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AristotlesDivine
Intellect
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the aquinas lecture, 2008
Aristotles
DivineIntellect
Myles F. Burnyeat
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2008MarquetteUniversityPressMilwaukee,Wisconsin53201-3141Allrightsreserved.
www.marquette.edu/mupress/
UndertheauspicesotheWisconsin-AlphaChapteroPhiSigmaTau
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Burnyeat, Myles.Aristotles divine intellect / Myles F. Burnyeat.
p. cm. (The Aquinas lecture ; 2008)Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN-13: 978-0-87462-175-4 (clothbound : alk.paper)ISBN-10: 0-87462-175-5 (clothbound : alk.
paper)1. Aristotle. 2. Intellect. I. Title.
B491.I55B87 2008128.3dc22
2008000291
The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of theAmerican National Standard for Information Sciences
Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992.
Printed in the United States of America.
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Prefatory
TheWisconsin-AlphaChapteroPhiSigmaTau,the International Honor Society or Philoso-
phyatMarquetteUniversity,eachyearinvitesascholartodeliveralectureinhonoroSt.ThomasAquinas.
The2008AquinasLecture,Aristotles DivineIntellect,wasdeliveredonSunday,February24,2008,byMylesF.Burnyeat,EmeritusFellowoAllSoulsCollege,OxordUniversity,andHon-oraryFellowoRobinsonCollege,CambridgeUniversity.
MylesBurnyeatstudiedClassicsandPhilosophyatKingsCollege,Cambridgeandpursuedgradu-
Myles F. Burnyeat
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M.F.Burnyeat
atestudiesatUniversityCollege,London,wherehealsotaughtrom194-1978.In1978hemovedtoRobinsonCollege,CambridgeUniversity,andwasappointedLaurenceProessoroAncientPhi-losophytherein1984.In199hewasappointedSeniorResearchFellowinPhilosophyatAllSoulsCollege,OxordUniversity.Hehasheldvisitingappointmentsatnumerousuniversities,includingtheUniversityoPittsburgh,PrincetonUniversity,HarvardUniversity,UniversityoCaliorniaatBerkeley,andtheCentralEuropeanUniversityinBudapest.Hehasgivenmanyinvitedlectures,includingtheTannerLecturesonHumanValues
atHarvardUniversity,theA.E.TaylorLectureatUniversityoEdinburgh,andtheBritishAcademyMasterMindLecture.
Amongotherhonorsandawards,Pro.Burnyeatwas elected a Fellowo the BritishAcademyin1984,wasPresidentotheMindAssociationin
1987,becameamemberotheInstitutInterna-tionaldePhilosophiein1988,wasmadeaForeignHonoraryMemberotheAmericanAcademyoArtsandSciencesin1992,andwasPresidentotheAristotelianSocietyin2005-0.MostrecentlyPro.BurnyeatwasnamedaCommanderothe
Ordero theBritishEmpire orhis services toscholarship.
Pro.Burnyeathasbeenaprolicscholar,havingpublishedtwobooks, The Theaetetus of Plato
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Aristotles Divine Intellect 7
(withits240pageintroduction)andA Map ofMetaphysics Zeta.Hehaseditedorco-editedeightbooks,includingDoubt and Dogmatism,Scienceand Speculation,andThe Skeptical Tradition.Hisbreadthoresearchinterestscanbegraspedromthetitles o a ewo hispublications,many owhichhavebeentranslatedintootherlanguages:AristotleonUnderstandingKnowledge.Ideal-ismandGreekPhilosophy:WhatDescartesSawandBerkeleyMissed,DidtheAncientGreeksHavetheConceptoHumanRights?,CultureandSocietyinPlatos Republic,AquinasonSpiritualChangeinPerception,Platonismin
theBible:NumeniusoApameaonExodusandEternity,ExamplesinEpistemology:Socrates,TheaetetusandG.E.Moore,ThePastinthePresent:PlatoasEducatoroNineteenth-CenturyBritain.
ToPro.Burnyeatsdistinguishedlistopublica-
tions,PhiSigmaTauispleasedtoadd:AristotlesDivine Intellect.
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AristotlesDivine Intellect
M. F. Burnyeat
Naturalselectioncouldonlyhaveendowedsavageswithabrainaewdegreessuperiortothatoanape,
whereasheactuallypossessesoneverylittleineriortothatoaphilosopher.
AlredRussellWallace
MytitleisambiguousandIintenditinbothsenses.AristotlesintellectmaymeantheintellectAristotlespeaksoasGodinMetaphysicsandastheActiveIntellectin
De AnimaIII5.ItmayalsomeantheintellectthatisactiveinAristotlehimselwhenhediscoursesontheselotythemes.Myclaimwillbethatbothsensesleadtothesamereerence.WhenwereadMetaphysicsandDe AnimaIII5,weencounterGod,theActiveIntellect,explainingitsel.Orso
Aristotlewouldhaveusbelieve:whenhis intel-lectisactivelyexplainingitsel,thatishisDeityexplainingitsel.1
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10 M.F.Burnyeat
Thisisocourseacontentiousinterpretation,butititswellwithanothercontentiousclaim,asollows.Oneothelessonswecangainromthehistoryophilosophyisthatpsychologicalstatesarenotgiventousaspartothenaturalorder.Toaconsiderableextent,whattheyare ishowtheyareconceivedatthistimeinhistoryorthat.Andhowtheyareconceivedisnotarecordingosome-thingantecedentlyixedbynature,butaresponsetoatheoreticalor-atleastasoten-apracticalproblem.Muchowhatcurrentphilosophyomindsocondescendinglycallsolkpsychologyistheprecipitateopastphilosophiesorreligious
movements.Theveryconceptothemindandthemental,asnowunderstood,canbeseencomingtobirthinthesecondoDescartesMeditations.
1.
The earliest testimony on what mental meantbeoreDescartesissimultaneouslytheirstextantoccurrenceotheworditsel.InhisLiteral Com-mentary on Genesis,havingsetouttodistinguishtriageneravisionum,threekindsovision,Augus-tinelistsandexplainsirstthecorporalegenuso
vision,secondthespirituale,andthensayshewillcallthethirdkindintellectualeabintellectu.Soar,nothingoutotheordinary.Butsuddenlyheintroducesanalternativewayonamingthethird
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Aristotles Divine Intellect 11
kind.Onemightthinktocallitmentaleamente.Butno,hesays,thatwouldsoundjusttooabsurdbecauseothenoveltyothewordmentalis! 2 A word that doubles or intellectualis doesnotyetmeanwhatmentalmeansinphilosophytoday.Nordoesmensyetmeanmindinoursenseiitisintersubstitutablewithintellectus.AswitnessthatinmedievaltimesthetwoLatinnounsremainlargelyintersubstitutable,Icancallthegreatthinkeraterwhomthislectureseriesisnamed.Aquinassays,mensmaximediciturintel -lectus:Themindischielycalledtheintellect.Hegoesontoconstructadialecticalargumentwhich
inersthatintellectusisthesubjectovirtueromthepremisethatmensisthesubjectovirtue.3 Even more signiicant is Aquinas quotationromAugustineaewpagesearlier:Whenwecomeacrossanythingthatisnotcommontousandthebeastsotheield,itissomethingpertain-
ingtothemind.4TheoldAristotelianparadigmisstillincharge.Whathumanandotheranimalshaveincommonisthepoweroperception.Whatotheranimalslackandhumanshaveisthepoweroreason,intellect,mens.Itollowsthatmensdoesnotyetincludeperception.EnternowDescartes.
ThesecondMeditation,subtitledThenatureothehumanmind5, leavesunchallengedtheequivalenceomensandintellectus.Nearthebeginningweread,Iamamindorintelligence,or
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intellect,orreason(ATIX27,13-15)
.DescartescansaythisbecausehehasalreadyusedtheCogitotodeconstructthetraditionalAristotelianaccountothehumansoul(anima)asresponsibleornutri-tion,movement,perceptionandthought(ATIX2,-8).Whenthebody-involvingelementsotheancienttraditionhavebeendoubtedandremoved,mind(mens, animus)isallthatisletasessentialtotheMeditator.AttheendothesecondMeditationwearetoldthat,properlyspeaking,itisonlytheintellect,notthesensesortheacultyoimagina-tion,thatperceives(percipere)7thewax,anditdoessobyunderstandingbodies,notbyseeing
ortouchingthem(ATIX34,2-5).8Inbetweenhehasworkedtobringordinarysense-percep-tionbackintohisaccountowhathehimselis,subjecttotheprovisothatbyperceptionwearetounderstandthemereseemingtoperceive,notveridicalcognitivecontactwiththingsexternalto
themind:Lastly,itisalsothesameIwhohassensorypercep-tions,orisawareobodilythingsasitwerethroughthesenses.Forexample,Iamnowseeinglight,hearinganoise,eelingheat.ButIamasleep,soallthisisalse.YetIcertainlyseem tosee,tohear,and
tobewarmed.Thiscannotbealse;whatiscalledhavingasensoryexperienceisstrictlyjustthis,andinthisrestrictedsenseothetermitissimplythinking.(ATIX29,11-18;tr.Cottingham) 9
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Aristotles Divine Intellect 13
Thusdidsensoryexperiencecometoallwithinthescopeothemindandphilosophyomind. Finally,twoshortexcerptstoconirmthatDes-carteswaswellawarethathewasinnovating:
ButwhatthenamI?Athingthatthinks.Whatisthat?Athingthatdoubts,understands,airms,denies,iswilling,isunwilling,and alsoimaginesandhassensoryperceptions.10(ATIX28,20-22;tr.Cottingham)
Iamathingthatthinks:thatis,athingthatdoubts,airms,denies,understandsaewthings,isignorantomanythings,iswilling,isunwilling,and alsowhichimaginesandhassensoryexperi-ence;or,asIhavenotedbeore,eventhoughtheobjectsomysensoryexperienceandimaginationmayhavenoexistenceoutsideme,nonethelessthemodesothinkingwhichIreertoascasesosensoryperceptionandimagination,insoarastheyaresimplymodesothinking,doexistwithin
meothatIamcertain.11
(ATIX34,18-20;tr.Cottingham)
Theitalicsaremine,butthepunctuationcomesstraightromDescartesirstedition(147),theonlyonetohavebeencorrectedbyhim. 12Inbothexcerptsthephraseandalsosignalsasurprise
newadditiontothelistoitemsthatallundertheconceptomind.Inthesecondquotationargumentisaddedtoremindusothejustiica-
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14 M.F.Burnyeat
tiongivenearlierorhisnovel,greatlyexpandedconceptomind. Induecourse,evenphilosopherswhodonottreatperceivingasaormothinkingwillincludeperceivingamongthephenomenatobediscussedundertheheadingmind.Theywillpopulatethemindwithsensoryphenomena,notjustintellec-tualones:
[O]ursenses,conversantaboutparticularsen-sibleobjects,doconveyintothemindseveraldistinctperceptions,accordingtothosevarious
wayswhereinthoseobjectsdoaectthem.(JohnLocke,An Essay concerning Human Understanding
[190],II1,3)
All the perceptions o the human mind resolvethemselvesintotwodistinctkinds...Thosepercep-tions,whichenterwithmostorceandviolence,wemaynameimpressions;andunderthisnameIcomprehendalloursensations,passionsandemo-
tions,astheymaketheirirstappearanceinthesoul.(DavidHume,An Enquiry concerning HumanUnderstanding[1748,I1.1)
Butmytaskonthisoccasionistolookback-wardsromDescartes,notorwards.Backsome900yearsromAugustinesdistasteorthenewly
coinedwordmentalis,100romAquinas.ThewordsthatwillchielyconcernusromnowonareancientGreek:thenounnousandthecorre-spondingverbnoein.Andthephilosopherwhose
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Aristotles Divine Intellect 15
dealingswiththemIshallbediscussingisAristotle.Ishallsuggestthat hisvocabulary is even moreinnovativethanDescartes,butintheoppositedirection.Whencomparedwithearlierphilosophy,Descartesbroadenedthescopeomind.Whencomparedwithearlierphilosophy,Aristotlegreatlynarrowedthescopeonous,noein.13
2.
Myproject,then,istolookatthewaythesetwotermsareusedandanalyzedinAristotlewithoutmakingthestandardassumptionthatheandwearelookingatthesameobject,viz.theworkingsothemind,insuchawaythatwecancompare
whathesayswiththeobjectaboutwhichhesaysit,andthenaskwhichelementinthatobjectitisthathecallsnous, noeinandwhetherhecharacter-izesitaccurately,interestingly,orplausibly.Iwe
dothis,wearelikelytosuppose,asmanyscholarsdosuppose,thathistopiciswhatwecallthink-ingandthenwewillbequitebaledtomakesenseohisremarks.
D.W.Hamlyninhiswell-knownClarendonAristotle Series commentary on the De Anima
(198,103)isbafed.HecomplainsoaconstanttendencyinAristotletoruntogetherthinkingandknowing.NowwhenIsaythatAristotleisnottalk-ingaboutwhatwecallthinking,Idonotmeanthat
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1 M.F.Burnyeat
heistalkingaboutsomethingquiteelseinstead,someotherelementothisneutralobject,andthatweshouldchangethetranslationtointuition,say,orknowledge.Heistalkingaboutsomeothethingsweusethenotionothinkingtotalkabout,butourthinkingandhisnousarepartandparceloadistinctiveapproachtomanandnature.Ourconceptualizationandhismaybecomparableaswholes,buttheyarecertainlynotcomparableinseparatepieces.HencetheextremedicultyotranslatingAristotleslongestandmostsustaineddiscussiononous, noein:De AnimaIII4-8.
Thesepointsmaybeillustratedbyoneothe
mostwidelyconsultedtranslationsothe DeAnima,thatoJ.A.SmithintherenownedOxfordTranslation of Aristotle,rstpublishedin1931andrecentlyrevisedbyJonathanBarnesorTheComplete Works of Aristotle: The Revised OxfordTranslation (1984).Theaultsothistranslation
when it comes to DA III4-8arecertainlynotduetoinadequateamiliaritywithancientGreek.Smith, who taught atBalliol College,Oxord,untilin1910hewaselectedWaynfeteProessoroMetaphysicsandMorals,wasamandeeplyversedinphilology...[who]acquiredwithextraordinary
acilityatleastareadingknowledgeomanylan-guages.Hehadaveryacuteeelingortheprecisemeaning,andthedevelopmentothemeaning,owords.14Barneslivelyandmany-sidedcontribu-
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Aristotles Divine Intellect 17
tionstoourunderstandingoancientphilosophyandlogicrankhimasSmithsmostdistinguishedsuccessorinthegreattraditionoBallioltutors.LetusthenopenDe AnimaIII4andconsidertheollowingsentenceat430a2-3: [sc. ] .
In The Revised Oxford Translationthisreads,Thoughtisitselthinkableinexactlythesamewayasitsobjectsare.OnrstencounterItookthistobeSmithswording;IsupposedthathiskeenadmirationotheIdealistphilosophyoCroceandGentilemighthavemadehimmoretolerantosuchasentencethansomeotherswouldbe.In
act,itisBarnesrevision.Smithoriginallywrote,Mindisitselthinkableinexactlythesamewayasitsobjectsare.Barnespreerredtomirrortheverbalconnectionbetweenthenounnousandtheadjectivenotos.Smithoptedoramoresubstance-likeEnglishdesignationotheitemwearetoocus
on.ThetroubleisthatbothtranslatorsobliterateacrucialdierencewhichAristotleemphasisesquiteearlyinthetreatise:
Lastly,certainlivingbeingsasmallminoritypossesscalculationandthought( ), or(amongmortalbeings)thosewhich
possesscalculationhavealltheotherpowersabovementioned,whiletheconversedoesnotholdindeedsomelivebyimagination()alone,whileothershavenotevenimagination.Thertikos
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nous presentsadierentproblem( ).(DA I3,415a7-12;tr.Smith)15
ThecrucialdierenceisthatexpressedbytwodistinctGreekwords,dianoiaandnous.BothSmithandBarnesusethoughtordianoiarightlyso,
ortheworddenotesapowerpossessedandexer-cisedbyallhumans.Togetherwithlogismos(cal-culation,orbetter:reasoning) itconstitutesthespeciicdierenceohumanbeings.BothhereandelsewhereAristotlemarksothespecieshumanwithinthegenusanimalbyhumanspossessionologismosand dianoia,1whichIproposetorenderreasoningandthought.Thehumanspeciescon-sistsoreasoning,thinkinganimals. ThesecondGreekwordisnousherequaliiedasthertikos nous.Smithsrenderingothephrasewasthemindthatknowswithimmediateintu-ition.Barnescrossedthatoutandwroterelective
thoughtinstead,whichtomesoundsconsiderablylessstrenuous.HereagainSmithwinstheprize,becausewewillsoonseethatnousisarareachieve-ment,notsomethingtobehadbymusing,pipeinhand,bytheireside.Eitherway, thertikosnormallycontrastswithpraktikosastheoretical
topractical,soIshallspeaksimplyotheoreticalnous.17ThequestionnowbecomeswhyAristotleshouldsaythatthisnousisadierentproblem
-
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Aristotles Divine Intellect 19
(Smith)or,asIwouldputit,anothersubject,oranotherdiscussion.ThisisnotthersttimetheDe Animahasmade
suchaclaim.Thepassagejustquotedchimeswiththreeearlierstatementswhichinsistthat nousisspecial,evendivine,andisnottobetreatedonaparwithordinarythinking(dianoeisthai).18Aristotlehasremarkablylittletosayaboutordinarythoughtandthinking,eitherinthisoranyotherohisworks,butnousgetsthreewholechapterstoitselhereandanimportantdiscussionattheendothe Posterior Analytics,nottomentionregularasidesinDe AnimaBookIplussustained
attentioninthetheologicalcontextoMetaphysics7and9.Iconcludethat,whileAristotletakesthinkingmoreorlessorgranted,nousisadistincttopicandoneonwhichhemeanstoshine.
Ishalltranslatenousasintellect,theverbnoeinasunderstand,hopingthatbytheendothis
lecturetheseversionswillstrikeyouasappropriate,perhapsevencompelling.
3.
TheplacetostartisDe AnimaIII4andthetriple
scheme, as I like to call it, o irst andsecondpotentiality,irstandsecondactuality.OriginallyinvokedinDe AnimaII1asthekeytoexplain-ingsoulorlieitsel,thenelaborated,inII5s
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complicatedaccountoperception,itreturns,inIII4toexplainnous:- Pot.1 Pot.2 Act.2 Act.1
Model: Manaknowerby
nature
Havinglearned
toread&write
Usingonesliteracy
read&write
or(i): Poweroperception
Perceiving
and(ii): Powerothought&
reasoning
Achievedintellectual
power
Actualexerciseo
intellectualpower
Thepoweroperceptionhasalreadyreachedsec-ondpotentiality=irstactualitywhenananimalemergesromwomb,eggorslime(DAII5,417a
1-18).Allithastodotostartactuallygaininginormationabouttheworldisopenitseyestoseeorexplorewithitsmeansotouch.Theintel-lectualpowersaccessibletohumanscomemoreslowly,throughtimeandeort.Allwearebornwithisthecapacitytothinkandreason,whichwemusttrainanduseiwearetoarriveattheoreticalunderstandingotheworld.19 Now let me introduce the identity thesis.AccordingtoAristotle,whenananimalopensits
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Aristotles Divine Intellect 21
eyesandseesred,whathappensisthattheeyesinsomesensetakeonthatcolouror,ashealsoputsit,theybecomeredinaway(DA III8,431b20-432a3).Seeingredisbecomingred.Notsurpris-ingly,itismuchdebatedwhatexactlythisthesismeans.Aristotlemakesaparallelclaimabouttheintellect:
,
,
.
Andnowletussumupwhathasbeensaidconcern-ingthesoulbyrepeatingthatinamannerthesoulisallthethingsthatare.Forthethingsthatarearealleitherobjectsoperceptionorobjectsointel-lect,20andknowledgeisinawaythethingsthatareknowable,perceptioninawaythethingsthatareperceptible.(DA III8,431b20-23)21
Thisisnottheoccasionormetorevisitlong-standingcontroversiesaboutAristotlestheoryoperception.22Imerelypausetonotethistextsemphasisontheparallelismbetweenperceptionandintellectualknowledge.Eachissaidtobecometheirobjectinsomeway.Itiswidelyagreedin
thescholarlyliteraturethatnounderlyingmate-rialprocessesorconditionsareinvolvedwhentheintellectbecomesitsobjectbytakingonanintelligibleorm.Noteveryoneagreeswithme
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thatnounderlyingmaterialprocessesareinvolvedwhen perception becomes its object by takingonaperceptibleorm,onlyastandingmaterialstateoreceptivityinthesenseorgan(transparenteye-jellyintheeye,stillairintheear,etc.).Isug-gestthatthosewhoinsistonunderlyingmaterialprocessesorperception,butnotorintellectualunderstanding,oweusanexplanationowhyAristotle should tolerate such a signiicant lackoparallelismbetweenthetwotypesocognitionwhoseparallelismhetrumpetsbothinthepassagejustquotedandelsewhere(III4,429a13-18). That said, Iturn to the question o where in
thetripleschemetolocatetheintellectualiden-titywhichparallelstheidentityosensewithitsobject.Inthecaseoperceptiontheanswerisclear:atthetransitionromirstactuality(=secondpotentiality)tosecondactuality,marked inthediagram.Forexample,whenyouwakeupin
themorningandopenyoureyestoseethewhitecolouroyourpillow.Whenyougotosleepyoudonotlosethepowerosight,whichthroughoutthenightremainsatsecondpotentiality=irstactuality. Fortheintellectmanyscholarsgivetheparallel
answer:theidentityisachievedatthetransitionbetweenirstandsecondactuality.23Hereistheprootextwhichshowsunambigouslythatthatiswrong:
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Aristotles Divine Intellect 23
[sc. ] ( , ),
,
.
Whentheintellectbecomeseachthingintheway
inwhichanactualknowerdoes
24
(which happensas soon as the knower can exercise their power of theirown accord),eventhenitisstillinonesensejustacapacity:not,however,acapacityinthesamesenseasbeoreitlearnedordiscovered.(III4,429b5-9;tr.aterHicksandHamlyn,emphasismine)
Asmarkedbythesecond inthediagram,the
identityointellectwithitsobjectholdsalreadyatsecondpotentiality=irstactuality,beforetheknowerswitchestothesecondactualityoexercis-ingthatintellectualpowerotheirownaccord. Idonotmeanthattheidentityceasestoholdwhensecondactualityisachieved.Onthecontrary,
theormalreadyacquiredisthenactivelyguid-ingtheknowersthought.25Thedierenceisthatsensibleobjectsareparticularandexternaltotheperceivingsubject,sothatitisnotuptouswhatsensibleormsimpingeonoursenses,whereasscientiicknowledge(epistm) isouniversals
andthese,oncelearned,aresaidtoresideinaway in the soul itsel. In consequence, we canactivateourknowledgeothemwhenweplease(II5,418a19-2).Justthisisthestageindicated
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24 M.F.Burnyeat
bytheitalicizedclauseassoonastheknowercanexercisetheirpowerotheirownaccord. The inal preliminary is to consider whatAristotle means when he glosses irst actualityknowledgeoanintelligibleormastheknowershavingacquired,takenon,orbecomethatorm.InAristotle,asinPlato,toknowanintelligibleormistohavemasteredandinternalizedadei -nition.Notanyolddeinitionosomething,butthescientiicallycorrectdeinitionoitsessence.NowanAristotelianessenceisrathermorethanacommoneature,moreeventhanasetonecessaryandsuicientconditionsorbeingaso-and-so.It
isairstprincipleoexplanatorydemonstration.Toindtheessenceoakindistoindthecauseorexplanationothevariouspropertiesthatnecessar-ilybelongtomembersothekindinvirtueotheirbeingthatkindothing.InAristotleslanguage,theexplanandaaretheper seattributes(ta kath
hauta sumbebkota),theessencetheexplanans.Itisthispowerulexplanatoryprinciplethatissaidtobetakenonoracquiredbytheknoweratthestageosecondpotentiality=irstactualityknowledge. Thustheormolionexists,asonemightputit,
intwomodes.Inthelionitisirstandoremosttheessencewhichexplainsthevariouseaturesthattypiyalionanditslie.InAristotlestechni-caltalktheseexplanandaaretheper seeatureso
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Aristotles Divine Intellect 25
lionlie,theeaturesthatbelongtolionsqualions,i.e.eaturesthatalllionspossessbecausetheyarelions.Amodernanaloguetotheessencethatcom-prehensivelyexplainsallsucheaturesmightbealionsgeneticcode.Secondly,however,theormoressenceolionexistsalsointheintellectoazoolo-gistwhohasinternalizedasecureunderstandingothatessenceanditspowertoexplainthetraitsthatbelongtoalllionsbecausetheyarelionsleadingalionslie.Thiswouldmatchazoologistsdrawingupthemapoalionsgeneticcode.
Suchacausewilltakesomending.ButAristotleoerssomeheuristicadvice:
,
,
,
,
,
,
, .
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2 M.F.Burnyeat
Itseemsthatnotonlyistheknowledgeoathingsessentialnatureuseulordiscoveringthecausesoitsattributes(asinmathematicsascertainingwhatstraightandcurvedare,orlineandsurace,isuseulorseeinghowmanyrightanglestheangleso a triangle are equal to), butalso, conversely,theattributescontributegreatlytotheknowledge
owhatathingis.Foritiswhenweareabletogiveanaccountoall,oratanyratemost,otheattributesas they appear to usthatweshallbestbeabletospeakabouttheessencetoo.Forthestart-ingpointoeverydemonstrationiswhatathingis,hencedeinitionswhichleadtonoinormationaboutattributes,ordonotevenhelpusconjec-
tureaboutthem,areclearlyalljustdialecticalandempty.(DAI1,402b1-403a2;tr.aterHicksandHamlyn)
Theideaisthatyoushouldamiliarizeyourselwiththeullrangeotheattributestobeexplained,because it is when you can give a provisional
account2oallormostothesethatyouwillbebestplacedtodeterminetheessencewhichisthestartingpointoexplanatorydemonstration.Howdolions,orexample,reproduce,digesttheirood,copewiththeirhabitat?Howwelldotheyperceive,ortracktheirprey?Whatistheirliecycle?And
soon.Acareullydetailedknowledgeowhatneedstobeexplainedisthebestpreparationoranattempttoormulateanadequateexplanation.
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Aristotles Divine Intellect 27
Itappears,then,thatwewillnotinallybeinapositiontoixtheessenceolionuntilwehaveaprettythoroughpreliminaryknowledgeothespecies.Then,andthenonly,canweidentiyanddeinethesubstantialormwhichmakesalionwhatitisandgivesunitytothevariousphenomenawehavebeenstudying.Fortheorm,accordingtoAristotle,justistheessencewhichexplainstheremainingnecessarycharacteristicsthatbelongtoanylionbyvirtueoitsbeingthatkindothing.Andamongthesenecessarycharacteristicswemustocourseincludethematterwhichiscorrelativetolionorm.Thephysicalworldisnotpre-stocked
withlionmatterasitiswithcopperandiron;ittakesanactualpre-existingliontotakeintherelevantoodstusromwhichlionmatteristhenmade,andtheprinciplewhichexplainsthatmanu-acturingprocessis,onceagain,thesoul,ormoressenceolion(DAII4).
Insum,anAristotelianormisnottobegraspedonitsown,asasolitaryitemoknowledge,butonlyaspartandpinnacleoawholeexplanatorysystem.Wellmayonewonderwhethersuchagraspiswithinordinaryhumanreach.Aristotlerepeatedlyreservesthenamenous, noeinorthis
achievement.Whenhesays,orexample,thatnousisthedispositionthatgraspstheirstprinciplesoadeductivescience(APo. II19,100b5-17;ENVI;c.Met.A2,982a19-b10),heclearlymeans
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graspingthemasthestartingpointsoelaborateexplanatory deductions. A single sentence, thishints,couldneverbeanadequateexpressionoachievednous.
4.
HereIpausetogathersomeothethingsAristotlesaysabouthisGodinBooksIandIIotheDeAnima.
(1)Intheveryirstchapterheraisesthequestionwhetherallattributes(path)osoulareshared(perhapsbetter:sharedin)bythebodyitanimates,oraretheresomethatbelongexclusively(idia) tosoul?Inmostcases,hesays,soulsbeingaectedoractingdoesseemtoinvolvethebodyaswell;thisistrueobeingangryorconident,desir-ingand,ingeneral,perceiving.27Themostplau-sibleexceptionwouldseemtobenoeinunless
thisdependsonabodyeitherbecauseitisitselsomekindoappearance(phantasia) orbecauseitcannotunctionwithoutappearance(403a3-10).28Theconclusionisthati,andonlyi,thereissomeunctionoraectionosoulwhichisexclu-sivetoit,i.e.whichdoesnotinvolvebodyaswell
assoul,thenitwouldbepossibleorsoultoexistseparately,onitsown(403a10-1:endechoit anautn chrizesthai).Supposenoeinissuchaunc-tionoraectionosoul.Thentherecouldbea
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kindosoulwhichhadintellectbutnobody,justasattheotherendothescala naturaetherecanbeandisakindosoul,thenutritive-reproductivesouloplants,whichdunatai chrizesthai tshaphskaipassaisthses:akindosoulwhichcananddoesexistwithoutanyothecognitivepowersthatdistinguishanimals(II2,413a20-b10).
I emphasisetheparallelwithplantsoulslestanyonetakethepassagetobescoutingtheideathatahumanindividualsintellectmightsurvivetheirdeathtocontinueunctioningonitsown.Aristotleisobviouslynotsayingthatananimalsnutritive-reproductivepowerscouldbeseparated
outorinstallationinaplantbody.Northenishecontemplatingabodylessimmortalityortheindi-vidualintellectoSocrates.Heiswonderingaboutanintellectwhichoitsownnatureunctionsquiteindependentlyobodiesandtheirpowers.Thisisourirstintimationothedivineintellecto De
AnimaIII5andMetaphysics. (2)ThesecondintimationcomeslaterinBookIromapassagewhich inter aliaconirmsthatnous/noeinisnotatallthesamethingasdianoia/dianoeisthai.Translatorsconstantlyignorethisnon-identity,renderingbothnounsandbothverbs
asthoughtandthinking.29
TheresultisachaosandconusionthatIwilldocumentinootnotes.ForthosewithoutGreek,letmejustnominatethe
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passageas,currently,theworsttranslatedpassageinancientphilosophy:-
,
,
, , ,
.
,
.30
,
, .
,
, .
, .
, ,
.
, ,
.
Tosaythatthesoulisangryislikesayingthatthesoulweavesorbuilds.Imean:itissurelybetternottosaythatthesoulpities,learnsorthinks,butthatthehumanbeingdoesthiswiththeirsoul,andthis
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notbecausethemovementtakesplaceinthesoul,butbecausesometimesitreachestothesoulandatothertimescomesromit;e.g.perceptionstartsromthesethingsaroundus,whilerecollectionstartsromthesoulandreachestomovementsorremnantsinthesense-organs.
Itwouldseemthat intellect,ontheotherhand,comestoresideinusasakindosubstance,andonenotsubjecttodestruction.31Ianythingcoulddestroyit,itwouldbetheeeblenessooldage.Asthingsare,whathappensisdoubtlessjustlikewhathappenstothesense-organs.Ianagedmancouldprocureaneyeotherightsort,hewouldseejust
aswellasayoungster.Henceoldageisnotduetothesoulsbeingaectedinacertainwaywhatisaectedisthat[sc.thebody]inwhichthesoulresides,asisthecasewithdrunkennessanddis-ease. In likemanner, then,understandingandcontemplation32declinebecausesomethingelsewithinisdestroyed,whileinitselitisunaected.33
Butthinking()34andlovingorhatingarenotaectionsothat[sc.theintellect],butothisthing[sc.thehumanbeing]whichpossessesthat,totheextentthatitdoessopossessit.Hencealso,whenthis[thehuman]perishesthereisnei-therrememberingnorloving.Fortheseneverdidbelongto that[theintellect],35buttothethingwhich shared in it [the human] and which hasnowperished.Theintellect,ontheotherhand,isdoubtlessathingmoredivineandonethatcannotbeaected.(I4,408b11-29)
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Thistextnotonlyconirmsmypreviousinsis-tenceondistinguishingbetweennousandordinarythinking(dianoia).Itimplies(a)thatnous,unlikeordinarythought,isdivineandimmortal,(b)thatitcancometoresideinahumanbeingasitselanextrakindosubstance,distinctromthemortalsubstanceitresidesin,and(c)thatitremainscom-pletelyunaectedbythedeathoitstemporaryhumanvehicle.Thistextalsosays,twiceandwithsomeemphasis,thatdianoia,likeloveandhate,doesnotbelongtonous. (3)TheissueoseparateexistencereturnsinII2,413b24-32:
About intellect and the contemplative3aculty( )nothingisclearasyet.Butitlookstobeageneri-callydierentkindosoul,andthisalonecanbeseparate(d),astheeternalisseparate(d)romtheperishable.37Whatisclearromtheseconsider-
ationsisthattheremainingpartsothesoularenotseparate,despitewhatsomesay.Inaccounttheyaredierent,tobesure,giventhatperceivingisdierentrombelieving/judging,andsimilarlywiththeotheracultiesmentioned.
Aristotledoesnotyetdeinitelyairmtheconclu-sionheisattractedto,buthereagainhemakesitperectlyclearthattheacultyothinking, believ-ing, judging(413b13: to dianotikon;b30: todoxastikon) isnotwhatheinclinedtoclassiyasa
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genericallydierent,becauseeternalanddivine,kindosoul.Thathonourisreservedorwhateveritisthathecallsnous, to notikon, to noein.
5.
LetthesepointstakeusbacktoDe AnimaIII4toseehowsmoothlyitleadsontoDe AnimaIII5andMetaphysics:
About the part o the soul by which the soulknowsandhassoundjudgement( )38regardlessowhetheritisseparate,ornotseparateinmagnitudebutonlyinaccountwemustinquirewhatitsdierentiaisandhowintellectualunderstandingcomesabout( ).
Nowiintellectualunderstanding( )39 isakintoperceiving,itwillbeacaseeitherobeingaectedbytheintelligibleobject(
),orsomethingsimilartothat.Itmustthen,whileitselimpassive(),bereceptivetotheormandpotentiallylikeitwithoutbeingit,andas the faculty of perception is to per-ceptible things, so must nous be to intelligible objects( ).Itisnecessary,thereore,sinceitunderstandseverything( ),40thatitbeunmixed,asAnaxago-rassays,in orderthat itmaymaster itsobjects,thatis,know()them(ortheintrusionoanythingoreigninterereswithit).Asaresult
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it has no nature of its own other than its potential tobecome this or that.Accordingly,theso-callednousothesoul- by nous I mean that by which the soulthinks and judges ( )-isinactualitynoneothethingsthatarebeoreitunderstandsthem( ). Thatiswhyitisreasonableoritnottobemixedwiththe
body;thiswouldresultinitsbeingosomequal-ity,eithercoldorhot,anditwouldhaveanorganastheperceptiveacultydoes.Butasitis,itisnotanything.Andpeopledowelltosaythatthesoulistheplaceoorms,except that it is not the wholeof soul that is this, only the noetic soul,norisittheormsinactuality,onlyinpotentiality.Andthatthe
impassivityotheperceptiveisdierentromthatothenoeticacultiesisclearromthesense-organsandperception.Perceptionisincapacitatedbyanexcessiveobjectsuchaveryloudsound,andonecannotseeanexcessivelybrightcolourorendureanexcessivelystrongsmell.Butwhentheintellecthasunderstoodanextremelyintelligibleitem,itunderstandslesserthingsbetter,notworse.Forthe perceptual faculty cannot function apart fromthe body, but the intellect is separate ( , ).Andwhentheintellectbecomeseachthinginthewayinwhichanactualknowerdoes(which happens
as soon as the knower can exercise their power of theirown accord)...(III4,429a10-b7)
Ihavequotedenoughothistexttoshowwhereitjoinsontomyearlierquotationatp.23,rom
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whichIconcludedthattheidentitybetweenintel-lectandintelligiblestakesplaceatirstactuality=secondpotentiality.Itollowsthatthestagepriortotheachievementoidentityisirstpotential-ity.Itisthereorefirstpotentialitynouswhichisdescribedat429a23asthatbywhichthesoulthinksandjudges. Thisisanovelty,signalledbytheword (Imean=Iheremean).Toappreciateitssignii-cance,turnthesentencearound:thatbywhichthesoulthinksandjudgesisirstpotentialitynous.Whichistosaythatthehumancapacityorthinkingandjudging,acapacityweareborn
with alongsidethe capacity to reasonthetwocapacitiestogethercomprisingourdierentiaasabiologicalspeciesgivesusthepotentialtograsptheintelligibleormswhichexplaintheworldasitisobjectivelyspeaking.Forexample,justinvirtueoourbeingwhatitistobeahumanbeingweall
haveapotentialtoattainacompleteandaccurate,totallyobjectiveunderstandingolionlie.Thecapacityorordinarythinking(dianoia)canaterallbetitlednousandwassotitledalreadyatII3,414b18:to dianotikon te kai nousbutonlyinthesenseoirstpotentiality.
Lots ohuman lives never advanceto secondpotentialitynousaboutanything.Theyarenotonthataccount(tobe)judgedailures,ornotallousarecalledtointellectualachievementonaparwith
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masteringthegeneticcodeolions.Nonetheless,Aristotlesclaimisthatmeremembershipothehumanspeciesgivesus,insomeimportantlyrealsense,thepotentialtodoso.41 ThisistheclaimwhichAlredRussellWallacethoughtinexplicableinevolutionaryterms.Withthat,ocourse,Aristotlewouldhappilyagree,onprincipleandnotonlybecauseo thecrudesimplicities o the evolutionary theories he wasacquaintedwith.Theprincipleisanexceedinglystrongversionotheprincipleothepriorityotheactual,meaningtemporalpriority,notjustprior -ityintheorderounderstanding.Anyinstance
obeingpotentiallysuch-and-suchisprecededbyaninstanceosomethingelsebeingactuallysuch-and-such(Met.8,1049b10-50a3).Moresimply,thereisnothingnewundertheSunnor,ocourse,abovetheSun,giventheunchangingcir-culationothestarsintheAristotelianuniverse.
AristoclesoMessana(2ndcent.AD),teacherothegreatcommentatorAlexanderoAphrodisias,saidthattwothingsaredriving(kinounta)AristotlewhenhepropoundsthetheoryotheAgentIntel-lectinDe AnimaIII5:oneistheanalogybetweennousandperception,theothertheprincipleothe
priorityoactualityoverpotentiality.42
IbelievethatthesetwothingsareindeedenoughtoenableustoreadthechapterasanancientGreekversionoWallacesconvictionthatappealtoGodisnec-
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essarytoexplaintheactthatmansmindsoarexceedsincapacitywhatisrequiredorordinaryhumanlieandthecontinuityothespecies.
6.
LetusgobacktotheparallelAristotleinsistentlydrawsbetweenperceptionandintellectualknowl-edge. I said that, in thecase o a lion, its irstactuality(lionsoul)issimultaneouslyasecondpotentialityboth(i)orstalkingproudlyaboutthelandand(ii)orbeingknownandunderstoodbythescientistwhostudieslions(aleontologist?).
Analogously,thegolden-browncolouroalionisboth(i)whatmakesitactuallybrown,and(ii)itspotentialityorbeingseen(asbrown).Butwecanmakethecorrespondenceneaterstill. Aristotleholds,andatleastinthecaseocolour,soundandsmellsweagree,thatanenablingcon-
ditionortheperceptionosensiblequalitiesisamediumthroughwhichtheycanbecognized.43Forsight,thenecessarymediumisairorwaterinastateoactualtransparency,whichstateoactualtransparencyAristotleequateswithlight.Lightinhisphysicsdoesnottravel(heberatesEmpedocles
orhisidiocyinthinkingitdoes):itisastateoairorwater,thestateinwhichitisactuallytransparentsothatthingscanbeseenthroughit.Moreor-mally,lightistheactualityothetransparentqua
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transparent.44
NowacentralthesisoDe AnimaIII5istheollowing:aslightisaconditionorthestagewhichprecedesthetakingonovisibleorm,i.e.priortosightsbecomingcolour(ed),sothereissomethinglikelight(430a15)whichisaconditionpriortotheidentityoknowerandknown.Likelight,thistooisastate(hexis tis),notamovementosomekind.Anditissaidtomakeeverythinginawaythatparallelsthewaylightmakescoloursactuallyvisible.Incontextthismustmeanthatitmakesthingsactuallyknowable. WearenowreadyorthenotoriouslybrieandcrabbytextoDe AnimaIII5.Bywayopreace,
letmesuggestareasonoritsbrevity.TheDeAnimaisatreatiseinphysicsorsecondphilosophy,irmlyembeddedbyanetworkocross-reerences
withintheseriesthatrunsromPhysicstothebio-logicalworks.45ButIII5,asIproposetointerpretit,isirstphilosophy,theology,metaphysics.For
itiswhollyocussedonGod,theDivineIntellect.NowelsewhereAristotleshowshimselconcernedlestphysics,byencroachingontopicsthataretheproperconcernoirstphilosophy,leavenoscopeorthesupremesciencetooperateindependently(PA I1,41a32-b12;Met.VI1).Thatworry
wouldbereasonenoughtokeepIII5sexcursionintotheologyasbrieaspossible. Thisdoes notexcuse the crabbystyle,whichcontinuesuntilIII9embarksonawholenewsec-
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tiondevotedtoanimalmovement.ThecrabbinessensuresthattranslationoIII5isentwinedwithinterpretationateverystep.Theollowingtransla-tion-cum-interpretationothechapterisoeredasaplausibleclimaxtothevariousinterpretativechoicesembeddedinthetranslationspresentedsoar:
Since,as4inthewholeonaturethereissomethingwhich serves as matter to each kind47 (viz.thatwhichispotentiallyallthemembersothekind),andsomethingelsewhichservesascauseandpro-ducertothekind,byproducingallitsmembers,thetwobeingrelatedtooneanotherasarttoits
materialsincethatisso,onecessitythesesamedistinctionsmustobtainalsointhesphereosoul.48Thusthereisonekindof intellectthatexistsbybecomingall things, and anotherthat exists bymakingallthingsmakingtheminthewayadis-positionalstate()suchaslightmakesthings;orinawaylightdoesinactmakepotentialcolours
actualcolours.Andthislatterintellectisseparate,andnothingcanaectit,anditmixeswithnoth-ingelseallbecauseitsverybeingisactuality( ).49For50alwaysthatwhichactsisohigherworth51thanthatwhichisactedupon,theoriginativeprinciplethanthematter.Nowactualknowledge( )isidenticalwiththethingknown.Potentialknowl-edgeispriorintimeinanysingleindividual,butitisnotpriorintimequitegenerally, 52becausetheintellectunderdiscussion53isnotathingthat
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exercisesitsunderstandingatsometimeswhileatothertimesitdoesnot.Andbeingseparated[sc.romeverythingelse],54itiswhatitisessentiallyandnothingelse.Andthisaloneisimmortalandeternal.Yetwedonotrememberbecause55thisisimpassive(),whereasthepassiveintellect( )isperishable.Andwithoutthis
nothingunderstands().5
Thepunch line, as I see it, comesat theveryend. Thisrecursineachothelastthreesentences,inthesecondowhichitcontrastswiththeweimplicitintheirstpersonpluralpresenttenseorm
otheGreekverbtoremember.Sothisisnotweandnoneousisthis.Thisaloneisimmortal,sowearenot.Noristhepassiveintellect,intro-ducedearlierasthekindointellectwhichexistsbybecoming,i.e.bycomingtounderstand,allthings.Butiandwhenthepassiveintellectdoes
cometounderstandathingortwo,itcannottheinalsentenceannouncesdosowithoutthis.Ourmortalintellectneedsanimmortalintellecttoachieveitsgoalounderstanding. Howdoestheimmortalintellecthelpus?Howdoesitmakethingsintelligibletoourmortalminds?Simplybyexisting,Iwouldsuggest,bybeingwhatitis:aneternalintellectconstituted,likeanyotherintellect,asasystemoconcepts.Thedierenceisthatthedivineintellectisasystem
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(better,perhaps,thesystem)oabsolutelycorrectconcepts.Assuch,thedeitydoesnotneedtoactonusromuphigh,butmerelytoilluminatetheintelligibleorms,somewhatinthewaylight,simplyinvirtueobeingwhatitis,illuminatescoloursandmakesthemactuallyvisibletous. HereIshouldemphasizethatlight,inAristotlesview,isitselastateoamediumsuchasairor
water.Lightneithertravelsnor,unlessitisdaz-zlinglybright,doesitaectoureyes.57Itmerelyenablescolourstoaectoursight.Justso,wemustsuppose,Aristotlesdivineintellectdoesnothingbutbewhatitis.Likelight,itisastate,notapro-
cess.Aslightisastateoamaterialmediumwhichmakesthevisibleorms(colours)actuallyvisibletosight,sothedivineintellectiscastasanon-mate-rialmediumthroughwhichtheintelligibleormsbecomeapparenttothehumanintellect.Puttheotherwayround,itenablestheknowertosee
throughtotheorms,tounderstandthemastheyreallyare.Thecomparisonwhichcomestomindisthatlimitingcaseoperspectivewhichcertainphilosophershavecalledtheabsoluteviewpointorthepointoviewotheuniverse.Totakeupthatviewpointistogetyourselinapositiontosee
howthingsreallyandobjectivelyare. TothosewhohavereadPlatosRepublicallthisshouldsoundincrediblyamiliar.AsthelightotheSunmakessensiblethingsvisibleandgivesus
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theabilitytoseethem,sotheGoodmakestheintelligibleFormsknowableandgivesourintellect(ournous,theeyeothesoul)theabilitytoknowthem.IAristotlesubstitutestheirstprincipleandbestthinginhisuniverseortheirstprincipleandbestthinginPlatosuniverseandleavestheanalogyotherwiseuntouched,theresultwillbethetheorythatAlexander,thebestandmostpurelyAristo-telianotheancientcommentators,oundinDeAnimaIII5;thetheorythatBrentanodismissedasprattlewithoutallsenseandreason.58TheActiveIntellectisGod.59
Atthispointitisappropriatetorecallthatinthe
Aristotelianuniverseallnatureimitatesthedeity.ItisasinalcausethatGodisthePrimeMoveroeverything,startingwiththemostbasicmaterialelements(earth,air,ireandwater)whoseceaselessinterchangeistheirwayoachievingconstancyinimitationotheeternalirstcause(GCII10,33b
25-337a15;Met.8,1050b28-30).Nextcometheconstantreproductivecyclesolivingthings,plantsaswellasanimals(DA II4,415a2-b7;GA II1,731b24-732a11).Finally,itisbecauseGodslieocontemplationisthebestmodeoexistenceintheuniverse,andthemostpleasant,
that orus humans toocognitiveactivity is themostpleasant:notjustnoeticcontemplation,butalsostatesthatGoddoesnotsharesuchaswakingandperceiving,hopesandmemories(Met. 7,
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1072b13-24).Whatisspecialabouttheexerciseonous,thehighestormocognitionthathumanscanattain,isthatitisnolongeramoreorlessdistantimitationothedivinelie.ItisalimitedspanotheverysameactivityasGodenjoysoralltime. ThisisthekeytoAristotlesrecommendationothecontemplativelieinNicomachean EthicsX7,1177b2-34.Weshouldnottoollowthosewhoadviseus,beingmen,tothinkohumanthings,and,beingmortal,omortalthings.Instead,weshould,makeourselvesimmortalsoaraswecan( ).Tomake
ourselvesimmortal,toenjoyorawhilethesameunderstandingasGodhas,whatisthisbuttheothersideotheDe Animasidea(abovep.31)thatintellectcomestoresideinusasakindosubstance,andonenotsubjecttodestruction?Ortoputitanotherway,
I,then,Godisalwaysinthatgoodstateinwhichwesometimesare,thiscompelsourwonder;andiinabetter,thiscompelsityetmore.AndGodisinabetterstate.(Met.7,1072b24-;tr.Ross)0
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NOTES
1IusetheneuterbecauseancientGreek ,like,isgrammaticallybothmasculineand
eminine,takingboththemasculineandemininearticles;moreover,thereareoccasionswhen / reerstoaemale.
2 Augustine,De genesi ad litteram12,7:Triageneravisionum ... corporale, spirituale, ... tertium verointellectualeabintellectu,quiamentaleamenteipsavocabulinovitatenimisabsurdumestutdicamus.
3 Aquinas,ST1a2ae,q.5,3a.3:Sed contraestquodmensmaximediciturintellectus.Subjectumautemvirtutisestmens,utpatetexdeinitionevirtutissuprainducta.Ergointellectusestsubjectumvirtutis.
4 ST1a2ae,q.55,a.4,citingAugustine,De Trini-tateXII3:Ubiprimooccurritaliquidquodnonsitnobispecoribusquecommune,illudadmentem
pertinet.5 Denaturamentishumanae:qudipsasitnotiorqumcorpus;Frenchversion:Delanaturedelsprithumain:etquilestplusaisconnatrequelecorps.
Sum igitur praecise tantum rescogitans, id est,mens,sive animus,siveintellectus,siveratio,where
(asalson.9below)italicssignalwordsnotrenderedintotheFrenchversion:jenesuisdoncprcismentparlantquunechosequipense,cestdireunEsprit,unEntendement,ouuneraison.
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7 Descartes learned readers would know that theverbhadamuchwiderrangethenthanitdoesnow.Inparticular,CicerousedittoLatinizetheStoics,theunchallengeablecognitivegrasponwhichtheirepistemologywasgrounded.
8 ...corpora,nonproprieasensibus,velabimagi-nandiacultate,sedasolointellectupercipi,necexeopercipiqudtanganturautvideantur,sedtantmexeoqudintelligantur...;Frenchversion:...proprementparlernousneconcevonslescorpsqueparlaacultdentendrequiestennous,etnonpointparlimaginationniparlessens,etquenousnelesconnaissonspasdecequenouslesvoyons,ouquenouslestouchons,maisseulementdecequenouslesconcevonsparlapense...
9 Idemdeniqueegosumquisentio,sivequirescor-poreastanquampersensusanimadverto:videlicetjamlucemvideo,strepitumaudio,caloremsentio.Falsahaecsunt,dormioenim.Atcerteviderevideor,audire,calescere.Hoc falsum esse non potest;hocestpropriequodinmesentireappellatur;atquehocpraecisesicsumptumnihilaliudestqumcogitare;
Frenchversion:Eninjesuislemmequisens,cest--direquireoisetconnaisleschosescommeparlesorganesdessens:puisqueneetjevoislalumire,joislebruit,jeressenslachaleur.Maislonmediraquecesapparencessontausses,etquejedors.Quilsoitainsi,touteoistoutlemoinsilesttrscertainquilmesemblequejevois,quejois,et
quejemchaue,etcestproprementcequienmoisappellesentir;etcelaprisainsiprcismentnestrienautrechosequepenser.
10 Sedquidigitursum?Rescogitans.Quidesthoc?Nempedubitans,intelligens,airmans,negans,
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volens,nolens,imaginansquoque,&sentiens;Frenchversion:Maisquest-cedoncquejesuis?Unechosequipense;quest-cequunechosequipense?Cest--direunechosequidoute,quiconoit,quiairme,quinie,quiveut,quineveutpas,quiimagineaussi,etquisent.
11 Egosumrescogitans,idestdubitans,airmans,negans,paucaintelligens,multaignorans,volens,nolens,imaginansetiam&sentiens;utenimanteanimadverti,quamvisillaquaesentiovelimaginorextramenihilsint,illostamencogitandimodos,quossensus&imaginationesappello,quatenuscogitandiquidammoditantmsunt,inmeessesumcertus;Frenchversion:Jesuisunechosequipense,cest--direunechosequidoute,quiconoit,
quiairme,quinie,quiconnatpeudechoses,quienignorebeaucoup,qui aime, qui hait,quiveut,quineveutpas,quiimagineaussi,etquisent.Car,ainsiquejairemarquci-devant,quoiqueleschosesquejesensetquejimaginenesoientpeut-trerienditouthorsdemoi,et en elles-mmes,jesuisnanmoisassurquecesaonsdepenser,quejappellesenti-
mentsetimaginations,entantseulementquellessontdesaonsdepenser,rsidentetserencontrentcertainementenmoi(italicssignalwordsaddedintheFrenchedition).
12 SoRodis-LewisinherIntroduction,xii.13 Book I oDe Animacomplainsatsomelength
aboutthePreocraticsailuretodistinguishnousrom
lesserormsocognition:I2,404a27-b;405a9-17.Forrelevantdiscussion,seeFrede199b.14 Ross (1949), 818-20. My own appreciation o
Smith (inBurnyeat 2005) is due to hisobscurelynamedOnGeneralRelativeClausesinGreek
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(1917),inwhichhislinguisticingenuityannihilatesthesoleevidenceorthecommonassumptionthatPlatopositedaFormoreverygeneralterm.
15 Inoteinpassingthatisanotherpitallortranslators:thestandardrenderingimaginationitsamereeightlines(427b17-24)othelengthydiscussiondevotedtothetopicinDA III3.Themot justeorthenouncorrespondingtotheverb isappearance,thesensegiventoitbyPlatoatTht.152bc, Soph.24ab.
1 DA II3,414b18-19;c.I5,410b24;II2,413b12-13;29-31;414a12-13;3,414a31-2;Met.I1,980b27-8.
17 Thecontrastbetweentheoreticalandpractical isdiscussedinENVI11,whichisarromencourag-ingtheideathatpracticalwisdomisunrelective.
18 SeeDA I4,408b3-29;5,410b12-15;II2,413b24-32.
19 InBurnyeat2002Ioeralengthyexpositionothetripleschemeanditssigniicance.
20 Smithhererendersexistingthingsareeithersen-
sibleorthinkable,butcontinuesandknowledgeisinawaywhatisknowable.21 Translations not otherwise accredited are my
own.22 MymostrecenteortinthisareaisBurnyeat2002.
Caston(2004)givesaullandaircriticaloverviewothetwistsandturnsoalongdebatebetweenmysel,RichardSorabji,andothers.
23 So,orexample,Learchap.4.3;Hadot39(citingII1,412a10;5,417a28,whichmerelydistinguishsecondromirstactualitywithoutmentiono
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48 M.F.Burnyeat
theidentity),who,however,ollowswithasuperbaccountowhattheidentitymeansinPlotinus.24 Smith: Oncethemind hasbecome each seto
itspossibleobjects,asamanosciencehas,whenthisphraseisusedoonewhoisactuallyamanoscience.Barnes:Whenthoughthasbecomeeachthinginthewayinwhichamanwhoactuallyknowsissaidtodoso.
25 Asspelledout,orthecaseoproductivearts,inMet.2.
2 :anaccountwhichrendershowtheattributeappearstoaskilledscien-tiicobserverwhodoesnotyetcommandtheexplana-tionowhyitisasitis.SmithandBarnesagreeonor,whenweareabletogiveanaccountconormable
toexperienceoallormostothepropertiesothesubstance...
27 Notethatthislastpointsaysnomorethanthatperceivingrequiresabody;itdoesnotascribetothatbodysomematerialprocessunderlyingthepercep-tion.I at403a7appearstosubsumeunderperceivingthethreeitemspreviouslymentioned,viz.
gettingangry,beingconident,anddesiring,thatitsIII7,431a8-14.
28 Seen.15aboveorthetranslationo.29 Hicks ad 408b18-29doesacknowledgethe
assumeddistinctionbetween and,butonlytoaddthatitappearstomequitearbitrary,sinceeitherverbmaystandortheacto
thinking!AgoodcounterweighttothisarroganceisFrede(199b),whorightlyemphasizesthatnoeinorAristotleisnotordinarythinking,butinvolves
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Aristotles Divine Intellect 49
intellectuallygraspingsomethingorhavinginsight,invirtueowhichwehavetrueknowledge(p.15).30 WithRossinhiseditio maior(191),butnothis
editio minor(195),Istartanewparagraphhere.LikewiseSmith,Barnes,Jannone-Barbotin.Another,less satisactoryway tosignal Aristotleschange osubjectisTheilers:ollowingRitter,heputsangledbracketsaround408b18-29andthewholeoIII5tomarkbothaslaterinsertions(byAristotlehim-sel).Siwek,bycontrast,keepsasingleparagraphonthegroundsthat408b18-29,soarrombeingadigression,isnecessarytocompletetheproothatneitherinitsineriornoritssuperioractivitiesisthesoulitselmoved.
31 Two comments on this sentence. (1) Barnes
replacedSmithsmindwiththought:Butthoughtseemstobeanindependentsubstanceimplanted
within us.How thoughtcouldbeanAristoteliansubstance,oanykind,beggarsbelie.(2)Rossadloc.rightlydeniesthatthispassagehastodowiththedoctrineoGAII3,73b27-9,thatnousalonecomesinromoutsideanditaloneisdivine.The
latter,asCaston(1999),215-,wellargues,belongswithAristotlessexistbiology,accordingtowhichaninantsormderivessolelyromtheather,itsmatterrom the mother. In the human case, the speciicormcontributedbytheatheristhepowertothinkandreason.Thispower,whichbecomesactualastheinantgrowsup,isinitially(asweshallsee)first
potentialitynous,nomore.ButorAristotleitisasindestructibleasthehumanraceitsel,thoughocourseany individualspower tothinkand reasonperisheswhentheydo.
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32 hereispresumablytheexerciseotheintel-lectualunderstandingsigniiedby.Ipreservethetraditionaltranslationcontemplation,bothbecauseitsuggestsasurveyoresultsalreadywon(orinGodscase,alwaysknown)ratherthanreshexploration,andromdeerencetothewordsorigin(welltracedbyNightingale)intheritesoviewingasacredspectacle.BarnesreplacedSmithstheactivityomindorintellectualapprehensionbythinkingandrelecting.
33 In Hicks,Smith andTheiler the singularbecomesthepluralthemselves.ThesingularshouldstandintheEnglishbecause inmortalhumansistheintermittentexerciseothedisposi-tionalunderstandingcalled :theyareone
andthesamestateattwolevelsoactuality.34 Hicks renders asreasoninghere,
tokeepthinkingromturninguponbothsidesothecontrastalthoughthinkingwasthewordheusedorat408b14.Hamlynleavesuswithanunexplainedcontrastbetweenthoughtandthinking.Barnessimplyrepeatsthinking,
which in Smiths original stood in contrastto .Rossad loc.,surprisedatthewayAristotlegroupswithloveandhateasa eatureothecompositerationalanimal,ratherthanwith alone,venturesanunlikelyexplanation:Perhapshedoesthisbecausehethinksoreasoningasgettingatleastoneoitspremisesby
sense-perception.35 Alternatively,isthephilosophicalimperect,reairmingwhatwassaidat408b25-7(soTricot,Barbotin).
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Aristotles Divine Intellect 51
3 Seen.32above.37 Mybracketsinseparate(d)donotindicatealterna-tivemeaningsobutalternativeEnglishexpressionsorasinglemeaning,asexplainednn.48and54below.
38 Inthelightothepairing atIII3,427a18-19andb7-11,Itakethetwoverbs ... to
contrastastheoreticaltopracticalknowledge.Smithchoosesthinkorboth and ,andproceedstoturnthechapterintoastudyothinkinginsteadointellectualknowledgeorunderstanding.
39 Rossinhissummaryswitcheshereromthinkingtoknowingandthentoreason(p.289).
40 Understandshereistobetakenashasthecapacitytounderstand,astheollowingsentenceconirms.41 ThesameclaimwasalreadymadeatDA II5,417a
21-7,thoughwiththesimplerexamplesoreadingandwriting;c.my(2002),48-9withn.59.
42 Alexander,De anima libri mantissa110.4-,withZellerscompellingemendation or
.43 Aristotlepositsamediumortasteandtouchaswellasorthedistancesenses.Thisenableshimtoarguethattheheartwithin,nottongueoringertip,istheorganotasteandtouch.FordetaileddiscussionImayreertoBurnyeat(1995)onAristotle,ollowedbymy(2001b)onAquinasinsightulresponse.
44 FordetaileddiscussionolightandthemediumovisioninAristotle,seemy(1995),422-7.
45 Fordeenceothisclaim,andrebuttalotheideathatAristotlescross-reerenceswitnesstothechro-nologyohiswriting,seeBurnyeat2001a,chap.5.
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52 M.F.Burnyeat
4 ForavigorousdeenceotheMSS,excisedbyRoss,seeCaston(1999),205-7.Thewordisansweredbyat430a13.
47 Notmatteroreachthingoagivenkind(Wedin172).
48 atline13parallels atline10andsomustbeequallygeneral:itcannot
mean,whatitissootenassumedtomean,e.g.byRoss(191),45,intheindividualsoul;similarlywithoutargument,alas,Aquinas,in Ar. DALectioX.ThepointiswellarguedbyCaston(1999),205-.
49 Itaketheparticipialcausetobeexplanatoryothethreeeaturesjustlisted:eachrulesoutsometypeopotentiality(whichinturnrequiresthat
mustmeanseparate,notseparable!).Thisspeaksor
actualityastherighttranslationoirstinstanceor(c.Met.,1071b19-20).Whetherthatactualityisbestglossedasactivityisanissuethatcannotbedecidedjustonthebasisotheexiguoustextbeoreushere.ItiswelltobearinmindENVII14,1154b:Ithereissomebeingwhosenatureissimple,thesamemodeoactionwillbecontinuously
andinthehighestdegreepleasurabletoit.HenceGodenjoyseverlastinglyonepurepleasure.Forthereisactualitynotonlyochangebutalsoorest,andpleasureconsistsratherintranquillitythaninchange( , ).(Tr.aterGrant.)
50 Itishardtoread43018sasareasonwhythisnoushasthecharacteristicsjustlisted,butitcouldinsteadgivetheauthorsreasonortellingusaboutthecharacteristicsithas:Denniston0-1.
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Aristotles Divine Intellect 53
51 isexpresslyaxiological;Wedinssupe-rior(p.182)isinsuicient.52 Iproposethatiswellchosentosuggest
,intheuniverseatlarge,therebylendingpointinthiscontextto ... at430a19-22,whichRosseditio maior(notminor)insistsonbracketing.HisgroundsaregiveninhisnoteadIII5,430a19-22,andtheollow-upnote adIII7,431a1-3:thewordsinterruptthediscussionotheActiveintellectinIII5,whereasIII7,where ...recurwithadierentsequel,isanywayacol-lectionoscrapsandthereisnocontinuoussequenceothoughttointerrupt.TheobjectionailsithesamewordscanbeoundrelevanttoIII5aswell.Isuggestthat430a22 ...ispreciselywhat
doesmakethemrelevanttotheActiveIntellect.53 Isupplyassubjectheretheonlythingowhich
Aristotlecouldthinkthepredicatetrue.54 Theaoristparticipleneednomoreimplyapast
actoseparatingthandoesthestatementMarseillesisseparatedromParisbyagreatdistance;Caston(1999),208,aptlycitesI1,403a145,asaparallel
whereapastseparationreadingowouldmakenonsense.Giventheollowingexclusionoall but essential properties, the everything elsethedivine nousisseparatedrommustinclude,appropriatelyenough,separationromaccidentalproperties.
55 Caston(1999),213-5,proposestotranslate
asthat,notbecause,therebydiusingcenturiesocontroversy.Ingenious,buthow,evenintheheatodebate,couldanycompetentstudentoAristotleorgetthatanythingwhichisisthereby andvice versa?Thelackomemorytesti-
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54 M.F.Burnyeat
iestoanimportantsenseinwhichthelieotheintellectisnot ours,notpartoourpersonallie.MetaphysicsL9rathersuggeststhat,totheextentthatwebecameGodorawhile,wewerethedivineintellectunderstandingitselfasthatwhichunder-standsall.
5 Here Smith and Barnesagreeon without this,nothingthinks,whichimpliesthatno-onecandrawupashoppinglistwithouttheaidoaneternalintellect.
57 ThedamagedonebyblindinglightisotenurgedagainstmyclaimthatorAristotlenormalseeingrequiresnomaterialchangeintheorgan(e.g.Lear,114-115).TheobjectionisanalogoustoBerkeleysnotoriousargumentthat,becauseblindinglight
producespaininthemind,ordinarycoloursarealsointhemind.
58 Brentano,p.24,ulminatingagainstZeller.59 Kuressisauseul,manageablybrieaccountothe
longhistoryointerpretationsoDA III5.0 Thanksareowed(a)totheaudienceswithwhom
overtheyearsIhavesharedthoughtsandstrugglesonthetopicothislecture,atAnnArbor,Berkeley,Budapest,Cambridge,Fribourg,Pittsburgh,Prague,andPrinceton,(b)toMichaelFrede(inhis199aandelsewhere)andVictorCaston(inhis1999paper)ortheirencouragementtojoininthetaskoresurrectingalongneglectedinterpretationoDA III5.
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&London:UniversityoCaliorniaPress,1977Burnyeat,M.F.HowmuchhappenswhenAristotle
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Hamlyn,D.W.Aristotles De Anima Books II and III.TranslatedwithIntroductionandNotes.Clarendon
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tle.NewHaven &London:Yale University Press,1988
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The Aquinas LecturesPublishedbytheMarquetteUniversityPressMilwaukeeWI53201-3141
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The Aquinas Lectures 1937-2008 3
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