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N e w Y o r k
grammar
SucceSSin 20 minutes
a Day
2nd Edition
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Copyright 2010 LearningExpress, LLC.
All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions.
Published in the United States by LearningExpress, LLC, New York.
Library o Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Grammar success in 20 minutes a day. 2nd ed.
p. cm.ISBN-13: 978-1-57685-721-2 (pbk. : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 1-57685-721-2 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. English languageGrammarProblems, exercises, etc.
I. LearningExpress (Organization)
PE1112.G676 2010
428.2dc22
2009024478
Printed in the United States o America
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cnns
INtroductIoN v
PreteSt 1
NouNS n ProNouNS
LeSSoN 1 Kinds o Nouns 13
Common, proper, concrete, abstract, collective, and compound nouns
LeSSoN 2 Noun Usage 19Plural and possessive nouns
LeSSoN 3 Pronouns 27
Personal, reexive, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and
indefnite pronouns
verbS
LeSSoN 4 Verb Types 35
Action, linking, and helping verbs
LeSSoN 5 Regular and Irregular Verbs 39Common regular and irregular verbs, problem, and tricky verbs
LeSSoN 6 Verb Forms and Tenses 49Present and past, present and past participle, and other verb orms;
basic tense review
modIfIerS
LeSSoN 7 Adjectives 57Articles, pronouns as adjectives, and demonstrative and comparative adjectives
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v
coNteNtS
LeSSoN 8 Adverbs 63Common adverbs, comparative adverbs, and how to distinguish adverbs
rom adjectives
LeSSoN 9 Prepositions 69Common prepositions and how to distinguish prepositions rom adverbs
LeSSoN 10 Misplaced Modifers and Tricky Words 73Kinds o modifers, homonyms, and homographs
SeNteNce Structure
LeSSoN 11 Sentence Basics 85Subjects, predicates, complements, and direct and indirect objects
LeSSoN 12 Agreement 91Subject-verb and pronoun-antecedent agreement
LeSSoN 13 Phrases 97Prepositional, adjective, adverb, verbal, participial, infnitive, gerund, and
appositive phrases
LeSSoN 14 Clauses 101Independent, subordinate, noun, adjective, and adverb clauses
LeSSoN 15 Conjunctions 107Coordinating, corrective, and subordinating conjunctions
LeSSoN 16 Combining Sentences 113
Kinds o sentences, including compound, complex, and compound-complex,that enliven writing
PuNctuatIoN
LeSSoN 17 End Punctuation 121Periods, question marks, and exclamation points
LeSSoN 18 Internal Punctuation I 125Commas, colons, and semicolons
LeSSoN 19 Internal Punctuation II 133
Apostrophes, hyphens, and dashes
LeSSoN 20 Internal Punctuation III 139Quotation marks, parentheses, brackets, italics and underlining,
and parentheses
PoStteSt 147
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v
Inin
Do your grammar skills need some brushing up? Perhaps you have an exam on the horizon, or you
want to hone your grammar skills to improve your writing or speech. Whatever the case may be,
this quick reerence guide will help put you well on your way toward accomplishing your grammar
goalsno matter how big or small.
Because English is so complex, rules and guidelines called grammar and usage are necessary to help us bet-
ter understand its many idiosyncrasies. While language is orever changing to meet our needs, the inner workings
o a sentence are, or the most part, as constant as the stars, and fguring out these dynamics is like putting a
puzzle together (or taking it apart).Understanding the inner workings o a sentence can help you with your speech and writingthe essence
o communication and language. And the benefts you get or your eorts ar outweigh the 20 minutes o your
day youll spend with this book.
Beore you begin to progress through the book, take the pretest on the next ew pages to determine what you
already know and what you might need to ocus on. You might be surprised by just how much you remember!
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1
P
Beore you start your study o grammar skills, get an idea o how much you already know and how
much you need to learn by taking the pretest that ollows. It consists o 50 multiple-choice questions
about what is in this book. Naturally, 50 questions can not cover every single concept or rule you will
learn by working through these lessons, so even i you answer all the questions correctly, it is almost guaranteed
that you will nd a ew things in the book you did not already know. I you get lots o answers wrong on the
pretest, do not worrythis book will teach you how to improve your grammar and writing, step by step.
Record your answers in this book. I it does not belong to you, list the numbers 150 on a piece o paper
and write your answers there. Take as much time as you need to nish the test. When you nish, check youranswers against the answer key that ollows the test. Each answer lists the lesson o the book that covers the
concept(s) in that question. I you get a high score on the pretest, you may be able to spend less time with this
book than you originally planned. I you get a low score, you may nd you will need more than 20 minutes a day
to learn all that you need to know. Good luck.
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2
Pretest
P
1. Circle the common nouns.
chair joy knitted
Australia supermarket Ohio
Monticello understanding toddlers
saucepan dancing hostess
2. Circle the abstract nouns.
peace telephone livelihood
deceit cheerulness jungle
NASA smile rubber band
test eyelash patience
3. Circle the proper nouns.Texas Work Clock
Puzzle Nancy Mr. Klondike
Licorice Mexico City Basketball
IBM Spiderman Mt. Everest
4. Circle the nouns that are pluralized correctly.
halves theorys oxen
casinoes inchs dishes
valleyes houses mother-in-laws
booths tooths hippopotami
5. Circle the hyphenated nouns that are spelled
correctly.
sister-in-laws kilowatt-hours
runner-ups orget-me-nots
ollow-ups sticks-in-the-mud
6. Circle the nouns that have been made possessive
correctly.
childs hers JodysCongress tooths cactuss
puppies moms Jasons
womens his dresss
7. Circle the antecedents/pronouns that agree in
gender.
tree/it Anthony/she
King Henry/he passenger/it
kangaroo/his Alice/her
8. Circle the antecedents/pronouns that agree in
number.
kids/him everybody/they
Kathy and I/it sh/they
group/it sh/it
each/he or she woman/we
both/they
9. Circle the interrogative pronouns.who when whose
which whom whomever
how where what
10. Circle the subjective case pronouns.
I went to his house and saw him.
She brought me an apple and I thanked her.
They went to Pats and called me.
11. Circle the objective case pronouns.He threw it toward me.
Pass me the salt.
We made them sandwiches.
12. Circle the refexive case pronouns and underline
the possessive case pronouns.
Carlo was angry, but stopped himsel beore
he said something really mean to his
brother.
I was so tired I couldnt orce mysel to get
dressed and join my riends at the mall.
Some people take themselves too seriously
and think its their responsibility to solve
everyone elses problems!
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3
Pretest
13. Circle the demonstrative pronouns and
underline the relative pronouns.
That is the most annoying sound that I have
ever heard.
Those are the boxes o blankets that Momplans to take to the SPCA.
Is this the channel that you were watching?
14. Circle the action verbs.
wash be hold cook
would buy pray gnaw
put write loan marry
15. Circle the linking verbs.
appear took become sat
eel prove call grow
study look is lose
16. Circle the regular verbs and underline the
irregular verbs.
orgive grow buy walk
wash hide sew pet
sit hear play throw
17. Circle the correct orm o lay/lie in each
sentence.
Joy ound her hairbrush (laying, lying) in the
suitcase.
The swing has (lain, laid) broken behind the
shed or two years.
The boy had (laid, lain) awake beore getting
up to play.
18. Circle the correct orm o sit/set in each
sentence.
The class (set, sat) patiently as the teacher
took attendance.
Claudias aunt (sits, sets) the table while Gert
cooks dinner.
(Setting, Sitting) on the porch on a cool
summer night is the best.
19. Circle the correct tricky verb in each sentence.
Sandy careully (hanged, hung) her new curtains
on the window.
Peter tried to (accept, except) Jims
explanation, but it was dicult.You (can, may) take another glass o
lemonade i you like.
20. Identiy the tense o each verb as present, past,
uture, present perect, past perect, uture
perect, present progressive, past progressive, or
uture progressive.
will drive am driving
had driven drove
drive has drivendrives will have driven
21. Circle the common adjectives in the ollowing
sentences.
The pungent aroma o Italian spices lled the
busy kitchen o the pizzeria.
Shelley wore a blue dress to the wedding.
We donated our old car to an automotive
school where students practice doing
repairs.
22. Place the correct indenite article in ront o
each noun.
___ house ___ elephant
___ unicorn ___ yellow fower
___ one-way street ___ honor
___ underdog ___ loaer
___ unopened git ___ orange
___ hour ___ occasion
___ wrist ___ admirer
___ upper level
23. Change the ollowing proper nouns into proper
adjectives.
Italy Bahama Arica
Texas France Hawaii
America Virginia Denmark
Caliornia Belgium China
Japan Inca England
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4
Pretest
24. Determine whether the boldaced word in each
sentence is a possessive pronoun or a possessive
adjective.
His sneakers were worn, so he bought new
ones.Marissa crossed her ngers and hoped the
winning ticket would be hers.
Myuncle showed me an autographed Babe
Ruth baseball card and said it would one
day be mine.
25. Determine whether the boldaced word in each
sentence is a demonstrative pronoun or a
demonstrative adjective.
This is really over the top!Take this money and buy yoursel a treat.
Watch these careully while they boil.
26. Determine which orm o comparative or super-
lative adjective best completes each sentence.
Terrys (most high, highest) jump in the high
jump was our eet, six inches.
Seans bank account was (larger, more large)
than mine.
Barbara was (best, better) at chess than herroommate Natalie.
27. Circle the correct orm o the comparative and
superlative adverbs in the ollowing sentences.
Joel was (less, least) active during the winter
than during the summer.
The store brands price was the (low, lower,
lowest) o the three brands.
This was the (long, longer, longest) day o the
year.
28. Determine whether the boldaced word in the
sentence is an adjective or an adverb.
The accounting department ran at a ast but
riendly pace.
Cory worked hard on improving his tennisswing or the tournament.
Nora was sent straight to her room or
disobeying her parents.
29. Identiy the prepositional phrases in the
ollowing sentences.
Ferdinand Magellan was the rst explorer to
sail around the world.
Without a doubt, regular exercise is necessary
or good health.The little monkey ran around Moms living
room and climbed up the drapes.
30. Determine whether the boldaced word is a
preposition or an adverb.
Holly was beside hersel with ear when the
child darted into the street.
I we can reach Hightstown byve, we may be
able to see the presidents motorcade go by.
Use caution when you walk across busystreets.
31. Rewrite each sentence so that the misplaced
modiers are properly placed.
The woman was walking her dog with hair
curlers.
Walking along the shore the sand burned my
eet.
Tina bought a guinea pig or her brother they
call Butterscotch.
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5
Pretest
32. Using the clues, write the homonyms or
homographs.
nished/tossed
trade event/equitable
the total/severalshut/nearby
dispatched/perume
dress in/goods or sale
33. Identiy the simple subject in the ollowing
sentences.
Next week, Scott and Jennier will get
married.
Shopping sprees can be un, but very expensive.
It may be too soon to tell.
34. Identiy the simple predicate in the ollowing
sentences.
Reading is good exercise or the brain.
Try again.
The log, when turned over, revealed a whole
dierent world.
35. Identiy whether each boldaced word is a direct
or an indirect object in the ollowing sentences.Brandy took the pot o fowers and brought it
into the garden window.
Grumbling to himsel, Stan dragged the heavy
garbage cans out to the street.
He gave her a high-fve to assure her that all
was well.
36. Identiy the verb that correctly agrees with the
subject in each sentence.
Patty (fy, fies) requently or work.
All o us (watch, watches) out or one
another.
Nobody (want, wants) to play croquet in the
the backyard with me.
37. Identiy the verb that correctly completes the
ollowing sentences.
Neither Jessica nor Marty (like, likes) to do
the laundry.
Spaghetti and meatballs (is, are) my avoriteItalian meal.
Sally or Zach (is, are) probably going to be the
valedictorian this year.
38. Circle the verb that agrees with the indenite
pronoun in each sentence.
Everyone (need, needs) to get any homework
I assign in on time!
Will somebody (taste, tastes) this lasagna
beore I serve it to see i its okay?Many (stop, stops) by my oce to get
directions to your cubicle.
39. Determine which pronoun best ts or proper
pronoun/antecedent agreement in each sentence.
The boys took ________ time walking home
rom school.
Nobody saw __________ name on the cast
list.
The scared joey hopped to _________ motheror security.
40. Identiy the adjective and adverb phrases in the
ollowing sentences.
Books with weak spines need to be reinorced
to lengthen their shel lie.
The lizard scurried across the sidewalk and
disappeared into the bushes.
The cashier with the red hair and braces was
especially helpul.
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6
Pretest
41. Identiy the participial phrases, innitive
phrases, and gerund phrases in the ollowing
sentences.
Hoping to win the lottery, Harriet bought 50
tickets or tonights drawing.To help pass the time, Jake reads a book that
he takes along.
Caring or her ailing grandmother is Loris
ocus right now.
42. Identiy the appositive phrases in the ollowing
sentences.
Ron, a reeree and mentor, is a air-minded
and riendly man.
Jeannine works or KTL, a public relationsrm in Kansas City.
Molly, my student, has a very anciul
imagination.
43. Determine whether each group o words is an
independent or a subordinate clause.
I it doesnt rain
We plan to go
Take that back
Because I oversleptCover your mouth
Remember her birthday
44. Identiy the adjective clause in each sentence.
Now I remember the guy that you described
to me yesterday.
The house at the end o the road is where my
ather grew up.
The room next to the oce is where the
proessors meet.
45. Identiy the noun clause in each sentence.
I can see what you mean.
What Wendy said took everyone by surprise.
How it ends remains to be seen.
46. Identiy the adverb clause in each sentence.
Unless he gets a pay raise, Brad wont be able
to buy a new car.
I could get this job done aster i there were
not so many distractions!
Although many cats are loners, they still look
to humans or ood and shelter.
47. Identiy the coordinating conjunction(s) and the
word or group o words it is connecting in eachsentence.
Logan or Melanie can go to the retreat i they
want to.
Karla wanted to visit longer with her riend,
but she had a long drive home and it was
late.
We signed up or the early class so we could
have the rest o the aternoon ree.
48. Identiy the simple, compound, complex, andcompound-complex sentences.
a. We can go to dinner now or we can go ater
the concert.
b. When the judge announced the winner, the
audience clapped loudly and gave him a
standing ovation.
c. All o the graduates will receive a degree.
d. I you try harder, you will certainly achieve
success.
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7
Pretest
49. Add punctuation where necessary in the
ollowing sentences.
Nathans birthday is May 21 1991 which ell
on a Monday this year
Mr Roberts let a message asking me to pickup these items staples printer paper
correction fuid and two boxes o paper
clips I guess the supply closet got raided
All o the girls dresses were pink with white
eyelet rufes on the sleeves edges.
50. Correctly place quotation marks, commas, and
end marks in the ollowing sentences.
Why do we need to know how to add or
subtract ractions anyway Chris asked Mr.
Bowen the math teacherIm glad you came to the beach with me my
cousin whispered because without you I
couldnt make the most awesome sand
castle and win the contest
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8
Pretest
1. chair, supermarket, toddlers, saucepan, hostess
(Lesson 1)
2. peace, livelihood, deceit, cheerulness, patience
(Lesson 1)
3. Texas, Nancy, Mr. Klondike, Mexico City, IBM,
Spiderman, Mt. Everest (Lesson 1)
4. halves, oxen, dishes, houses, booths, hippopot-
ami (Lesson 2)
5. kilowatt-hours, orget-me-nots, ollow-ups,
sticks-in-the-mud (Lesson 2)
6. childs, Jodys, Congress, tooths, cactuss, pup-pies, moms, Jasons, womens, dresss (Lesson 2)
7. tree/it, King Henry/he, Alice/her (Lesson 3)
8. sh/they, group/it, sh/it, each/he or she, both/
they (Lesson 3)
9. who, whose, which, whom, whomever (Lesson 3)
10.I went to his house and saw him.
She brought me an apple and I thanked her.
They went to Pats and called me.
(Lesson 3)
11. He threw it toward me .Pass me the salt.
We made them sandwiches.
(Lesson 3)
12. Carlo was angry, but stopped himselbeore
he said something really mean to his brother.
I was so tired I couldnt orce myselto get
dressed and join myriends at the mall.
Some people take themselves too seriously and
think its their responsibility to solve everyone
elses problems! (Lesson 3)13.That is the most annoying sound that I have
ever heard.
Those are the boxes o blankets that Mom plans
to take to the SPCA.
Is this the channel that you were watching?
(Lesson 3)
14. wash, hold, cook, buy, pray, gnaw, put, write,
loan, marry (Lesson 4)
15. appear, become, eel, prove, grow, look (Lesson 4)
16. orgive grow buy walk
wash hide sew pet
sit hear play throw
(Lesson 5)
17. lying, lain, lain (Lesson 5)
18. sat, sets, Sitting (Lesson 5)
19. hung, accept, may (Lesson 5)
20. will drive: uture
had driven: past perect
drive: presentdrives: present
am driving: present progressive
drove: past
has driven: present perect
will have driven: uture perect
(Lesson 6)
21. pungent, busy, blue, old, automotive (Lesson 7)
22. a house, a unicorn, a one-way street, an under-
dog, an unopened git, an hour, a wrist, an upper
level, an elephant, a yellow fower, an honor, aloaer, an orange, an occasion, an admirer
(Lesson 7)
23. Italian, Bahamian, Arican, Texan, French,
Hawaiian, American, Virginian, Danish, Calior-
nian, Belgian, Chinese, Japanese, Incan, English
(Lesson 7)
24. His: possessive adjective; her: possessive adjec-
tive; hers: possessive pronoun; My: possessive
adjective (Lesson 7)
25.
This: demonstrative pronoun; this: demonstra-tive adjective; these: demonstrative pronoun
(Lesson 7)
26. highest, larger, better (Lesson 7)
27. less, lowest, longest (Lesson 8)
28. ast: adjective; hard: adverb; straight: adverb
(Lessons 7 and 8)
Anw
I you miss any o the ollowing questions, you may reer to the designated lesson or urther explanation.
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9
Pretest
29. around the world; Without a doubt; or good
health; around Moms living room; up the
drapes (Lesson 9)
30. beside hersel: preposition; byve: preposition;
by: adverb; across busy streets: preposition(Lesson 9)
31. The woman with hair curlers was walking her dog.
The sand burned my eet while I was walking
along the shore.
Tina bought a guinea pig they call Butterscotch
or her brother.
(Lesson 10)
32. through/threw air/air
sum/some close/close
sent/scent wear/ware(Lesson 10)
33. Scott and Jennier; Shopping sprees; It (Lesson 11)
34. is; Try; revealed (Lesson 11)
35.pot: direct object; it: direct object; garbage cans:
direct object; her: indirect object; high-fve:
direct object (Lesson 11)
36. fies, watch, wants (Lesson 12)
37. likes, is, is (Lesson 12)
38. needs, taste, stop (Lesson 12)
39. their, his or her, its (Lesson 12)40. with weak spines: adjective phrase
across the sidewalk: adverb phrase; into the
bushes: adverb phrase
with the red hair and braces: adjective phrase
(Lesson 13)
41. Hoping to win the lottery: participial phrase
To help pass the time: innitive phrase
Caring or her ailing grandmother: gerund phrase
(Lesson 13)
42. a reeree and mentor
a telecommunications company in Kansas City
my student
(Lesson 13)
43. I it doesnt rain: subordinate clause
We plan to go: independent clause
Take that back: independent clause
Because I overslept: subordinate clause
Cover your mouth: independent clause
Remember her birthday: independent clause
(Lesson 14)
44. that you describedwhere my ather grew up
where the proessors meet
(Lesson 14)
45. what you mean
What Wendy said
How it ends
(Lesson 14)
46. Unless he gets a pay raise
i there were not so many distractions
Although many cats are loners(Lesson 14)
47. Logan or Melanie
Karla wanted to visit longer with her riend, but
she had a long drive home and it was late.
We signed up or the early class so we could
have the rest o the aternoon ree.
(Lesson 15)
48.a. compound; b. compound-complex; c. simple;
d. complex
(Lesson 16)49. Nathans birthday is May 21, 1991, which ell on
a Monday this year.
Mr. Roberts let a message asking me to pick up
these items: staples, printer paper, correction
fuid, and two boxes o paper clips; I guess the
supply closet got raided.
All o the girls dresses were pink with white
eyelet rufes on the sleeves edges.
(Lessons 1720)
50.Why do we need to know how to multiply or
divide ractions anyway? Chris asked Mr.
Bowen, the math teacher.
Im glad you came to the beach with me, my
cousin whispered,because without you I
couldnt make the most awesome sand castle
and win the contest! (Lessons 1720)
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Nn an Pnn
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l
e
s
s
o
N
13
Nouns, the most basic component o language, are naming words. They help us identiy the persons,places, or things we talk about. There are six distinct groups o nouns: common nouns, propernouns, concrete nouns, abstract nouns, collective nouns, and compound nouns.It is important to know about nouns and their unction in speaking and writing because so many other
parts o speech relate to nouns. So, that is where we will start our grammar reresher. The ollowing page briey
summarizes the six dierent noun groups and cites the unique qualities that separate them. Then we will look
at each individual group in more detail.
Lesson summary
Learn why the noun, and its six identiiable subgroups, is the un-
damental component o our language.
Kn Nn1
The beginning o wisdom is to call things by their right names.
Chinese proverb
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14
KiNds of NouNs
T sx Typ Nn
C nA common noun is a word that speaks o something
only in a general way, like book, car, andperson. Com-
mon nouns can be written in singular orm (book, car,
andperson) or plural (books, cars, andpeople).
Pp nUnlike common nouns, proper nouns name a very
specifc person, place, or thing. One distinguishing
aspect o proper nouns is that theyalways begin with
a capital letter. Catcher in the Rye, BMW Z4, andAlbert
Einstein are proper nouns.
Cct n
Concrete nouns name something that appeals to your
senses. For instance, toothbrush, cell phone, moonlight,
waves, and breezes are all concrete nouns.
abtct nIn contrast, abstract nouns name belies, concepts,
and characteristics or qualitiesthings that cant be
touched, seen, or accrued. For example, composure,
sovereignty, ree enterprise, daring, and handsome areabstract nouns.
Cllctiv n
Collective nouns are words used to name people,
places, and things in terms o a unit. For instance,
class,fock, herd, andamilyare collective nouns.
Cpd nNew words can be ormed by combining two or more
words, thus creating a compound word. Compounds
can be made up o a number o speech components,
including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Some
examples o compound nouns are motorcycle, onlooker,
input, and washing machine.
Many nouns may all into more than one othese categories. For example, the noun school(o fsh)
is common, concrete, and collective. The noun well-
beingis abstract and compound.
A C lk at Nn
Proper nouns are easily distinguishable rom common
nouns by their capital letters. But be cautious. Dont
assume that every word in a sentence that begins witha capital is a proper noun. Basic sentence structure
dictates that every sentence must begin with a capital
letterremember that rom English class? Also, what
might appear to be a proper noun, or some orm
thereo, could instead be a proper adjective simply
because it is describing or telling about a noun that
ollows it in the sentence. For example, the proper
noun Florida is acting as a proper adjective in the ol-
lowing sentence because it is used to describe the word
sunshine.
Example:
Almost nothing beats the warmth o Florida
sunshine.
In the ollowing sentence, Florida is a proper noun,
because it is not describing another word.
Example:
My amily goes to Florida every summer or
vacation.
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15
KiNds of NouNs
Pctic
Determine whether the boldaced words are proper
nouns or proper adjectives in the ollowing sentences.
1. Did you ever see the classic flm 2001: A Space
Odyssey?
2. We had a quiet dinner at Maison dFrance on
our frst date.
3. This UPS tracking code seems to have expired.
4. He hopes to be accepted at Rutgers University
in New Jerseynext year.
5. The Smithsonian Institute comprises more
than 19 museums in the nations capital o
Washington, D.C.
6. A Degas painting once sold or over our million
dollars at Sothebys, an auction house in Lon-
don.
7. You can see or miles rom the top o the Statue
of Libertyin New York Harbor.
8. The French toast was exceptionally delicious at
breakast this morning.
9. The French toast the New Year with the phrase
bonne anne!
Concrete nouns are airly simple to identiy. Theyre
nouns that appeal to your senseshearing, touch,
taste, smell, and sight. Besides things like an avalanche,
a stretch limo, newborn kittens, or a piping hot plate o
barbeque ribs, things such as air, cells, molecules, and
atoms are concrete, even though they cant readily be
seen with the naked eye. Got the idea?
ExamplEs o propEr NouNs by CatEgory
PeoPle
ofc President Barack Obama, Mayor Diaz, Ofcer OMalley
Hc e Benjamin Franklin, Cleopatra, Lewis and Clark
ac Audrey Hepburn, Tom Hanks, Lucille Ball
ah Jack London, Shakespeare, O. Henry
a Picasso, Vincent van Gogh, Georgia OKeee
PlACes
se Oklahoma, Michigan, New Jersey
ren Olive Garden, Red Lobster, Salt Creek Grille
sce Eiel Tower, Washington Monument, Empire State Building
sch Penn State University, Central High School, Trinity Elementary
ThiNgs
tnn Delta Airlines, Greyhound, Amtrak
bnee FedEx, Toys R Us, Barnes & Noble
pdc Hebrew National hot dogs, Microsot Word, Pantene shampoo
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16
KiNds of NouNs
Abstract nouns, on the other hand, name ideas,
qualities or characteristics, and eelings. Words such as
pride, resentulness, health, democracy, and love all into
this category. Do you see the dierence between the
two?
PcticIdentiy the boldaced nouns in the ollowing sen-
tences as either concrete or abstract.
10. The caring message written in my get-well
card was evidence o Kims thoughtfulness
and compassion.
11. The globalization ocapitalism has becometremendous in the last quarter-centurydue to
improved technology.
12. Theres a lot to be said or the age-old adage
Beautyis in the eye o the beholder.
13. His intuition told him to swerve right in order
to avoid the potential accident.
Take a look at a list o collective nouns, and youresure to get a ew chuckles. Some are airly amiliar,
such as herd, club,amily, and committee. But did you
know that a group o oysters is called a bed? That a
group o butteries is called a kaleidoscope? That a
group o islands is called a chain? Or that a group o
ships is called afotilla?
A collective noun can take either a singular or a
plural verb, depending on how it is used in the sentence.
Take the word choir, or instance. In the sentence
The choir travels to out-o-state perormances
by bus.
the choiris taken as a single unit and thereore takes the
singular verb (the collective group travels). The ollow-
ing sentence, on the other hand, uses the word choirin
a plural sense.
The choir are ftted or new robes every three
years.
This implies that all the individual choir members are
ftted or new robes every three years. While the sen-tence may sound odd, this must obviously be the case,
as each individual member wears a robe; thegroup as
a single unit doesnt wear a robe.
PcticIdentiy the correct verb or pronoun or each collec-
tive noun in the ollowing sentences.
14. A dozen roses (is, are) a thoughtul git or Val-entines Day.
15. A dozen students (is, are) going to the library to
study or fnals.
16. The class took (its, their) yearly feld trip to
Camp Arrowhead this past April.
17. The class completed (its, their) exam in Ameri-
can History and did very well.
18. The committee submitted (its, their) fndings
on the case to the jury.
19. The committee took (its, their) seat(s) to hear
the verdict.
Remember, i a collective noun reers to a whole
group, use a singular verb; i the noun reers to
the people in the group acting as individuals,
use a plural verb. I youre not sure, the general
rule is to use the singular. It is almost always
acceptable.
tip
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17
KiNds of NouNs
Compound nouns can present writers with issues regarding spelling, rather than usage. There are three ways
to spell these nouns, which are made up o two or more words. The closed orm reers to two words joined
without any space between them, such as bandwagon, newspaper, and skyscraper. The open orm has a space
between several words that create one idea, like water ski and stainless steel. The hyphenated orm uses
hyphens (-) between the words, like mother-in-law and do-gooder.Be careul to distinguish between words that have dierent meanings as a word pair or as a compound word.
The ollowing table lists a ew o the most commonly conused compound words.
Always check the dictionary to fnd out i a com-
pound word should be hyphenated, since there
are not any hard and ast rules. For example,
mini-marthas a hyphen, while another mini-
compound, miniseries, does not!
tip
PcticCan you identiy the six types o nouns in the ollowing sentences? Identiy each boldaced noun as common,
proper, concrete, abstract, collective, or compound. Some nouns may ft into more than one category.
20. Place the stamp on the upper right-hand corner o the envelope addressed to Phillip Ware.
21. It seemed as though the long and brutal snowstorm was starting to give way, and some peace was fnally
going to ensue.
22. The armyoants attacked the deenseless caterpillar on my ront sidewalk.
23.Tristan carried a decko cards with him to pass the time in between performances.
word PAir meANiNg ComPouNd word meANiNg
all ready completely prepared already it happened
all together as a group altogether completely
every one each individual everyone everybody
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18
KiNds of NouNs
1. proper noun
2. proper noun
3. proper adjective (UPS is modiying tracking
code)
4. proper noun, proper noun
5. proper noun, proper noun
6. proper adjective (Degas is modiyingpainting),
proper noun, proper noun
7. proper noun, proper noun
8. proper adjective (French is modiying toast)
9. proper noun (here, French is a proper noun
meaningpeople rom France, and toastis a verb),
proper noun
10. concrete, concrete, concrete, abstract, abstract
11. abstract, abstract, concrete, abstract
12. concrete, abstract, concrete, concrete
13. abstract, concrete, concrete
14. is
15. are
16. its
17. their
18. its
19. their
20. stamp: common, concrete; corner: common,
concrete; envelope: common, concrete; Phillip
Ware: proper
21. snowstorm: common, concrete; peace: com-
mon, abstract
22. army: common, concrete, collective; ants: com-
mon, concrete; caterpillar: common, concrete;
sidewalk: common, concrete, compound
23. Tristan: proper; deck: common, concrete, col-
lective; time: common, abstract; performances:
common, concrete
An
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19
Plurl
You can make most, but not all, nouns plural by simply adding -s or -es to the end o the word, like printer/
printers, lunch/lunches, bill/bills, kiss/kisses, and mall/malls. However, the English language can be tricky. Some
nouns change completely as plurals, and others do not change at all. But never ear, there are some rules to help
you know how to make a singular noun plural. Read on!
Lesson summaryPluralize singular nouns, and turn them into possessives with
easespelling tips included.
nu U2The plural of tragedy is tragedies, but other than Shakespeares,
why would anyone want to go through more than one?
Mim Granahan, American actor,
playwright, director (1972 )
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noUn Usage
PcticDecide whether to add -s or -es to the end o each
word in order to make it plural.
1. book
2. strength
3. bush
4. box
5. package
6. choice
7. edge
8. reedom
9. ogre
10. ox
11. pencil
12. ax
Making Singular nounS Plural
1. add -st th d f mt wrd t mk thm plurl.
grill/grills, paper/papers, snake/snakes, razor/razors
The plural form of nouns like these, referred to as count nouns, is rather predictable.
2. add - t th d f wrd di with -ch, -s, -sh, -ss, -x, d -z.
punch/punches, gas/gases, garlic press/garlic presses, brush/brushes, box/boxes, fez/fezes
It would be strange to try and pronounce dresss or crashs if we didnt put an e in front of the s, which
forms another syllable.
3. Ch -f, -lf, r -fet th d f wrd t -ves.
leaf/leaves, half/halves, knife/knives
Be careful; there are exceptions to this rule, for example, chief/chiefs, giraffe/giraffes.
4. Ch -yt -ieswh th -yfllw ct.
party/parties, battery/batteries, penny/pennies, baby/babies
5. Jut dd -sftr -ywh th -y i prcdd by vwl.
guy/guys, day/days, play/plays, key/keys, boy/boys
6. add -est wrd di with -otht fllw ct.
tornado/tornadoes, potato/potatoes, echo/echoes, hero/heroes
7. simply dd -st wrd di with -otht fllw thr vwl.
patio/patios, video/videos, radio/radios
Be careful; there are exceptions to this rule. For example, banjo/banjos, piano/pianos.
8. Fr hyphtd cmpud u, dd -st th wrd tht i chi i umbr.
passer-by/passers-by, brother-in-law/brothers-in-law
9. Thr r rul fr plurlizi irrulr u; yu mut mmriz thm.
mouse/mice, deer/deer, child/children, man/men, foot/feet, person/people, stimulus/stimuli, tooth/teeth,
octopus/octopi, die/dice, louse/lice, ox/oxen
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noUn Usage
Identiy the correct plural or each o the boldaced words.
13.half halves hals
14.chief chieves chies
15.life lies lives
16.giraffe giraes giraves
17.oaf oas oaves
18.shelf shelves shels
19.sniff snis snives
20.wife wives wies
21.safe saes saves
22.wolf wolves wols
23.monkey monkies monkeys
24.library
librarys libraries
25.candy candies candys
26.story storys stories
27.chimney chimneys chimnies
28.essay essays essaies
29.daisy daisys daisies
30.alley alleys allies
31.delay delaies delays
32.family amilies amilys
33.domino dominoes dominos
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noUn Usage
34.radio radioes radios
35.volcano volcanos volcanoes
36.tomato tomatoes tomatos
37.torpedo torpedos torpedoes
38.hero heroes heros
39.echo echos echoes
40.piano pianoes pianos
41.mosquito mosquitoes mosquitos
42.silo siloes silos
43.studio studios studioes
44.six-year-old sixes-year-old six-year-olds
45.go-between goes-between go-betweens
46.editor-in-chief
editors-in-chie editor-in-chies
47.runner-up runners-up runner-ups
48.great-grandmother greats-grandmother great-grandmothers
49.singer-songwriter singers-songwriter singer-songwriters
50.sister-in-law sister-in-laws sisters-in-law
51.city-state cities-state city-states
52.deer deers deer
53.woman womans women
54.goose geese gooses
55.child childs children
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noUn Usage
Dictionaries oten list two plurals or a word, as
with the word cactus: plural, cactior cactuses.
Either is acceptable, but generally, the frst one
given is preerred.
TiP
Piv
Possessive nouns are words that imply ownership
something belonging to something else. The rst
thing to do is determine whether the word being used
actually implies possession.
sigl PivLook at the sentence the bird nests had eggs inside. The
word nests, while it ends with -s, is plural, not posses-
sive. To make nestor any singular noun possessive, add
an apostrophe and -s(s) to the end, as in child/childs,bread/breads, or music/musics.
Example:
The childs older sister was myneighbors friends
babysitter.
What this sentence tells us is that the older sister o the
child was the babysitter o the riend o my neighbor.
In other words, the sister belonged to the child, the
riend belonged to the neighbor, and the neighbor
belonged to me.
PcticWrite the possessive orm o the ollowing phrases.
63. the contract o the actor
64. the graduation o Sabrina
65. the price o the car
66. the ront door o the house
67. the ball glove o Matt
Pll PivMaking a plural noun possessive is a bit dierent.
Most plural nouns end with -s, except or irregular
nouns (see page 20) like mouse/mice, child/children,
man/men, deer/deer, and so on. With a regular noun,
simply add an apostrophe afterthe -s (s), as ingirls/
girls, schools/schools, or newspapers/newspapers.
Example:
The districts administrators secretariescontracts
were approved.
56.moose mooses moose
57.mouse mice mouses
58.alumnus alumnuses alumni
59.phenomenon phenomena phenomenons
60.cactus cactuses cacti
61.analysis analysises analyses
62.criterion criterias criteria
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noUn Usage
This sentence tells us that the contracts o the secretar-
ies o the administrators o the district were approved.
In other words, the administrators belonged to the
district, the secretaries belonged to the administra-
tors, and the contracts belonged to the secretaries.Irregular nouns, such as teeth or people, are
treated like singular nouns, and -s is added to orm
their possessives.
Example:
The geeses V ormation in the sky was impres-
sive as they few overhead.
Pctic
Write the possessive orm o the ollowing phrases.
68. the dictionaries o the writers
69. the calendars o the doctors
70. the hills o ants
71. the islands o the countries
72. the toys o the children
When you are conronted with a singular noun
ending in -s, and you need to make it posses-
sive, you can do one o two things: add -s or
add an apostrophe ater the -s.
exmpl:
T new shoes hurt her eet, but shewore them anyway.
T new shoes hurt her eet, but she
wore them anyway.
Some words sound awkward with the added -s
at the end(Mosess, Dickenss, Williamss, etc.).It is recommended that you simply add an apos-
trophe ater the -s at the end o such names, but
the matter is let to your discretion.
TiP
Pll Fd with Whats a rule without an exception? There are a ew
instances where you may need to use apostrophe -s
(-s) to make a plural. For example, you should add -s
to pluralize an abbreviation that has more than one
period, such as Ph.D. orM.D.
Example:
M.D.s and Ph.D.s denote doctorates in medi-
cine and philosophy.
Also, when you need to write an expression with
words and letters that usually are not seen in the plu-
ral ormlike if, and, or but, or Pand Qadd -s to
the word or letter.
Example:
There are no is, ands, or buts about it, she
wont be going to the concert tomorrow. She
should have minded her Ps and Qs and kept
her comments to hersel.
You make some single-letter abbreviations pluralby doubling the letter: p (page)/pp (pages), l
(line)/ll (lines). Other abbreviations, like units o
measure, do not change to become plural: 1 km
(kilometer)/10 km (kilometers), 1 in. (inch)/6 in.
(inches).
TiP
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noUn Usage
1. books
2. strengths
3. bushes
4. boxes
5. packages
6. choices
7. edges
8. reedoms
9. ogres
10. oxes
11. pencils
12. axes
13. halves
14. chies
15. lives
16. giraes
17. oas
18. shelves
19. snis
20. wives
21. saes
22. wolves
23. monkeys24. libraries
25. candies
26. stories
27. chimneys
28. essays
29. daisies
30. alleys
31. delays
32. amilies
33. dominoes34. radios
35. volcanoes
36. tomatoes
37. torpedoes
38. heroes
39. echoes
40. pianos
41. mosquitoes
42. silos
43. studios
44. six-year-olds
45. go-betweens
46. editors-in-chie
47. runners-up
48. great-grandmothers
49. singer-songwriters
50. sisters-in-law
51. city-states
52. deer
53. women
54. geese
55. children
56. moose
57. mice
58. alumni
59. phenomena60. cacti
61. analyses
62. criteria
63. the actors contract
64. Sabrinas graduation
65. the cars price
66. the houses ront door
67. Matts ball glove
68. writers dictionaries
69. doctors calendars70. ants hills
71. countries islands
72. childrens toys
awr
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27
Pronouns take the place o, or reer to, a specic noun in a sentence. To use pronouns correctly, makesure they agree in gender, number, and person with the noun they are replacing or reerring to (the
antecedent, or reerent noun).
Lesson summaryA pronoun is more than a word that takes the place of a noun.
Learn about pronoun categories and cases, and the importance
of making them agree in number, gender, and person.
P3We were always together, and were requently mistaken or
twins. We shared everything, and on my birthday, gits were
bestowed on him too; on his, upon me. Each had orgotten
the rst person singular o the personal pronoun, and not
until comparatively late in lie did I learn to use I and
me in the place o we and us.
Georg Moritz Ebers
German novelist and Egyptologist (18371898)
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28
Pronouns
G
The English language has three genders: masculine,
eminine, and neuter. A pronouns gender tells i it is
replacing (or reerring to) a masculine, eminine, or
neuter noun. To reer to a male, we use he, his, and
him; to a emale, she, her, and hers; and to animals or
things, itand its.
Examples:
Joseph took Wandas car to the mechanic.
He took her car to the mechanic.
He took it to the mechanic.
In todays society, we are moving away rom gender-
specic titles and using more inclusive words, such aspolice ocer, re ghter, mail carrier, andfight atten-
dant, rather than policeman, reman, mailman, and
stewardess. It is never correct, however, to reer to
people as it, so the pronouns he and she must still be
used when reerring to a particular person.
nmb
A pronoun that takes the place o or reers to a singular
noun (one person, place, or thing) must be singular as
well. The same applies to plural pronouns and nouns.
Examples:
I an employee wants to park in the hospital
parking lot, then he or she must apply or the
appropriate tag to do so.
Employees who need to renew their parking tags
must show their current hospital ID cards.
Words like anybody, anyone, everybody, everyone, each,
neither, nobody, and the like are singular and musttake a singular pronoun:
Everybody must have his or her ID card
validated.
To avoid awkward language, it is sometimes bet-
ter to recast the sentence in the plural:
Employees must have their ID cards validated.
P
English grammar has three persons: rst, second, and
third. First-person pronouns like I, me, we, and us
include the speaker. Second-person pronouns involve
onlyyou,your, andyours. Third-person pronounshe,
she, it, they, them, and so oninclude everybody else.
Examples:
I went with myamily to Yellowstone State Park.
You wouldnt have believed your eyesthe
scenery was amazing.
Doug said he would take photos with his new
camera.
Cg C
Pronouns are divided into ve categories: personal,
demonstrative, relative, indenite, and interrogative,
and our cases: subjective, objective, possessive, and
refexive.
Pl PPersonal pronouns can reer to the speaker or speak-
ers (rst person), or to those being spoken to (second
person), or to those who are spoken about (third
person). The ollowing table shows the subjective casepersonal pronouns, which are pronouns used as the
subject o a sentence.
Subjective caSe PerSonal PronounS
First Person seCond Person third Person
Sg I you he, she, it
P we you they
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Pronouns
In a sentence containing a pronoun, the word the pronoun reers to is called the antecedent.
Example:
Trent is a bricklayer. He builds homes and buildings.
The antecedent or the pronoun he is Trent.
Example:
Lydia took her to the bank.
Because there is no antecedent mentioned or the pronoun her, this sentence is unclear.
Objective case pronouns are used as objects (receivers o action) in a sentence. (See Lesson 11 or more
about objects.) The ollowing table shows the objective case personal pronouns.
The ollowing sentences show how objective case pronouns are used.
Please give me the envelope to put in the mailbox.
Should I send him to boarding school this year or not?
I gaveyou fowers or graduation, remember?
Personal pronouns can also show possessionto whom something belongs. The ollowing table shows the
possessive case personal pronouns.
The ollowing sentences show how possessive case pronouns are used.
This old gray house is mine; the new white one over there is his.
Hers, around the corner, is getting its roo replaced. Myroo probably needs replacing soon. Our neighbors
are getting their driveway repaved.
Remember,youris a possessive pronoun andyoure is a
contraction meaning you are. Try not to confuse the
two inyoure-mails or other thingsyoure writing!
tiP
Lastly, refexive case pronouns, sometimes called selsh pronouns, are used to show a subject perorming
some kind o action upon itsel. Refexive pronouns can act only as objects in a sentence, never as subjects. The
ollowing table shows the refexive case personal pronouns.
objective caSe PerSonal PronounS
First Person seCond Person third Person
Sg me you him, her, it
P us you them
PoSSeSSive caSe PerSonal PronounS
First Person seCond Person third Person
Sg my, mine your, yours his, her, hers, its
P our, ours your, yours their, theirs
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30
Pronouns
The ollowing sentences show how refexive pronouns
are used. Notice that they are used only as objects.
He cut himsel on the edge o the can while
opening it.
It was obvious they thought o themselves as
experts.
The computerized car drove itsel during the
demonstration.
PcticIdentiy the case o the boldaced pronouns in each o
the sentences.
1. Marcy had obviously orgotten when her term
report was due.
2. I wore the weirdest vampire costume to the Hal-
loween party.
3. It is really none o my business, he mumbled.
4. She likes their ruit salad best.
5. It was supposed to rain again; the weather has
been dreary lately.
6. Kenneth turned the corner recklessly in his new
car and scratched it.
7. The squirrel balanced itselon the tree branch
high above me.
8. Riley took his book and placed it on the table
next to him.9. He applied or a credit card online today and
theyapproved him.
10. Liza had to buyhersela new pair o glasses
because her sister accidentally sat on them and
broke them.
Dttiv PThe our demonstrative pronounsthis, that, these,
and thosereer to things in relation to number and
distance. These pronouns can act as a subject or an
object, as the ollowing table shows.
Demonstrative pronouns look like this in sentences:
This tastes awul, Mom!
I should take these and give them to Shelly.
Those are his, not yours.
I want that or my collection.
rltiv PThe relative pronounsthat, which, who,and whom
relate (or reer back) to another noun that precedes it
in the sentence, and introduce clauses that describe
earlier nouns or pronouns.
Examples:
I own the boat that won the race.
The manwho drove it is my best riend, Jack.He is someone on whom I rely or skill and
expertise.
We have entered into the next race, which is on
Friday.
DemonStrative PronounS
sinGular Plural
n this theseF that those
reFlexive caSe PerSonal PronounS
First Person seCond Person third Person
Sg myself yourself himself, herself, itself
P ourselves yourselves themselves
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Pronouns
Here are some examples o how indenite pronouns
are used in sentences.
Both amilies took their daughters camping in
Jackson Hole, Wyoming.
Each girl brought her journal with her.
All o the campers are expected to keep their sites
litter-ree.
Itgtiv PInterrogative pronouns are pronouns that begin
questions: who, whom, whose, which, and what.
Examples:
Who put the milk in the reezer?
What is the sum o 12 and 31?
Towhom does this black jacket belong?
Which direction do I head to get to Spring
Lake?
Whose pen is on the foor over there?
When these pronouns are not acting as interrogative
pronouns, they also play the roles o relative and per-sonal pronouns in sentences.
Notice that who and whom reer to a person, while
which and thatreer to things. Use thatto signiy inor-
mation that is necessary (restrictive) to the meaning o
the sentence, and which to signiy inormation that is
discretionary (nonrestrictive), in that even i it isremoved, the meaning o the sentence is not altered.
Heres an easy way to remember whether to use
who or whom: use who when youd use she or
he andwhomwhen youd use heror him. Exam-
ples: Who is calling? She is. To whom should I
give the letter? To him!
tiP
inDeFinite PronounS
sinGular Plural Both
another anyone no one both all
anybody anything nobody few most
everyone everybody one many none
everything nothing someone several some
each either somebody
something
Idfiit PIndefnite pronouns reer to unspecied people, places, or things. Some indenite pronouns are always singular,
some are always plural, and others can be both, depending on what or whom theyre reerring to. See the ollow-
ing table or the classications.
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Pronouns
PcticDetermine whether the boldaced pronoun is demon-
strative, relative, indenite, or interrogative.
11.No one is supposed to be going.
12.That is the best idea Ive heard all day.
13. The supervisor gave her the Monroe account
that needed immediate attention.
14.Whose idea was it to paint the deck red?
15. Chris told me that somebodysaw someone on
your bike.
16. It was Gregwho called our house at two oclockthis morning.
17. Ino one helps anybody, then what is the point
o continuing?
18.What can I say? I planned this rom the get-go.
19. Ever since last year, ewhave stayed on, except
or Charlie.
20. They played the team that had a horrible losing
streak, and lost.
aw
1.her: possessive
2.I: subjective
3.It: subjective
4.She: subjective; their: objective
5.It: subjective
6.his: possessive; it: objective
7.itsel: refexive; me: objective
8.his: possessive; it: objective; him: objective
9.He: subjective; they: subjective; him: objective
10.hersel: refexive; her: possessive; them, them:
objective
11.No one: indenite
12.That: demonstrative
13.that: relative
14.Whose: interrogative
15.somebody: indenite; someone: indenite
16.who: relative
17.no one: indenite; anybody: indenite
18.What: interrogative; this: demonstrative
19.ew: indenite
20.that: relative
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Verbs are doing words that are a necessary part o any sentence. This chapter covers three types overbs: action verbs, linking verbs, and helping verbs. As you can tell, they all do something!Action V
Most action verbs represent a visible action, one that can be seen with our eyes. For example, waltz, surf,gallop,chop, row, swing, andpunch are action verbs.
Identiying such doing words in a sentence is generally easy. But some action verbs are more dicult to
identiy because the action is ar less obvious, as in depend,yearn,foresee, understand, consider, require, mean,
remember, and suppose. It is helpul to remember that mentalverbs are action verbs too, even though they are
less visible than the others.
Lesson summary
Some action and linking verbs look the same. Learn how to tell the
difference, and get some help with helping verbs along the way.
V T4After the verb to love, to help is the most beautiful verb
in the world.
Bertha von Suttner, Austrian writer, pacist, and rst
woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize (18431914)
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Verb Types
When compiling a resume, always use strong
action verbs to describe your school and work
experiences. Words like developed, created,
improved, coached, volunteered, documented,
and achieved catch the eye of a prospective
employer.
Tip
Pctic
Identiy the action verbs in the ollowing sentences.
1. I assumed that you would bring your swimsuit
because the invitation stated pool party.2. As I walked home, I noticed a box o abandoned
kittens on the sidewalk.
3. Many people have the ill-conceived notion that
natural means pesticide-ree.
4. They will close the theater or two weeks while
workers install the new seats.
5. Lets go downtown and spend some time at the
museum.
6. Alexs laptop wouldnt reboot ater the unexpected
power surge at the oce earlier in the day.
7. Brush corn on the cob with butter and salt, wrap
it in heavy-duty aluminum oil, and roast it on
the grill or a delicious treat.
linking V
Unlike the action verb, the linking verb expresses a
state o being or a condition. Specically, it links, or
connects, a noun with an adjective (a descriptor) or
another noun (an identier) in a sentence.
Example:
Nathan and Sara are hardworking students.
The noun students identies or renames the com-
pound subjects,Nathan and Sara; hardworkingis an
adjective describing the noun students; and the verb
are links the two components together.
Example:
Collinwas tired ater his gol game.
The adjective tired describes the subject, Collin, and
the verb was links the two components together.
Some linking verbs can be tricky to identiy
because they appear to be action verbs. Their job in
the sentence is to clariy the condition or state o the
noun to which they are connected. The verbs in the
ollowing list can act not only as action verbs, but also
as linking verbs.
appear become eel grow look
prove remain seem smell sound
stay taste come lie prove
act turn all get
How can one tell which role these tricky verbs are
playing? Lets take a look at the word turned, used in
two dierent ways.
The Ferris wheel turned slowly as it began its
initial rotation.
Here, the Ferris wheel perormed an action: It turned.
Can you visualize the huge wheel slowly rotating, with
the riders in the cars, as it warms up? The word turned
here is an action-oriented verb. Lets look at another
example:
One rightened rider turned green as the ride
began to speed up quickly.
Here, the word turned connects the describing word,
or adjectivegreento the subjectrider. In this
example, turned is acting as a linking verb, not an
action verb.
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37
Verb Types
One easy way to tell whether a verb is an actionverb or a linking verb is to replace the verb in question
with a verb orm obe (rom the preceding table), or a
linking verb like seemed or became. I the new sentence
still makes sense, then you have a linking verb. I the
sentence loses its meaning, then you have an action
verb. For instance:
The armer grewseveral prize-winning tomatoes
this season.
Lets replacegrew with is:
The armer is several prize-winning tomatoes
this season.
Or, lets use the word seemed:
The armer seemed several prize-winning toma-
toes this season.
Neither choice works, which means that grew is an
action verb, not a linking verb, in this sentence.
Lets try another example.
The bee stew we had or dinner tasted delicious.
This time, lets replace tasted with was:
The bee stew we had or dinner was delicious.
Or, lets use the word looked:
The bee stew we had or dinner looked delicious.
Both choices make sense, because in this sentence
tasted is a linking verb, not an action verb.
Pctic
Determine whether the boldaced verbs in the ollow-
ing sentences are action or linking verbs.
8. It appears that the only solution to this
problem is starting over, said Trudy.
9. The group appears dismayed at that prospect,
she thought to hersel.
10. Dennis was asked to prove beyond a shadow o a
doubt that the butler did it.
11. There was no doubt in his adversarys mind that
his argument would prove aulty.
12. The sign says to staybehind the line when
viewing the work o art.
13. We stayed quiet while the tour guide explained
the painting.
14. We tasted the orange sherbet and ordered a pint
to take home.
15. We decided that it tasted delicious.
Common Helping Verbs
a a wa w d d dd
hav had ha ay ht ut ha w ca
hud wud cud uht
linking Verbs
a a wa w
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38
Verb Types
Hing V
Helping verbs enhance the main verbs meaning by
providing us with more inormation about its tense.
A main verb may have as many as three helping
verbs in ront o it in a sentence.
Examples:
Martinwalked quickly to the bus stop to avoid
being late.
Martin had walked quickly to the bus stop to
avoid being late.
Martin must have walked quickly to the bus stop
to avoid being late.
A main verb with helping verbs is called a verb
phrase. It is important to remember that a helping
verb need not be right next to the main verb in the
sentence. For instance, we could rewrite the last sen-
tence so that the adverb quicklyseparates the helping
verbs mustand have rom the main verb walked.
Example:
Martin must have quicklywalked to the bus stopto avoid being late.
I you were asked to identiy the verb phrase, you
would eliminate the adverb quicklyand give must have
walked as the answer.
The range o a verb phrase is dened as both the
main verb plus its auxiliaries, as previously explained,
and the main verb plus its auxiliaries, its comple-
ments, and other modiers. So some instructorsmight expect you to identiy the previous verb phrase
as must have walked quickly to the bus stop.
Pctic
Identiy the verb phrases in the ollowing sentences.
16. We could have driven to the city, but we took
the train instead.
17. Nancy would not have thrown the paper away i
she had known it was important.
18. William had already read the book twice, so he
must have easily discussed it with the teacher.
19. Next time, i you should need help, please eel
ree to ask. I would be very happy to help.
20. The dealer will go to the fea market to nd good
antique deals.
21. I didnt realize that she had already gone;
otherwise, I would have given her the moneyearlier.
22. The skier might have won the race had she not
gotten her pole stuck in the snow.
Anw 1. assumed, bring, stated
2.walked, noticed
3.means
4.close, install
5.go, spend
6.reboot
7.Brush, wrap, roast
8.action
9.linking
10.action
11.linking
12.action
13. linking
14.action
15.linking
16.could have driven
17.would have thrown, had known
18.had read, must have discussed
19.should need, would be
20.will go
21. did realize, had gone, would have given
22.might have won, had gotten
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Most, but not all, verbs ollow a simple and predictable pattern when expressing past action. Theseverbs, called regular verbs, can be changed rom the present tense to the past tense by simplyadding -ed or -d.Example:
Those musicians playjazz well. But last evening, they surprised the crowd and played some blues.
Irregular verbs, on the other hand, do not ollow any pattern when orming the past tense, so they require
memorization.
Example:
Put the tennis racquets away in the storage bin, please, said Coach. I put them away already, replied
Kevin.
Here, the irregular verbputstays the same whether it is past or present. Some other verbs that ollow suit are
cost, burst, bid, cut, and set.
On the ollowing pages, youll fnd a list o common irregular verbs.
Lesson summary
Become better acquainted with the pesky past-tense verbs that
do not end with -ed, and learn about proper usage with tricky
verbs such as lay/lie and sit/set.
Rr IrrrVr5
Theyve a temper, some o themparticularly verbs: theyre
the proudestadjectives you can do anything with, but not
verbshowever, I can manage the whole lot o them!
Lewis Carroll, British author, mathematician, and
clergyman (18321898)
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RegulaR and IRRegulaR VeRbs
CoMMon Irregular Verbs
PResent Past Past PaRtIcIPle
be was/were been
beat beat beaten
become became become
begin began begun
bite bit bitten
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
broadcast broadcast broadcast
build built built
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
cost cost cost
cut cut cut
do did done
draw drew drawn
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
all ell allen
eed ed ed
eel elt elt
ght ought ought
nd ound ound
fy few fown
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RegulaR and IRRegulaR VeRbs
CoMMon Irregular Verbs (Continued)
PResent Past Past PaRtIcIPle
orbid orbade orbidden
orget orgot orgotten
orgive orgave orgiven
reeze roze rozen
get got gotten
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
hang hung hung
have had had
hear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
learn learned/learnt learned/learnt
leave let let
lend lent lent
let let let
lie lay lain
light lit lit
lose lost lost
make made made
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RegulaR and IRRegulaR VeRbs
CoMMon Irregular Verbs (Continued)
PResent Past Past PaRtIcIPle
mean meant meant
meet met met
mistake mistook mistaken
mow mowed mowed/mown
pay paid paid
prooread prooread prooread
put put put
quit quit quit
read read read
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
sew sewed sewed/sewn
shake shook shaken
shave shaved shaved/shaven
shine shone shone
shoot shot shot
show showed showed/shown
shrink shrank shrunk
shut shut shut
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RegulaR and IRRegulaR VeRbs
CoMMon Irregular Verbs (Continued)
PResent Past Past PaRtIcIPle
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid/slidden
speak spoke spoken
speed speeded/sped speeded/sped
spend spent spent
spread spread spread
spring sprang sprung
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stung stung
strike struck struck/stricken
strive strove striven/strived
swear swore sworn
swim swam swum
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
understand understood understood
upset upset upset
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RegulaR and IRRegulaR VeRbs
If this list seems way too long to memorize, try
memorizing three or four words a day and use
them somewhere in conversation during the
next 24-hour period!
TIp
Pctic
Determine whether the boldaced verb in the sentenceis correct. Make any necessary corrections.
1. Tomorrow, wewill left early in the morning or
the airport.
2. Mr. Brown, our neighbor, spend the weekend
cleaning his pool.
3. The sun shine brightly all day today.
4. I was beginning to has second thoughts about
quitting.
5. We arewatched the game rom the privacy o
the box.
6. For now, wewill head north, then east.
7. Mom sewn me a new set o placemats or the
picnic table each summer.
8. When I was little, I was oten mistookor my
twin sister.
9. Yesterday, our band practiced at Joes house.
10. The vegetables or tonights dinner have already
been cutted.
CoMMon Irregular Verbs (Continued)
PResent Past Past PaRtIcIPle
wk wk wk
w w w
w wt wt
wi w w
wid wd wd
wit wt witt
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RegulaR and IRRegulaR VeRbs
To lie means to rest or recline or to be positioned. Instead
o a noun, a prepositional phrase or an adverb usually
ollows the verb to complete the sentence or thought.
Example:
The large old oak tree lies at the edge o the feld.
The cattle have lain in its shade or over a
century.
In these sentences, the prepositional phrases at the
edge, o the feld, in its shade, and or over a century
clariy the writers thought.
Lie/layare intransitive verbsthey dont need to
act on anything. You lie down now, or, you lay
down last night. Just you. But lay/laidare transitive
verbsthey need some object to manipulate. Youcan laya blanket on the bedin fact, last night
you laidone there!
TIp
Pctic
In each sentence, select the correct orm o the verb
layor lie.
11. Sylvia has (laid, lain) on the soa all aternoon in
despair.
12. The broken bottle (lay, laid) at the side o the
road unnoticed.
13. Jason should fnd his camera (laying, lying) in
the back o his closet.
14. The old dog has (lain, laid) on the ront porch
every day or years.
15. Bianca (lay, laid) her scissors on the counter and
picked up the brush.
16. The new bride and her groom (lie, lay) their
wedding photos on the table.
17. Grandma complained she had (laid, lain) awake
or hours beore alling asleep last night.
18. Thom (laid, lain) the racquet on the bench and
went to get a cool drink o water.
19. Dad says he is (laying, lying) new carpet in the
den next Wednesday.
20. The map shows that the treasure chest is (laying,
lying) just below this rock.
Prm Vr
Conjugating irregular verbs can be a bit challenging. But there are two pairs o irregular verbs that present an
additional challenge because they sound alike, even though they do not mean the same thing: lay/lie and set/sit.
To laymeans toplace or putan object somewhere. This object, a noun, must always ollow the verb lay, making
that noun what we call a direct objectthe object that directly receives the action rom the verb it ollows.
Example:
Martin laid the blanket on the grass beore layingthe basket o delicious ood on it.
lay or lIe
PResent PResent PaRtIcIPle Past Past PaRtIcIPle
, (am, is, are, was) i id (have, has) id
PResent PResent PaRtIcIPle Past Past PaRtIcIPle
i, i (am, is, are, was) i (have, has) i
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RegulaR and IRRegulaR VeRbs
To sitmeans to be situated or to be seated or resting.
Like the verb lie, it is usually ollowed by a preposi-
tional phrase or an adverb or urther clarifcation.
Example:
I usuallysit in the ront row o the theater or an
unobstructed view o the perormance. When
I have sat urther back, I ound I could not see
the actors well.
Pctic
In each sentence, select the correct orm o the verb set
or sit.
21. The audience (set, sat) patiently as the stage crew
changed the scene.
22. My avorite photograph o my cat Milo (sits,
sets) on my dresser.
23. (Setting, Sitting) good examples or younger
children is important.
24. I was told to (set, sit) my empty glass in the
sink.
25. Four students (set, sat) their reports on my desk
beore the due date.
26. Hotel rooms oten have a rack to (set, sit) your
luggage on.
27. There are many trophies (setting, sitting) in the
case by the ront lobby.
28. The owner (set, sat) the pool umbrellas around
the acility beore opening.
29. Jane and Robert are (setting, sitting) together at
the table chatting.
30. The winding river (sets, sits) just at the oot othe hills.
To setmeans toplace or putan object somewhere. Like the verb lay, it must be ollowed by a noun.
Example:
A harried young mother sets her groceries on the counter and tends to her crying son. She has set a pillow
on the soa or his nap.
PResent PResent PaRtIcIPle Past Past PaRtIcIPle
it, it (am, is, are, was) itti t (have, has) t
seT or sIT
PResent PResent PaRtIcIPle Past Past PaRtIcIPle
t, t (am, is, are, was) tti t (have, has) t
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RegulaR and IRRegulaR VeRbs
ohr triky Vr
Several other verbs need special attention in order to
be used correctly.
Most likely, acceptand exceptare oten misused
because they sound somewhat alike. Their meanings,
however, are very dierent. To accept means to
approve, agree, or willingly receive, whereas exceptis
really a preposition that means excluding or unless.
Example:
I would accept your apology or being late today,
but except or yesterday, you have been late
every day this week.
I youre still conused about whether to except or
accept, remember that when you agree to, or accept,
something, you are CC-ing eye-to-eye with some-
one; when you make an exception, you are X-cluding
something in that agreement.
Another pair o verbs oten conused in ordinary
speech is can and may.
Can means having the ability to do something.
When you sayCan I help you?what youre really ask-
ing is whether you have the abilityto help this person.(Unless youre completely indisposed in some way,
the question leads one to wonder why you would ask
it in the frst place!)
May, on the other hand, means having permis-
sion to do something. When you sayMay I help you?
you are asking someone to allow you to help him or
her.
Example:
I can help you rake leaves this aternoon onlyater I fnish my other chores. MayI help you
with it tomorrow instead?
The verbs hang and lie are unusual because
they can be either regular or irregular, depending on
their meaning in a sentence. Ihangreers to a thie
going to the gallows, then it is a regular verb, and is
conjugated hang, hanged, hanged. But i it is used inthe sense o hanging out with riends or hanging a
picture on the wall, then it is an irregular verb, and
is conjugated hang, hung, hung. Similarly, when lie
means telling an untruth, its a regular verb, conju-
gated lie, lied, lied. When it means to recline, it is an
irregular verb, which we conjugated earlier in this
lesson.
Pctic
In each sentence, select the correct verb to complete
the sentence.
31. I said I was sorry, but she just wouldnt (accept,
except) my apology!
32. My brother and I (hanged, hung) posters all over
town about our yard sale.
33. I loved the movie, (except, accept) or the part
with the snakes. I really hate snakes!
34. You (can, may) have a third helping o mashed
potatoes i you like.
35. Without hesitation, the king sentenced the
criminal to be (hung, hanged).
36. (Can, May) the clown walk the tightrope without
the umbrella?
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RegulaR and IRRegulaR VeRbs
1. incorrect,will leave
2. incorrect, spent3. incorrect, shone
4. incorrect, have
5. incorrect,watching
6.correct
7. incorrect, sewed
8. incorrect, mistaken
9.correct
10. incorrect, cutting
11. lain
12. lay13. lying
14. lain
15. laid
16. lay
17. lain
18. laid
19. laying
20. lying21.sat
22.sits
23.Setting
24.set
25.set
26.set
27.sitting
28.set
29.sitting
30.sits31.accept
32.hung
33.except
34.may
35.hanged
36.Can
awr
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When we speak and write, verb tenses help our listeners and readers understand when somethingis happening. The tricky thing is to remember to be consistent with your verb tenses so youraudience does not get conused. In order to use verb tenses properly, we need to really under-stand the dierences between the our basic verb orms o the English language.
V F
Verb orms may look similar to tenses, but they are not. Learning the ollowing basic orms, or principal parts,
will help you use correct verb tenses later in this lesson.
Lesson summary
Since every sentence needs a verb, it is essential to have a basic
understanding of the four verb forms so you can use verb tenses
properly. This lesson covers not only the four forms, but verb
tenses from basic to perfect to progressive!
V F
T6The uture is an unknown, but a somewhat predictable un-
known. To look to the uture we must frst look back upon
the past. That is where the seeds o the uture were planted.
I never think o the uture. It comes soon enough.
Albert Einstein, German scientist and recipient o the
1921 Nobel Prize in Physics (18791955)
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Verb Forms and Tenses
PtThe present orm o a verb is usually the rst entry
you nd in a dictionary (e.g., care,orgive, mean, etc.).
Sometimes an -s is added to the end o the present
orm o the verb when it is used in conjunction with a
singular noun: she cares, he orgives, it means.
Pt Pticipl
The present participle is made by adding the sux
-ingto the present orm; it is always accompanied by
a be verb (see Lesson 5), which acts as a helping verb,
orming what is called a verb phrase: am caring, is
orgiving, were thinking. Notice that this verb orm
expresses action that is ongoing.
PtThe past orm o a verb shows action or existence that
has already taken place at a point in time beore now
(e.g., she cared, they orgave, he thought). Remember
that all regular verbs end in -ed in the past tense,
whereas irregular verbs end in a variety o ways.
Pt Pticipl
The past participle o a verb consists o its past orm,
accompanied by the helping verb have, has, or had
(e.g., have cared, has orgiven, had thought, etc.). This
is true o both regular and irregular verbs.
Some RegulaR VeRb FoRmS
PresenT PresenT ParTiciPle* PasT PasT ParTiciPle**
care, cares am caring cared have cared
yell, yells are yelling yelled have yelled
Some IRRegulaR VeRb FoRmS
PresenT PresenT ParTiciPle* PasT PasT ParTiciPle**
think, thinks was thinking thought have thought
grow, grows were growing grew has grown
IRRegulaR VeRbS WhoSe FoRm DoeS Not ChaNgePresenT PresenT ParTiciPle* PasT