating the prediction of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

This module increases the students’ understanding of the historical background, the nature andpractice, the applications and uses, the implications for society and the environment and the currentissues, research and developments in Earth and Environmental Science.


39


� describe the characteristics oflithospheric plates

� identify the relationship betweenthe general composition of igneousrocks and plate boundary type

� gather and analyseinformation from secondarysources about the forcesdriving plate motion

� outline the motion of plates anddistinguish between the three typesof plate boundaries (convergent,divergent and conservative)

1 Lithosphericplates and theirmotion

� describe current hypotheses used toexplain how convection currentsand subduction drive plate motion

� distinguish between mountain beltsformed at divergent and convergentplate boundaries in terms ofgeneral rock types and structures,including folding and faulting

� gather, process and presentinformation from secondarysources which comparesformation, general rock typeand structure of mountainbelts formed as a result ofthermal uplift and rifting withthose resulting from differenttypes of plate convergence

2 The movement ofplates results inmountainbuilding

� outline the main stages involved inthe growth of the Australiancontinent over geological time as aresult of plate tectonic processes

� summarise the plate tectonic super-cycle

3 Continents evolveas plateboundaries moveand change

� analyse information from ageological or tectonic map ofAustralia in terms of ageand/or structure of rocks andthe pattern of growth of thecontinent

� present information as asequence of diagrams todescribe the plate tectonicsuper-cycle concept


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� identify where earthquakes andvolcanoes are currently likely tooccur based on the plate tectonicmodel

� describe methods used for theprediction of volcanic eruptionsand earthquakes

� describe the general physical,chemical and biotic characteristicsof a volcanic region and explainwhy people would inhabit suchregions of risk

� describe hazards associated withearthquakes, including groundmotion, tsunamis and collapse ofstructures

� describe hazards associated withvolcanoes, including poisonous gasemissions, ash flows, lahars andlava flows and examine the impactof these hazards on theenvironment, on people and otherliving things

� justify continued research intoreliable prediction of volcanicactivity and earthquakes

� describe and explain the impacts ofshock waves (earthquakes) onnatural and built environments

4 Natural disastersare oftenassociated withtectonic activityandenvironmentalconditions causedby this activitymay contribute tothe problemsexperienced bypeople

� distinguish between plate marginand intra-plate earthquakes withreference to the origins of specificearthquakes recorded on theAustralian continent

� gather, process and presentinformation from secondarysources to chart the location ofnatural disasters worldwideassociated with tectonicactivity and use availableevidence to assess the patternsin terms of plate tectonics

� gather information fromsecondary sources to identifythe technology used tomeasure crustal movements atcollision boundaries anddescribe how this is used

� gather information fromsecondary sources to present acase study of a natural disasterassociated with tectonicactivity that includes:– an analysis of the tectonic

movement or processinvolved

– its distance from the areaof disaster

– predictions on the likelyrecurrence of the tectonicmovement or process

– technology available toassist prediction of futureevents

– an investigation of possiblesolutions to minimise thedisastrous effects of futureevents


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� predict the possible effects ofexplosive volcanic activity onglobal and local climates

5 Plate tectonicsand climate

� describe and explain the potentialand observed impacts of volcaniceruptions on global temperatureand agriculture

� identify data, chooseresources, gather and analysesecondary data on recentvolcanic activity to determinethe relationship between theeruption of ash and gas froman explosive volcanic eruptionand the subsequent decrease inglobal temperature


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9.3 Environments Through Time

Contextual Outline

There is little direct evidence about the inception of life but from the available evidence, much ofwhich has been gained from Australian rocks, geologists have been able to piece together anincreasingly detailed description of the emergence of life. With the descriptions of fossil plants andanimals, people can visualise the world as it was.

Palaeoecologists are able to describe past climates by the chemical and physical evidence from thattime. When the information from the geological record about plants, animals, landforms andclimates is combined, it is possible to describe past environments.

The geological record provides evidence of periods of mass extinction often followed by periodswhen life forms have proliferated explosively. Some modern theories that attempt to explain themass extinctions evident in the fossil record follow a neo-catastrophist model and evidence tosupport this model will be examined. This module allows the relationship between habitat alterationand the impact on life forms to be assessed and considers how much change leads to massextinctions. Rapid adaptations and radiations of new species are a consequence of mass extinctionevents and the reasons for these will be considered.

When scientists are able to relate past changes in life forms to changing environmental conditions,they are then able to better predict the potential impact of human assisted environmental change andhabitat destruction on modern life forms. When this is achieved, they may be better able to preventmore species from becoming endangered or extinct.

This module increases the students’ understanding of the historical background, the nature andpractice, and the implications for society and the environment of Earth and Environmental Science.


43


� identify that geological time isdivided into eons on the basis offossil evidence of different lifeforms

� define cyanobacteria as simplephotosynthetic organisms andexamine the fossil evidence ofcyanobacteria in Australia

� outline the processes andenvironmental conditions involvedin the deposition of a Banded IronFormation (BIF)

� examine and explain processesinvolved in fossil formation and therange of fossil types

� outline stable isotope evidence forthe first presence of life in 3.8 x109 year-old rocks

� gather and processinformation from secondarysources to draw up a timelineto compare the relative lengthsof the Hadean, Archaean,Proterozoic and Phanerozoiceons

� gather and analyseinformation from secondarysources to explain thesignificance of the BandedIron Formations as evidenceof life in primitive oceans

� gather, analyse and presentinformation from secondarysources on the habitat ofmodern stromatolites and useavailable evidence to proposepossible reasons for theirreduced abundance anddistribution in comparisonwith ancient stromatolites

1 Evidence fromearly Earthindicates the firstlife formssurvived inchanging habitatsduring theArchean andProterozoic eons

� outline the chemical relationshipbetween ozone and oxygen

� explain the relationship betweenchanges in oxygen concentrationsand the development of the ozonelayer

2 The environmentof thePhanerozoic eon

� describe the role of ozone infiltering ultraviolet radiation andthe importance of this for life thatdeveloped during the Phanerozoiceon

� analyse information fromsecondary sources to identifythe major era subdivisionsused to describe thePhanerozoic and describe thegeneral differences in lifeforms in each era


44


� interpret the relative age of a fossilfrom a stratigraphic sequence

� process information toexamine at least one exampleof a stratigraphic sequenceand describe any fossils foundin this sequence

� compare uses of relative andabsolute dating methods indetermining sequences in theevolution of life forms

� distinguish between relative andabsolute dating

� discuss the possible importance ofthe development of hardened bodyparts in explaining the apparentexplosion of life in the Cambrianperiod

� use available evidence,including computersimulations, models andphotographs to examine thechanges in life forms thatoccurred during what iscommonly referred to as the‘Cambrian event’

3 The Cambrianevent

� deduce possible advantages thathard shells and armouring wouldhave given these life-forms incomparison with the soft-bodiedEdiacara metazoans of the lateProterozoic, in terms of predation,protection and defence

� outline the theory of evolution bynatural selection

� outline evidence that present-dayorganisms have developed fromdifferent organisms in the distantpast

� summarise the main evolutionarychanges resulting from theselection of living things exhibitingfeatures that allowed them tosurvive in terrestrial environments

4 Exploiting newenvironments

� outline the major steps in theexpansion to the terrestrialenvironments by land plants,amphibians and reptiles

� identify the advantages theterrestrial environment offered thefirst land plants and animals

� gather and analyseinformation from a geologicaltime scale and secondarysources to identify and datethe major evolutionaryadvances made by plants andanimals

� gather information fromsecondary sources tosummarise the features anddistribution of some of thefirst land plants, amphibiansand reptiles

� gather information fromsecondary sources to comparethe diversity and numbers oforganisms from a fossil site


45


� compare models of explosive andgradual adaptations and radiationsof new genera and speciesfollowing mass extinction events

5 Past extinctionand massextinction events

� distinguish between massextinctions and smaller extinctions

� explain the recent extinction of themarsupial, bird and reptilemegafauna in Australia, as anexample of smaller extinctionevents involving several largespecies.

� compare these smaller extinctionevents with widespread‘catastrophic’ events in whichentire ecosystems collapse with theextinction of many entire classesand orders

� gather, analyse and presentinformation from secondarysources to compare twodifferent concepts used toexplain mass extinction events

� gather information fromsecondary sources and useavailable evidence to identifythe relationship between massextinctions and the divisionsof the geological time scale

� analyse information fromsecondary sources on at leasttwo different hypotheses usedto explain the extinction of themegafauna

� assess a variety of hypothesesproposed for the mass extinctionsat the end of the Permian and at theend of the Cretaceous


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9.4 Caring for the Country

Contextual Outline

The Australian continent has experienced tectonic stability for millions of years but this stabilitymeans that there has been only slow release of new mineral supplies into the rocks and littlerenewal of the soils across most of the continent for millennia. As a consequence, the Australianenvironment is fragile and, for the most part, arid, with old soils from which many chemicalcomponents have been leached.

The carrying capacity of each Australian ecosystem is determined by the interaction of localenvironment factors. The arrival and continent-wide dispersal of Aboriginal people coupled withthe advent of another period of glaciation gradually changed the pre-human ecosystems andappearance of the landscape

Aboriginal people have, through their long association with the fragile ecosystems, developedstrategies to manage the land successfully but non-Aboriginal use of the land imposed agriculturalpractices suitable to a Northern Hemisphere context. The Australian environment, however, did notrespond in the same way as did the environments in the Northern Hemisphere. Europeanagricultural practices demanded more water, more fertilisers and more vegetation to support theintroduced plants and animals than were needed by those parts of the biota that evolved here.

Australians are now realising that the pressures of our urban, agricultural and mining practices haveproduced unsustainable rates of resource use and abuse and that the unique biodiversity of thiscontinent is at risk because of unnecessary habitat destruction. International and national strategieshave been developed that acknowledge the key role of governments in setting the scene for thebroad changes in direction and approach necessary to ensure that Australia’s future development isecologically sustainable.

This module increases the students’ understanding of the historical background, the nature andpractice, the applications and uses, the implications for society and the environment, and the currentissues, research and developments in Earth and Environmental Science.


47


1 Australia’s landsurfaces exhibitthe effects of longperiods ofweathering anderosion

� describe the low fertility of mostAustralian soils in terms of:– long period of depletion of

nutrient ions– stability of the Australian

continent– the low relief of the Australian

continent

� present informationcomparing the fertility of abasalt-derived soil from recentvolcanic activity in easternAustralia with a deeplyweathered lateritic soil fromWestern Australia.

� plan and perform a series ofinvestigations to determinethe effect of compaction ortracking on a soil

� outline a cause of soil erosion inNSW due to:– an agricultural process– urbanisationand identify a management strategythat prevents or reduces both ofthese causes of soil erosion

� gather information from first-hand or secondary sources toevaluate a program or strategyused in NSW to treat soilerosion

2 Soil as a resourcethat requirescarefulmanagement

� identify regions of Australia withnaturally saline soils

� examine the possible consequencesfor soil salinity of land clearing andirrigation and outline precautionsthat could minimise the problem ineach case

� identify data sources andgather, process and presentinformation as a case study ofa successful rehabilitationprogram of a salt-affectedarea, including:– the origins of the problem– the impact of the salinity

problem on the biotic andabiotic environment

– the rehabilitation strategyused and the scientific basisfor this strategy

3 Salinity of soilsand water

� discuss the effect of continuallyintroducing new pesticides into theenvironment, including– effect on non-target species– accumulation in individuals

(bio-accumulation) andmagnification in animals higherup the food chain(biomagnification)

– human health impacts

4 The effect ofexcessive use andlong-termconsequences ofusing somepesticides

� assess alternative managementpractices that do not require theuse of pesticides

� gather information fromsecondary sources to identifya pesticide whose use is nowbanned and summarise its use,the reasons for stopping its useand available evidence toassess the impact of itsresidual chemicals in theenvironment

� gather and analyseinformation from secondarysources about alternatives topesticides as a managementpractice


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� assess management strategies andtechnologies used to assist in themaintenance of natural processes insurface water by:– licensing irrigation/bore water

users– treating stormwater– providing environmental flows

from dams

� present information as a flowchart to summarise the steps informs of sewage treatment

5 Maintenance ofenvironmentalflows and naturalprocesses in water

� summarise types of chemicalreactions involved in the formationof greenhouse gases and acid rainfrom the burning of fossil fuels(word equations only)

� analyse different scientific viewson the causes of global warming toassess predictions on the likelihoodof global warming

� outline the way in whichchlorofluorocarbons and otherhalides can reduce the percentageof ozone in the stratosphere

� summarise the evidence for ozonedepletion and the role of Australianscientists in this ongoing research

6 The results of theIndustrialRevolution on theatmosphere andhydrosphere

� gather and analyseinformation from secondarysources on the composition ofemissions from vehicleexhausts

� analyse, process and presentinformation to identify theorigins of greenhouse gasesand acid rain from bothnatural and madeenvironments, and useavailable evidence to proposepossible local and globalstrategies to achieve decreasedemission of carbon dioxide,methane and sulphur dioxide

� gather and analyseinformation from secondarysources to evaluate– one international strategy

aimed at reducing ozonedepletion

– one international strategyaimed at reducing humancauses of global warming

� gather information fromsecondary sources tosummarise the uses of CFCsand other halides and describethe ways in which their use isbeing phased out andalternative products beingused


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� define the qualities of geologicalfeatures that need to be consideredin selecting areas for waste dumps

� perform investigations toconstruct and test simulationsof waste treatment processes,such as filtration,sedimentation andprecipitation

� evaluate the methods currentlyused for the disposal, treatment andrecycling of both solid and liquidwaste

7 Rehabilitationand safe use ofpreviouslycontaminatedsites

� assess the methods andeffectiveness of rehabilitation at acontaminated mine site

� gather information from first-hand investigations orsecondary information toanalyse the effectiveness oflandfills in disposing of solidand liquid wastes


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9.5 Option — Introduced Species and the Australian Environment

Contextual Outline

Humans are not the only invaders of the Australian continent: approximately ten percent ofAustralia’s 15 000 – 20 000 species of vascular plants were introduced from somewhere else.(Invasion can be defined as the successful founding of a colony in a region where no colony of thatspecies existed before, and the successful rapid expansion of that colony.)

Aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems of Australia have been invaded successfully by plants andanimals. Many plant and animal species now regarded as pests in Australia were deliberatelyintroduced. Introduced animals have included donkeys, camels, water buffalo, cats, rabbits and canetoads. With these came fleas, lice, and other insects, such as the American cockroach. Introducedplants include water hyacinth, lantana, bitou bush and skeleton weed.

The introduction of new species of plants or animals to the Australian environment causes greatchange to established and balanced ecosystems; as well, it causes degradation to the physicalenvironments. This option allows students to concentrate on specific examples of introduced plantsand animals. By studying the impact of introduced species, students can further develop theiranalytical skills to predict long-term consequences and design rehabilitation and control programs.

This module increases the students’ understanding of the historical background, the implications forsociety and the environment and the current issues, research and developments in Earth andEnvironmental Science.


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� define an introduced species as onethat is not indigenous to aparticular locality

� process and analyse secondaryinformation to define andidentify introduced species

� identify the criteria that can beused to classify introduced species

� identify data sources, chooseresources, plan and perform afirst-hand investigation byvisiting a local environmentand identifying, classifyingand accounting for thepresence of non-indigenousflora and fauna

� discuss examples of introducedaquatic or terrestrial plants oranimals to identify:– food, soil or nutrient

requirements– distribution

– levels of mediation by humans

� discuss the reasons why differentgroups of people may haveintroduced plants and animals intothe Australian environment

� gather, process and analysesecondary information todetermine the reasons,location, time and mode ofintroduction of namedintroduced species

1 Survey ofintroducedspecies inAustralia

� discuss the reasons why differentgroups of people may havedifferent opinions on the presenceof an introduced organism as a pest

� describe the biotic and abioticcomponents of a local environment

2 An analysis ofintroducedspecies indicatesthey may impacton either thebiotic and/or theabiotic aspects ofthe environment

� explain how some introducedspecies alter the abioticcharacteristics of the Australianenvironments they colonise andwhy such environments arevulnerable to change

� perform a first-handinvestigation by visiting alocal environment, to identifyand distinguish between bioticand abiotic components of theenvironment that may havebeen affected by introducedspecies


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3 Identification ofthe conditionsleading tointroducedspecies becomingpests

� assess the relative contributions ofthe following conditions to onenamed introduced plant and onenamed introduced animalbecoming pests:– suitable habitat– suitable climatic condition– range of food resources– relative lack of natural

predators/grazers– high reproductive capacity– well-developed dispersal

mechanisms

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources and use availableevidence to identify thefeatures of the namedintroduced plant and animal.

� analyse information from first-hand and/or secondary sourcesand use available evidence toassess the environmentalimpacts of the named plantand animal

4 Development of acase study on anintroducedspecies that hashad an impact onthe physicaland/or biologicalenvironment

� summarise for the above namedintroduced plant and animal:– the history of introduction– the environmental conditions

leading to the organismbecoming a pest

– dispersal techniques– reproductive capacity

� evaluate for the above namedintroduced plant and animal:– the impact on the physical

environment– control strategies

� gather and analyseinformation from secondarysources to determine therelative merits of differentpossible control strategies forthe named plant and animal


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� explain what is meant by biologicalcontrol

� describe the following types ofbiological control and giveexamples of the use of each:– predator–prey– bacterial/viral parasites– release of sterilised males

� outline the criteria used todetermine the conditions underwhich an organism can be used forbiological control

� describe the history of control ofprickly pear as an example ofsuccessful biological control

� identify broadscale environmentalimpacts of one or more introducedspecies on a local ecosystem

� process information fromsecondary sources on the usesand successes of the variousforms of biological control

� gather information fromsecondary sources to contrastthe main features andeffectiveness of the BradleyMethod of bush regenerationwith an alternative method

� process, analyse and presentinformation about strategiesbeing used to rehabilitate anecosystem or minimisethreatening processes

� analyse information and useavailable evidence to makepredictions about futureeffectiveness of identifiedstrategies.

� examine and critically evaluate thestrategies being used to rehabilitatethis ecosystem or to minimisethreatening processes

5 Rehabilitationprograms forecosystemsdamaged byintroducedspecies

� extrapolate current level ofeffectiveness of the identifiedstrategies to the future in terms of:– costs– sustainability of the ecosystem– monitoring

– management of the program

� outline the quarantine proceduresin place in Australia to preventintroduction of new species

� identify the introduction of newspecies through off-loading ofballast water as an example ofaccidental introduction

� gather, process and presentinformation to summarise thequarantine methods used inAustralia to control theintroduction of new speciesand analyse the effectivenessof these procedures

6 Modernquarantinemethods continueto restrict theintroduction ofnew species toAustralia

� assess the effectiveness ofprocedures in place to prevent thespread of new species


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9.6 Option — Organic Geology – A Non-renewable Resource

Contextual Outline

Organic resources are extremely important to modern human culture in all parts of the world buttheir availability continues to be a source of concern to scientists. This module allows students toincrease their knowledge and understanding of the geological origins of fossil fuels. With thisincreased understanding should come better awareness of the conservation issues involved and theneed to search for alternative fuels and materials.

This module increases the students’ understanding of the historical background, the applicationsand uses, the implications for society and the environment and the current issues, research anddevelopments in Earth and Environmental Science.


� distinguish between the nature ofrenewable and non-renewableresources

� assess estimates of known reservesof non-renewable resources in lightof technological innovation

� define fossil fuels as ‘usefulorganic-matter-derived Earthmaterials’

� describe the changes in coal withincreasing rank in terms of:– physical properties– composition– grade– energy yield

� process information fromsecondary sources to classifyrenewable and non-renewableresources commonly in use

� identify data sources, gatherinformation and perform afirst-hand investigation toidentify and classify a varietyof fossil fuels commonly usedand compare their propertiesand uses

� describe properties of liquidpetroleum in terms of compositionand energy yield

1 The properties ofeconomicallyimportant Earthmaterials formedfrom organicmaterial

� describe properties of gaseousfossil fuels in terms of compositionand compare the energy yields ofcoal-derived gas and petroleum-derived gas


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� outline the characteristics of coal-forming environments

� discuss the process of coalification— transforming vegetable matterinto peat and coal

� describe the characteristics ofpetroleum-forming environments

� outline the maturation of petroleum— diagenesis, catagenesis,metagenesis

� outline the process of oil and gasmigration

� describe the features of sourcerocks, reservoir rocks and caprocks

� analyse information fromsecondary sources, includingresource maps, to:– identify coal-producing

localities – identify petroleum-

producing localities

� gather and processinformation from secondarysources to analyse thesimilarities betweenenvironments in coal- andpetroleum-producing localities

2 The environment,and process ofcoal andpetroleumformation

� analyse the conditions under whichpetroleum accumulates in structuraland stratigraphic traps

� describe the exploration methodsused to determine the existence andextent of coal deposits

� describe the exploration methodsused to determine the location ofoil, including geophysical methodsand drilling

� gather information fromsecondary sources to outlinethe methods and technologiesused to locate fossil fuelreserves

3 Searching for coaland oil

� identify the location and maingeological features of known coaland oil localities and relate this tothe search for new ones

� describe the refining of coal

� describe the refining of petroleum,including distillation and catalyticcracking

� describe and evaluate the uses ofcoal and oil as fuels and rawmaterials for industry

� gather and present informationfrom secondary sources toconstruct flow charts anddiagrams of the processesused in refining fossil fuels

4 The uses of coaland oil


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� analyse and evaluate the types andeffects of products of burning fossilfuels — gases, water, particulates

� analyse the dependence of modernsociety on fossil fuels and assessattempts to limit emissions

� describe and evaluate argumentsconcerning the greenhouse debate

� identify data sources, selectequipment, plan and perform afirst-hand investigation todistinguish between theproducts of complete andincomplete combustion

� identify data sources, analyseinformation and use availableevidence to determine theeffects of fossil fuelcombustion products, using avariety of media

� analyse information and useavailable evidence to predictthe economic andenvironmental effects ofremoving all sources of fossilfuels

5 Theenvironmentalimpacts of fossilfuel use —complete versusincompletecombustion

� gather information from asecondary source toinvestigate alternative sourcesof energy

� identify and discuss alternativesources of energy — solar, wind,hydro-electric, nuclear, syntheticoil, ethanol, wave power — andevaluate the relative importanceand future potential of each as analternative energy source for localcommunities

� solve problems and performfirst-hand investigations to testthe energy efficiency ofvarious non-fossil fuelalternative energy sources

6 The search foralternativesources of fuels

� describe and evaluate methods ofconserving energy, includingarchitectural design


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9.7 Option — Mining and the Australian Environment

Contextual Outline

Australia’s mineral resources continue to be an important part of the economy of Australia but thereare increasing concerns about the impact of mining on the environment in the long term. Thismodule allows students to become familiar with issues associated with the geology of mining. Italso allows them to investigate processes that may be used to minimise environmental damageduring and after the mining process in the light of national strategies for a sustainable future.

This module increases the students’ understanding of the historical background, the applicationsand uses, the implications for society and the environment, and the current issues, research anddevelopments in Earth and Environmental Science.


� identify the main geologicalfeatures of two Australian mineralprovinces including:

- a base/precious metal-producing locality in anisland arc terrane, and

- one selected from an ironore-producing locality in anancient continental area oran area of sedimentary oreformation

1 The relationshipbetween mineralsand geologicalformationsindicates where tosearch for ore

� discuss models of mineral genesis,related to sedimentary and tectonicprocesses, responsible for themineralisation in the two mineralprovinces selected above

� solve problems, identify datasources, gather and analyseinformation from secondarysources to identify thegeological settings and mainfeatures of the chosen mineralprovinces


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� discuss the implications of onelandmark decision that hasimpacted on mining operations inAustralia such as Wave Hill, Mabo,or Wik

� gather information fromsecondary sources to discussthe effect of one landmarkdecision on the exploitation ofa named deposit

2 The laws relatedto mining leases,rights of theland-holder andthe role ofgovernments ingranting leases � outline the effect of one state or

federal government policy onmining operations in the context ofsustainability

� identify renewable and non-renewable resources commonlyused in society in terms of theprocesses and time required togenerate them

� define ore as bodies of rockcontaining ore minerals which canbe mined and treated at a profit

� distinguish between waste rock andores in rock

� distinguish between ore mineralsand gangue minerals in an oredeposit

� describe gangue minerals as thosethat must be removed to enrich theconcentration and value of an oredeposit

3 There is a rangeof conditionsunder whichmining an oredeposit becomeseconomicallyviable

� explain how grade and tonnage,and the relationship between themarket price and the cost ofexploration, mining and processingdetermine the economic value of adeposit

� process information fromsecondary sources to classifyrenewable and non-renewableresources commonly in use

� process and analyseinformation from secondarysources on theinterrelationships between:- financial cost involved in

exploration, mining, refiningand rehabilitation

- market price - tonnage, grade and depth of

mineral deposits - available technology

in determining the economicviability of a named ore

� perform a first-handinvestigation to distinguishbetween waste rock and ore,and ore minerals and gangueminerals


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� outline the common explorationmethods used to identify the oredeposit (including satelliteimagery, aerial photographinterpretation, geophysics,geochemistry and drilling)

� describe the role of drilling indetermining the size and grade ofthe deposit

� analyse the process of determiningthe feasibility of mining thedeposit, referring to the stagesinvolved in its development from aresource to a reserve

� explain how local, state and federalgovernment policies may affect thedecision to mine the deposit

� gather information to describethe impact of improvements intechnology on explorationtechniques

� plan and perform first handinvestigations to test for thepresence of ore minerals ormetals using:

- a geophysical method- a geochemical method

� gather information fromsecondary sources to analysethe processes used todetermine the feasibility ofmining the deposit

� assess the impact of installinginfrastructure, or using that whichalready exists, on determining thefeasibility of mining the deposit

� gather information fromsecondary sources to examinemethods used to extract andrefine the ore from the deposit

� outline the methods andtechnologies used in the extraction,concentration and refining of orefrom the deposit

4 The explorationand evaluationof a named oredeposit


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� assess the likely environmentaleffects of exploration, mining andprocessing methods for the deposit

� evaluate the purpose of theEnvironmental Impact Statementfor the deposit in terms ofprotection of unique andendangered species, protection ofsacred sites, communityconsultation and local habitatmanagement

� describe the methods used in theplanned, and practised,rehabilitation of the mine site

� evaluate the relationship betweenmining methods and mine siterehabilitation for the deposit

5 Environmentalissues need to beconsidered andaddressed duringthe exploration,extraction andprocessing of theore from thedeposit

� gather information fromsecondary sources, or fieldstudies, to presentinformation in terms of theenvironmental impact of theexploration, extraction andprocessing methods used forthe mine site

� process information fromsecondary sources to describerehabilitation practicesemployed at the mine site


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9.8 Option — Oceanography

Contextual Outline

The oceans represent an important part of the Earth’s environment and an understanding of thenatural processes of oceans assists in identifying methods of monitoring and maintaining theenvironmental health of the oceans. The Earth is essentially a water planet: nearly 71% of itssurface is covered by oceans.

The processes of sea floor spreading and subduction have been the mechanism for the movement ofcontinents. Together, they control the production and distribution of oceans relative to land. As theneeds of humans increase, we are increasingly exploiting the resources of the oceans but theseresources are limited. This exploitation creates a critical problem, so an understanding of thephysical and chemical processes occurring within ocean basins and the dependence andinterrelationships of life forms on these processes is paramount.

This module increases students’ understanding of the historical background, the nature and practice,the applications and uses, the implications for society and the environment and the current issues,research and developments in Earth and Environmental Science.


� describe the modern oceans interms of:– average temperature– mean depth– average salinity

– average density

� process and present secondaryinformation to produce a flowchart illustrating themovement of water, carbonand oxygen between theoceans and the atmosphere

� identify the area of the Earthcovered by oceans and explain howthis influences conditions on theEarth’s surface

� identify the probable origins of theoceanic waters

1 The oceans haveevolved over thehistory of Earth

� compare the evolution of theoceanic waters with the evolutionof the atmosphere and explain howand why the two are linked


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� identify the regions of the crustwhere new ocean basins areforming and where ocean floors aresubducting

� outline the types of evidence usedto date ocean floors

� assess the reliability of informationused to estimate the age of oceanbeds

� gather, process and analyseinformation and use availableevidence to assess the impactof improved technologicaldevelopments onunderstanding of the age ofthe sea floor

� outline the reasons why the oldestsea floor present on the Earth todayis generally less than 250 millionyears old

� identify the role of plate tectonicsin maintaining the equilibriumbetween the area of sea floor andarea of continental land present onthe Earth

� discuss the reasons for, andimpacts of, possible shifts in theequilibrium between the area of seafloor and the area of continentalland

2 The shape,distribution andage of the currentoceans has beendetermined byplate tectonics

� describe evidence for the closing offormer ocean basins in terms ofthe presence of deep marinesedimentary rocks in present-daycontinental mountain belts


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� outline the origin of salinity in theEarth’s seas and oceans

� explain examples of commonprocesses that change the salinityand temperature of oceans andsmall enclosed seas

� relate the range of temperaturesand salinities measured in selectedareas of the Pacific Ocean to thedistribution of specific species

� describe the attenuation of lightwith depth in oceanic waters, andthe order in which the differentwavelengths of light disappear withdepth in oceans

� discuss the implications of limitedlight for the distribution of marineplants in near-shore environmentsand photosynthetic plankton in theopen oceans

3 There aredifferences inphysical, chemicaland biologicalenvironmentswithin andbetween past andpresent-dayoceans

� process and analyseinformation that explains theorigin of the water and salt inthe world’s seas and oceans

� process data from secondarysources to map and describethe range of temperatures andsalinity levels in vertical andhorizontal zones of the PacificOcean

� identify data sources, plan,choose equipment andperform a first-handinvestigation to compare thesolubility of common salts inwater of differenttemperatures

� analyse information from theabove investigation and fromsecondary sources to predictthe difference in compositionof hot and cold water inoceans in terms of saltconcentrations

� perform a first-handinvestigation to demonstratethe precipitation of salts froma cooling solution and solveproblems to use thisinformation to predictprecipitation in naturallyoccurring bodies of water


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� present information thatidentifies structures found indeep-sea organisms that areinferred adaptations toenvironmental conditions

� describe the four types of massmotions of water:– surface currents– deep circulation– tides– tsunamisand identify the energy source foreach

� explain how the oxygen supply onthe ocean floor is renewed, makinglife there possible

� process information toexplain why laws about theocean are becomingincreasingly important in theworld society

� explain how long-lived materials,such as synthetic chemicals andheavy metals, that enter the sea inone place can be found thousandsof kilometres away

4 The mass motionof oceans

� discuss the implications of themovement of materials by oceancurrents for the use of the oceansfor waste disposal, including:– pollution

– ocean sewage outlets


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� describe what is meant by a‘community of organisms’

� review the range of abioticcharacteristics of an environmentthat determines the nature of acommunity within thatenvironment

� describe and compare examples offood chains that occur in the toplayers of the oceans and thosefound at great depth, explaining thedifferences

� explain, using examples, whyorganisms living on the ocean floorwill be different from organismsliving in the top thirty metres of theocean

5 The physicalconditions atdifferent depthsin the oceansconstitutedifferentenvironmentsand can supportdifferentcommunities oforganisms

� explain how increasedunderstanding of ocean currentsand sea floor topography canchange the utilisation of oceanresources by society

� process and analyseinformation on life forms atdifferent depths in the oceansto compare the deep oceanenvironment and its organismsto that in the top thirty metresof ocean

� gather and processinformation and use availableevidence to assess the range ofresources provided by theocean, including:– fishing and food– marine aquaculture– minerals from seawater– specific chemicals: sulfur,

manganese and heavymetals

– power

� describe the way in which seawateris heated by circulation withinnewly formed ocean crust

� relate the heating of the water tothe cooling of the newly formedcrust

� explain the ability of hydrothermalwaters (brines) to scavengeelements from rocks

� outline and describe the productsand process of hydrothermal fluiddischarge from deep-sea vents

6 Hydrothermalvents supportunusualcommunities

� describe examples of the uniquebacteria and invertebrate speciesthat live around hydrothermal vents

� solve problems, plan andperform an investigation todemonstrate the effect ofsurface area to volume ratio ofsolids on their cooling rate inwater

� perform an investigation toassess the relationshipbetween the rate of hatchingof brine shrimp to salt waterconcentration and temperature

� gather, process and presentinformation from secondarysources that describes theprocesses and characteristicsof hydrothermal vents andtheir unique bioticcommunities


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� outline the origin, characteristicsand the distribution of differentdeep-sea sediments in the PacificOcean Basin, including calcareousooze sediments; siliceous oozesediments; deep-sea clays;manganese nodules; glacial marinesediments; and continental marginsediments

7 The type ofsediment thataccumulates onthe floor of thedeep oceansvaries accordingto water depth,supply ofnutrients tosurface waters,and distance toland masses

� discuss the different circumstancesrequired for the deposition ofdifferent deep-sea sediments in thePacific Ocean Basin

� gather data from secondarysources to distinguish thetextual and compositionaldifferences betweencalcareous ooze sediments;siliceous ooze sediments;deep-sea clays; manganesenodules; glacial marinesediments; and continentalmargin sediments

8 Oceanographershave a range oftechnologyavailable to assistthe collection ofdata about theoceans

� identify two of the followingtechnologies used byoceanographers, and for each one,describe how they work and theevidence they provide:

- echo sounders

- dredges, grabs and coresamplers

- fish and plankton nets

- bathythermographs

- magnetometers

� evaluate the role of theoceanographic technologiesstudied in increasingknowledge and understandingabout the oceans


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10 Course Requirements

For the Preliminary course:

• 120 indicative hours are required to complete the course• the content in each module must be addressed over the course• experiences over the course must cover the scope of each skill as described in Section 8.1• practical experiences should occupy a minimum of 45 indicative hours of course time• at least one open-ended investigation, integrating the skills and knowledge and

understanding outcomes, is required.

For the HSC course:

• the Preliminary course is a prerequisite• the content in each module of the core and one option must be addressed over the course• experiences over the course must cover the scope of each skill as described in Section 9.1• 120 indicative hours are required to complete the course• practical experiences should occupy a minimum of 35 indicative hours of course time• at least one open-ended investigation integrating the skills and knowledge and

understanding outcomes, is required.


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11 Post-school Opportunities

The study of Earth and Environmental Science Stage 6 provides students with knowledge,understanding and skills that form a valuable foundation for a range of courses at university andother tertiary institutions.

In addition, the study of Earth and Environmental Science Stage 6 assists students to prepare foremployment and full and active participation as citizens. In particular, there are opportunities forstudents to gain recognition in vocational education and training. Teachers and students should beaware of these opportunities.

Recognition of Student Achievement in Vocational Education and Training (VET)

Wherever appropriate, the skills and knowledge acquired by students in their study of HSC coursesshould be recognised by industry and training organisations. Recognition of student achievementmeans that students who have satisfactorily completed HSC courses will not be required to repeattheir learning in courses in TAFE NSW or other Registered Training Organisations (RTOs).

Registered Training Organisations, such as TAFE NSW, provide industry training and issuequalifications within the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF).

The degree of recognition available to students in each subject is based on the similarity ofoutcomes between HSC courses and industry training packages endorsed within the AQF. Trainingpackages are documents that link an industry’s competency standards to AQF qualifications. Moreinformation about industry training packages can be found on the National Training InformationService (NTIS) website (www.ntis.gov.au).

Recognition by TAFE NSW

TAFE NSW conducts courses in a wide range of industry areas, as outlined each year in the TAFENSW Handbook. Under current arrangements, the recognition available to students of Earth andEnvironmental Science in relevant courses conducted by TAFE is described in the HSC/TAFECredit Transfer Guide. This guide is produced by the Board of Studies and TAFE NSW and isdistributed annually to all schools and colleges. Teachers should refer to this guide and be aware ofthe recognition available to their students through the study of Earth and Environmental ScienceStage 6. This information can be found on the HSC / TAFE Credit Transfer website(www.det.nsw.edu.au/hsctafe)

Recognition by other Registered Training Organisations

Students may also negotiate recognition into a training package qualification with another RTO.Each student will need to provide the RTO with evidence of satisfactory achievement in Earth andEnvironmental Science Stage 6 so that the degree of recognition available can be determined.


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12 Assessment and Reporting

12.1 Requirements and Advice

The information in this section of the syllabus relates to the Board of Studies’ requirements forassessing and reporting achievement in the Preliminary and HSC courses for the Higher SchoolCertificate.

Assessment is the process of gathering information and making judgements about studentachievement for a variety of purposes.

In the Preliminary and HSC courses those purposes include:

• assisting student learning• evaluating and improving teaching and learning programs• providing evidence of satisfactory achievement and completion in the Preliminary

course• providing the Higher School Certificate results.

Reporting refers to the Higher School Certificate documents received by students that are used bythe Board to report both the internal and external measures of achievement.

NSW Higher School Certificate results will be based on:

• an assessment mark submitted by the school and produced in accordance with the Board’srequirements for the internal assessment program

• an examination mark derived from the HSC external examinations.

Results will be reported using a course report containing a performance scale with bands describingstandards of achievement in the course.

The use of both internal assessment and external examinations of student achievement allowsmeasures and observations to be made at several points and in different ways throughout the HSCcourse. Taken together, the external examinations and internal assessment marks provide a validand reliable assessment of the achievement of the knowledge, understanding and skills describedfor each course.


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Standards Referencing and the HSC Examination

The Board of Studies will adopt a standards-referenced approach to assessing and reporting studentachievement in the Higher School Certificate examination.

The standards in the HSC are:• the knowledge, skills and understanding expected to be learned by students – the syllabus

standards• the levels of achievement of the knowledge, skills and understanding – the

performance standards.

Both syllabus standards and performance standards are based on the aims, objectives, outcomesand content of a course. Together they specify what is to be learnt and how well it is to be achieved.

Teacher understanding of standards comes from the set of aims, objectives, outcomes and content ineach syllabus together with:– the performance descriptions that summarise the different levels of performance of

the course outcomes– HSC examination papers and marking guidelines– samples of students’ achievement on assessment and examination tasks.

12.2 Internal Assessment

The internal assessment mark submitted by the school will provide a summation of each student’sachievements measured at points throughout the course. It should reflect the rank order of studentsand relative differences between students’ achievements.Internal assessment provides a measure of a student’s achievement based on a wider range ofsyllabus content and outcomes than may be covered by the external examination alone.

The assessment components, weightings and task requirements to be applied to internal assessmentare identified on page 73. They ensure a common focus for internal assessment in the course acrossschools, while allowing for flexibility in the design of tasks. A variety of tasks should be used togive students the opportunity to demonstrate outcomes in different ways and to improve the validityand reliability of the assessment.

12.3 External Examination

In Earth and Environmental Science Stage 6 the external examinations include written papers forexternal marking. The specifications for the examination in Earth and Environmental Science Stage6 are on page 74.

The external examination provides a measure of student achievement in a range of syllabusoutcomes that can be reliably measured in an examination setting.

The external examination and its marking and reporting will relate to syllabus standards by:• providing clear links to syllabus outcomes• enabling students to demonstrate the levels of achievement outlined in the course

performance scale• applying marking guidelines based on established criteria.


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12.4 Board Requirements for the Internal Assessment Mark inBoard Developed Courses

For each course, the Board requires schools to submit an assessment mark for each candidate.

The collection of information for the HSC internal assessment mark must not begin prior to thecompletion of the preliminary course.

The Board requires that the assessment tasks used to determine the internal assessment mark mustcomply with the components, weightings and types of tasks specified in the table on page 73.

Schools are required to develop an internal assessment program that:

• specifies the various assessment tasks and the weightings allocated to each task• provides a schedule of the tasks designed for the whole course.

The school must also develop and implement procedures to:

• inform students in writing of the assessment requirements for each course before thecommencement of the HSC course

• ensure that students are given adequate written notice of the nature and timing of assessmenttasks

• provide meaningful feedback on each student’s performance in all assessment tasks• maintain records of marks awarded to each student for all assessment tasks• address issues relating to illness, misadventure and malpractice in assessment tasks• address issues relating to late submission and non-completion of assessment tasks• advise students in writing if they are not meeting the assessment requirements in a course and

indicate what is necessary to enable the students to satisfy the requirements• inform students about their entitlements to school reviews and appeals to the Board• conduct school reviews of assessments when requested by students• ensure that students are aware that they can collect their Rank Order Advice at the end of the

external examinations at their school.


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12.5 Assessment Components, Weightings and Tasks

The school assessment advice and the external examination specifications for the Stage 6 sciencecourses are currently under review. The content of this section of the syllabus applies for 2003 only.Any modifications to this section will be distributed in mid-2003.

Preliminary Course

The suggested components, weightings and tasks for the Preliminary course are set out below.

Component Weighting Tasks could include

Planet Earth and ItsEnvironment

25

The Local Environment 25

Water Issues 25

Dynamic Earth 25

AssignmentsFieldwork studies and reportsModel makingOpen-ended investigationsOral reportsPractical testsResearch projectsReportsTopic tests and examinations

Note:Tasks to assess students’abilities to conduct first-handinvestigations andcommunicate information andunderstanding based on theseinvestigations should beincluded.

Marks 100

There should be a balance between the assessment of:

• knowledge and understanding outcomes, and course content

and

• skills outcomes and course content.


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HSC Course

The internal assessment mark for Earth and Environmental Science Stage 6 is to be based on theHSC Course only. Final assessment should be based on a range and balance of assessmentinstruments.

Component Weighting Tasks could include:

Tectonic Impacts25

Environments through Time 25

Caring for the Country25

Option Module 25

AssignmentsFieldwork studies and reportsModel makingOpen-ended investigationsOral reportsPractical testsReportsResearch projectsTopic tests and examinations

Note:• no more than 50% weighting

may be allocated toexaminations and topic testtasks

• a minimum of 30% weightingmust be allocated to tasksthat assess students’ abilitiesto conduct first-handinvestigations andcommunicate informationand understanding based onthese investigations

Marks 100

There should be a balance between the assessment of:

• knowledge and understanding outcomes, and course content

and

• skills outcomes and content.

One task may be used to assess several components. It is suggested that 3–5 tasks are sufficient toassess the HSC course outcomes.


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12.6 HSC External Examination Specifications


The written examination in Earth and Environmental Science will consist of one examination paperof 3 hours duration (plus 5 minutes reading time). The examination paper will consist of TWOsections:

Section I – Core (75 marks)

Part A (15 marks)

There will be FIFTEEN multiple-choice questions.All questions will be compulsory.All questions will be of equal value.Questions will be based on the HSC core modules.

Part B (60 marks)

Short-answer and extended response question/s.Marks for individual questions will be shown on the examination paper.All questions will be compulsory.Questions will be based on the HSC core modules.

Section II – Option (25 marks)

There will be FOUR questions: one on each of the FOUR HSC options. Each question may consistof several parts.Marks for individual parts will be shown on the examination paper.Candidates must attempt ONE question.All questions will be of equal value.

HSC Options ListIntroduced Species and the Australian EnvironmentOrganic Geology – A Non-Renewable ResourceMining and the Australian EnvironmentOceanography


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12.7 Summary of Internal and External Assessment


Internal Assessment Weighting External Assessment Weighting

Core Modules

Option

Note: assessment ofknowledge,understanding, andskills developedthrough conductingfirst-handinvestigations shouldbe incorporated intothe core and option asappropriate.

75

25

A written examination paperconsisting of:

Core Modules

• Multiple-choice questions• Short-answer questions• Longer answer question/s

Option

• Short-answer questions• Longer answer question/s

75

25

Marks 100 Marks 100


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12.8 Reporting Student Performance against Standards

Student performance in an HSC course will be reported against standards on a course report. Thecourse report contains a performance scale for the course describing levels (bands) of achievement,an HSC examination mark and the internal assessment mark. It will also show, graphically, thestatewide distribution of examination marks of all students in the course.

Each band on the performance scale (except for band 1) includes descriptions that summarise theattainments typically demonstrated in that band.

The distribution of marks will be determined by students’ performances against the knownstandards and not scaled to a predetermined pattern of marks.


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Section 13

Appendix

The following information clarifies terminology used in the syllabus.

Archaea Microscopic, single-celled organisms that, like bacteria, have nomembrane-bound organelles within their cells. However, they differfrom both eukaryotes and bacteria in that their membrane lipids areether-linked not ester-linked and in that they are capable ofmethanogenesis. Although many books and articles still refer to themas ‘Archaebacteria’, that term has been abandoned because they aren'tbacteria.

chemosynthesis A process in which carbohydrates are manufactured from carbondioxide and water using chemical compounds as the energy source,rather than the sunlight used in photosynthesis. Certain groups ofbacteria, referred to as chemosynthetic autotrophs, are fuelled not bythe sun but by the oxidation of simple inorganic chemicals, such assulfates or ammonia.

cryosphere One of the interrelated components of the Earth’s system. It iscomposed of frozen water in the form of snow, permanently frozenground (permafrost), floating ice, and glaciers. Fluctuations in thevolume of the cryosphere cause changes in ocean sea-level, whichdirectly impact the atmosphere and biosphere.

Gondwana Between 200 and 300 million years ago the supercontinent Pangaeasplit into two with the southern half being the land mass we now callGondwana. It eventually split to form the continents we now callAustralia, South America, India, Antarctica and Africa. The nameGondwana derives from a major tribal group living in a region ofIndia. It means ‘land of the Gonds’. It is synonymous withGondwanaland.

photolysis The initiation of a chemical reaction by the absorption ofelectromagnetic radiation which normally results in the breaking of achemical bond. It will normally give different products from thecorresponding heat-initiated reaction.

Tectonic super-cycle

This is also called the supercontinent cycle; several times in the Earth’shistory, the continents have joined to form one body that later brokeapart. The process seems to be cyclic; it modifies geology and climateand thereby influences biological evolution.

earth and environmental science - assessment resource centre

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