DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 119 312 EA 007 948

TITLE

INSTITUTIONPUB DATENOTE

Exploring Energy Conservation in EducationalFacilities. Annual Conference (6th, Knoxville, Tenn.,January 22, 1975, Jackson, Tenn., January 23, 1975,Nashville, Tenn., January 24, 1975).Tennessee Univ., Knoxville. School Planning Lab.7537p.; Photographs may reproduce poorly

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.83 HC-$2106 Plus PostageDESCRIPTORS *Climate Control; *Educational Facilities;

Electricity; *Energy Conservation; Heating;Illumination Levels; Legislation; Maintenance; SchoolImprovement; *School Planning; *Solar Radiation;Standards

IDENTIFIERS Tennessee

ABSTRACTThese papers presented to educators within the state

of Tennessee represent the latest thinking regarding techniques forlong-range energy conservation when planning and constructing schoolfacilities. The current and future availability of energy sources issummarized. Some of the wasteful practices consumers andmanufacturers have practiced are cited and suggestions made forimprovement. Codes and standards related to energy use in buildingsare followed by some findings of energy usage studies includingillumination levels, solar energy, and ventilation. Three completedsolar heating projects are described. The final paper gives someadvice for the operation and maintenance of heating andair-conditioning equipment and a systematic lighting maintenanceprogram. (MLF)

***********************************************************************Documents acquired by ERIC include many informal unpublished

* materials not available from other sources. ERIC makes every effort ** to obtain the best copy available. Nevertheless, items of marginal *

* reproducibility are often encountered and this affects the quality *

* of the microfiche and hardcopy reproductions ERIC makes available *

* via the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS). EDRS is not* responsible for the quality of the original document. Reproductions ** supplied by ;DRS are the best that can be made from the original.***********************************************************************

EXPLORINGCONSERVATION IN

EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES

SIXTH ANNUAL CONFERENCEThe School Planning LaboratoryCollege of EducationThe University of Tennessee

BEST COPY AVAABLE

Full Ventilation Cooling.

:0

,30

YJ

SJ

I

Refriaeration Cooling.

3

THE SCHOOL PLANNINGLABORATORY

THE UNIVERSITY OFTENNESSEE /KNOXVILLE

Dr. Charles E. Trotter, Jr./DirectorDr. Gordon Irwin/Associate Director

Dr. Gary Dutton/Research AssociateDr. Edward Streeter/Research AssociateMr. Reginald Teague/Research Associate

Mr. Barry Burton/Research AssistantMr. Jim Louwers/Research AssistantMs. Anna Dubov/Administrative AssistantMs. Suzanne Sissom/Administrative Assistant

Ms. Peggy Leland/Administrative Assistant

CONFERENCE SPONSORS

THE SCHOOL PLANNING LABORATORYCOLLEGE OF EDUCATIONTHE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE

in cooperation withDEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEEEDUCATIONAL_ FACILITIES LABORATORIES, INC.ENERGY TASK FORCE - SUPT. STUDY COUNCILRESEARCH COORDINATING UNIT FOR VOC. EDUC.

THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEETENNESSEE ENERGY OFFICETENNESSEE SCHOOL BOARD ASSOCIATIONTENNESSEE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONTENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY

EXPLORING ENERGYCONSERVATION INEDUCATIONAL FACILITIES

NlSIXTH ANNUAL CONFERENCEJANUARY 22, 1975 AT KNOXVILLE, TENNESSEEJANUARY 23, 1975 AT JACKSON, TENNESSEEJANUARY 24, 1975 AT NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE

THE SCHOOL PLANNING LABORATORYCOLLEGE OF EDUCATIONTHE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE

4

PARTICIPANTSCONFERENCE DIRECTOR

Dr. Charles E. Trotter, Jr.Director, School Planning LaboratoryThe University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Mr. BartY BurtonMr. Ji,m,,LouwersMs. Suzanne Sissom

SPEAKERSMr. William R. WalkerSuperintendent of SchoolsBradley County SchoolsCleveland, Tennessee

Mr. Billy J. StevensSuperintendent of SchoolsDecatur County SchoolsDecaturville, Tennessee

Mr. Doyle GainesSuperintendent of SchoolsMacon County SchoolsLafayette, Tennessee

Mr. Carroll V. KroegerDirectorTennessee Energy OfficeNashville, Tennessee

Mr. Lawrence G. SpielvogelPresidentLawrence G. Spielvogel, Inc.Wyncote HouseWyncote, Pennsylvania

Dr. John H. GibbonsDirectorEnvironmental CenterThe University of TennesseeKnoxville, Tennessee

Dr. John B. DicksDirectorEnergy Conversion DivisionThe University of TennesseeTullahoma, Tennessee

Mr. Richard G. Stein, FAIARichard G. Stein and Associates,Architects588 Fifth AvenueNew York, New York

Mr. Edward StephanDirector, Federal EnergyManagement ProgramFederal Energy Administration12th and Pennsylvania Ave., NWWashington, D.C.

Mr. Charles H. PattersonCommercial SpecialistDivision of Power MarketingTennessee Valley AuthorityChattanooga, Tennessee

5

CONTENTS

Foreword 4

The Problem 6

A Look at Energy Now 7

A Look at Energy in the Future 10Energy Demand and Conservation 13

Codes and Standards Related toEnergy Use in Buildings 16

Low Energy Utilization School 23Solar Heating for Buildings 27Operation and Maintenance of Facilities 29

These proceedings were developed from audio tapes,written notes taken by the recorder and printed submit-tals from participants.

3

FOREWORD

Since the founding of the School Planning Laboratory(SPL) in 1961 at The University of Tennessee, the SPL hascollaborated with some 260 rural and suburban schoolsystems in twenty-four states and has served as theconsultant in over 500 new school buildings, involvingsome 750 architects and engineers. The total cost of theseprojects easily exceeds one-half billion dollars.

The SPL staff has attempted to carry out three basic re-sponsibilities in the field of educational facilities:

1. Coordinate and assist schools and colleges in thestudy and resolution of their educational facility prob-lems.

2. Promote and conduct workshops and institutesand confer with educators, architects, engineers, andcommunity leaders concerned with the planning andimprovement of educational facilities.

3. Serve as a clearinghouse for the dissemination ofdata collected on new building concepts, equipment, andrelated facilities.

During this period several thousand persons have alsovisited the headquarters of the Laboratory to acquirebetter understanding of new school facilities,construction, and the renovation of old ones. In additionto these actual visitations, several thousand mail inquirieshave been serviced by the Laboratory during this sameperiod.

THE ENERGY CRISISOur country is facing a severe shortage of energy. The

shortage could result in a stunning blow to our nation un-less all of us begin now to practice energy conservation.Until American technology develops new energy sourcesand we can practically put them to use, we must morewisely utilize our available energy resources.

Many short term energy conservation programs havebeen suggested and their educational impact is difficult toassess. For example, we know that disadvantaged chil-dren tend to have a much greater retention loss duringlong vacations, apparently because of the differences ineducational support provided in their homes. The timingof school closing, should be matched to the teaching

4

7

cycle to minimize this effect. Closing mid-way through aterm or semester would cause greater educational lossthan closing between semesters.

The financial impact of any proposed school closingmust be considered. Schools will presumably continue tomeet State requirements to provide a minimum number ofschool days during the year (approximately 180). Mostteacher contracts will probably require that teachers bepaid during any winter closing, and then receiveadditional pay for the new school days added during theSpring or Summer. Closing schools for four additionalweeks during the Winter would then add approximately10% to school costs for the year. This will further burdenschool budgets which have already been increased toaccommodate higher fuel costs.

Significant ripple effects may occur if energyshortages result in prolonged school closures. I n additionto potential impairment of the educational progress ofstudents, extended school closures will place extremelysevere strains on the social and income maintenancesystems and services in which the schools and theirstudents, faculties and parents are involved. Day carecenters can expect an immediate and significant increasein demand from single-headed families or families inwhich both parents work, and for which the school hastherefore served a custodial as well as an educationalfunction. These parents will be faced with a choice ofleaving their jobs or finding alternative supervision fortheir children. To the extent that some parents will be un-able to find day care openings, unemployment compensa-tion and income maintenance expenses of the State andFederal governments will increase. School based socialservices will also suffer: for example, alternative meansmust be found for providing the nutritional servicesoperated through the school lunch and breakfastprograms, and job retraining and career educationservices offered by many communities through theirschool systems.

Other alternatives may be less detrimental to the con-tinuity of the learning process. For example, consolidationof functions in some buildings or parts of buildings, whileclosing others, can save fuel and at the same time

continue most school functions. Split-sessions havefrequently been used when there was a shortage of schoolfacilities. Such sessions could be used again to saveenergy.

Change in operational procedures can save fuel in avariety of ways. Thermostats can be turned down, and aneven greater night setback established in buildings notused for essential educational functions during eveninghours. The efficiency of heating plants can be increasedby careful maintenance. Measures'can be taken to reduceheat loss (closing vents, keeping doors closed, installingstorm windows); light can be reduced in many areas.

Educators must cope with the energy shortage in amanner which will provide quality educational programsas well as meet the social and economic needs of a com-munity. The quality of instruction must not be sacrificedsimply to meet energy needs. Long-range planning isneeded to face the energy problem without losing sight ofthe purposes of pducational programs.

Uncertainty about the future is now the most difficultproblem facing educational decision-makers. Many effec-tive energy conservation measures available to schoolsrequire advance planning. It is also quite possible thatlegislation and policy regulations may be instituted tocope with the real problems posed by the energy crisis. Itis with these thoughts in mind that the School PlanningLaboratory presents to educators within the State ofTennessee the latest thinking regarding techniques forlong-range energy conservation when planning andconstructing school facilities.

Dr. Charles E. Trotter, Jr.DirectorSchool Planning LaboratoryThe University of TennesseeKnoxville, Tennessee

8 5

THE PROBLEM

For years Tennessee school buildings have been con-structed without serious consideration being given totheir insulating qualities. This was a result of the theorythat added cost for heating fuel was less than the cost ofinsulation. It is also a result of being in a borderline area sofar as severe heat or cold is concerned. School systemsundertaking the task of insulating all facilities now, couldrequire a capital expenditure which would not be readilyacceptable to the taxpayer.

School administrators have diligently searched for amore economical way to heat and cool new construction.Up to this point, electricity, oil, gas, and coal have been theonly available sources. Now that they all appear to be inshort supply, it has been stated that the effective use ofsolar energy is still 20 years away. By implementing all thepoints of the Tennessee State Board of Education'sresolution on energy conservation it is hoped to achieve a10 per cent reduction in consumption. This is less thanone half the conservation effort that has been suggestedas a minimum requirement.

One problem is that our society has really been spoiledcut the thermostats to 68° in all classrooms except the

one where my child spends his time he has bronchitis,tonsilitis, asthma, or is simply sensitive to cold.

Then there is the "credibility gap". Energy experts sayour coal supply will be used up by the year 2000. Mr. Nadertells us his geological reports indicate we have enough tolast for centuries and centuries but he is opposed to usingit until we can make it burn without smoke. Other expertsadvise us that if it requires X amount of natural gas to heata building, it takes 3 times that amount of gas to generateenough electricity to heat the same building.

And then there is the question of another "scare"? Ma-jor electrical distributors are already advising the publicthat they can relax. Has there been an error in the estab-lishment of priorities? Some say there is a sufficienturanium supply to meet all civilian and military needs forthe next 15 years. For too long school people have met tostomp out fires while doing little in the preventive,conservation or long range planning areas.

Local school budgets submitted for adoption lastspring or summer have been bombarded by several stateprograms that dictated major adjustments. Now many are

6 9

face to face with the reality that funds budgeted for heat-ing, cooling, and transporting energies might be

completely exhausted prior to completion of the fiscalyear.

Everyone is aware of the present natural gas curtail-ments. Hearings are underway by the Federal Power Com-mission in Washington to determine if the reasons givenfor the shortage are valid. The Superintendent's StudyCouncil on behalf of the Governor and in cooperation withthe Public Service Commission and electric powerdistributors are participating in these hearings. Even ifsuccessful in obtaining some relief, one should recognizethat it will be temporary. It appears there simply is notenough natural gas to meet our present needs, let aloneaccommodate future growth. A recent report by the FPCpresents a realistic assessment of the natural gas supplysituation.

CONCLUSIONSA significant point that emerges from the analysis is

that conventional U.S. gas production has reached itspeak and will be declining for the indefinite future. Thisreverses a long historical record of growth and introducesa new dimension to the gas shortage. It is no longer simplya matter of gas supply failing to meet increasingrequirements. It means that from here on everyone mustmake do with less gas in absolute terms. This is inevitableregardless of the size of the U.S, undiscovered natural gasresource base. However, the unresolved questionconcerning the extent of our undiscovered resource basehas a direct bearing on the rate at which future productionwill decline. The federal government should thereforeimmediately undertake, or sponsor, an objective, in-depthexamination of this matter in order to develop morereliable information in this critical area.

Programs designed to cope with declining productionand to ameliorate the consequences of increased relianceon supplemental supplies must therefore include:

1. Mandatory natural gas conservation measuresby Federal, State and local jurisdictions,for all uses of gas, including residential.

2. Allocation of gas by Federal, State and localjurisdictions to high priority and uses, such asresidential, small commercial and essentialpetrochemical and specialized industrial usesfor which no other fuel is available.

The hour is very late. The time for action is now.

Mr. William R. Walker, Supt.Bradley County SchoolsCleveland, Tennessee

Mr. Billy J. Stevens, Supt.Decatur County SchoolsDecaturville, Tennessee

Mr. Doyle Gaines, Supt.Macon County SchoolsLafayette, Tennessee

10

A LOOK AT ENERGY NOW

Alvin Toff ler wrote a book many have probably read. Itwas entitled Future Shock. It was so popular that the titlephrase has become part of our language. Toffler defined"future shock" as the disorientation, and inability to dealrationally with our environment, which stems from agreatly accelerated rate of change in society. There ishardly a better example, in our everyday lives, of thischange, and the confusion it causes, than that set ofconditions known generally as the Energy Crisis.

It was about two years ago that the phrase first enteredpublic consciousness. One year ago the Arab oil embargobrought home its meaning with an impact which couldnever be equalled by articles in the Sunday newspaper ortelevision documentaries. At the same time other moresubtle forces influencing our energy situation began tohave an effect. It was found that energy in any of itscommon forms was becoming more scarce and, of course,more expensive. People became, as Toffler described,disoriented by rapid change. Having to wait in line to buygasoline, being told that the next time one flips the switchthe light may not go on, or that jobs might be lost becauseof natural gas curtailments were unsettling, to say theleast.

Before the future can be assessed, a grasp of the pres-ent is needed. In the days when David Ricardo andThomas Malthus darkly predicted that the living standardof the mass of men could never rise above subsistencelevels, economics earned for itself the title of the dismalscience." Those gloomy forecasts have long since proveninaccurate, but too many people still consider economicsan extremely dismal subject, and completely ignore it. Yetit is an extremely important subject, and has much to tellabout many aspects of our society, if society will only payattention. One of the things economics can tell a greatdeal about is energy.

The energy crisis is normally thought of, in terms ofshortages, a gasoline shortage, a coal shortage, an elec-tricity shortage, a shortage of natural gas, etc. But one ofthe first lessons of economics is that there is no such thingas a shortage in and of itself. There can only be a shortage

7

at a specified price, just as a commodity can only be in sur-plus at specified price. To solve a shortage, say the econ-omists, raise the price. If there are no monopolies at work,demand will decrease, supply will increase, the shortagewill disappear.

So when talk occurs about an energy crisis what isbeing said is that the price of energy is going up. It isincreasing sharply because, at traditional price levels,which were very low indeed, demand outstripped supply.In Tennessee, the United States, the rest of theindustrialized world, and even the-- underdevelopedcountries, energy was a great bargain, and its use wasexpanded. At the same time much of the more accessiblesupplies of fossil fuels, particularly oil and natural gaslocated in the United States, were rapidly being depleted.While demand for energy at traditional prices wasincreasing, available supply was decreasing.

But the economists do not have the full answer. It is notenough to say, "let the price go up, and the shortage willdisappear." Because energy has cost so little for so long,over-dependence has resulted. Homes, offices, factories,public buildings and transportation systems, weredesigned on the assumption that energy would always becheap and plentiful. Render this assumption invalid, andlives are disrupted. Peter Drucker termed this the "age ofdiscontinuity To minimize these disruptions, and tobegin these adjustment processes, some idea as to whatthe present and near future holds is needed. There are twopoints to emphasize. First, many of the issues affectingenergy are not just economic or technical but they arelegal, and political. Governmental leadership at both thenational and state level will be crucial to our energy future.Second is another economics lesson. The terms "supply"and "demand" refer not to a single quantity. The questionis not, "how much is available?", but "how much isavailable at some price?"

TENNESSEE'S ENERGY SITUATIONAn understanding of Tennessee's energy situation

begins with two considerations. The first is thatTennessee is not a producer of energy. The only fossil fuelof any significance is coal, of which about 7.5 million tonswere produced in the year ending June 30,1974. This is farfrom an overwhelming quantity, since, in contrast, themajor coal-producing states such as Kentucky, WestVirginia, and others, mine 50 to 100 million tons annually.A consequence is a dependence on out-of-state sourcesfor most of the fuel supply, and it is difficult to isolate the

8

state situation from the national picture, or theinternational energy market place. Japan, for example,can and does influence coal prices in Tennessee.

The second consideration is that Tennessee is heavilydependent on electricity. Per capita consumption is aboutdouble the national average. This is due of course to thepresence of the Tennessee Valley Authority, and itshistorically low rates for electricity. In fact, except forWashington and Oregon, beneficiaries of the BonnevillePower Project which, is predominantly still producinghydro-electricity, Tennessee has the lowest rates of anystate. To the extent that historical choices to useelectricity are rigid, Tennessee depends on this energytype even more thathe rest of the United States.

11

NATURAL GASWith these two facts in mind, one can look at various

fuel types, and consider what the situation is.Natural gas is in many ways a highly desirable fuel. As

many are painfully aware, it is also very hard to get rightnow. Gas is produced chiefly in the Southwest and movedto the rest of the country by pipeline. About 80 percent ofthe country's natural gas comes from Texas, Louisiana,and Oklahoma. It was once considered a useless by-product of oil exploration. As a consequence the originalsales were at very low prices. As gas established itself as avaluable fuel, the Federal Power Commission stepped into regulate its price in the interstate market. This reg-ulated price for new gas is now 43 cents per thousandcubic feet, or MCF, at the wellhead. Intrastate sales are notregulated, and prices have gone as high as $1.58 per MCF,

though they are more commonly in the range of $1.00 to$1.25. Because of this price disparity, producers are eagerto sell within their home state, so gas is more readilyavailable and widely used in the Southwest than else-where. In recent years there has been increasing pres-sure to remove federal price controls. President Ford hasurged that this be done as a means of stimulating supply.The immediate effect of this step on overall gas supplies isnot clear. It may well be that there will be no increase in theshort term. However, it is likely that deregulation will resultin the redistribution of available supplies, with more gasgoing to non-producing states, including Tennessee, athigher prices. Suppose the price controls are removedand, as is not unreasonable, the well head price doubles toabout 85 cent q. If this increase simply flows through theconsumer th_ price of interruptible service will increaseabout 70 percent, while the price of gas for residential usuwill increase 30 to 40 percent. This is hardly good news,but for industrial and educational consumers it is betterthan the current situation.

Over the longer term, deregulation of gas prices willnot have a major effect on supplies. Interruptible gas forindustry will ultimately disappear. Total domesticreserves, proven and estimated, are limited, and within afew years substantial imports of high-priced natural gascan be expected. As it already has been learned from thepetrOleum market, the U.S. Government has no controlover the price of imported energy.

PETROLEUMPetroleum provides about one third of the energy used

in Tennessee. Petroleum supply is largely a question ofprice and political stability, rather than the physicalpresence of oil. The United States imports about sixmillion barrels of oil daily, more than one third of ourconsumption. Much of this comes from the Middle Easterncountries. This is undesirable for two reasons: its effectson the balance of payments and on the political instabilityin the producing area. Oil imports cost seventy milliondollars a day, almost 3 million an hour. This enormouscapital outflow is placing a noticeable strain on theAmerican economy. When added to payments made byother industrial oil-importing nations, it threatens thestability of international monetary arrangements.

The danger of becoming dependent on politicallyunpredictable suppliers has been well illustrated. Arepetition would be disastrous.

Meanwhile, these two dangers must be dealt with. TheFord Administration has for some time been consideringways of reducing dependence on foreign oil. This will ef-fect supplies in Tennessee, as well as elsewhere in theUnited States, though the impact is not likely to be severe.The President has set a goal of reducing imports by onemillion barrels a day. Reaching this goal would result inless than a 6 percent reduction in available petroleum. ForTennessee this would mean reducing our annualconsumption from two and a quarter billion gallons ofgasoline to about 2.1 billion gallons.

COALCoal, besides being Tennessee's only significant fossil

fuel resource, is the most abundant energy source in theUnited States. It may well be the most difficult to get for thenext few years. The coal strike is over, but there areenough problems in production and distribution to assurethat coal supplies will be far from adequate for this winterand beyond. Environmental problems in both mining andburning coal now limit its usefulness and drive up the priceof certain more acceptable grades. However, processesfor converting coal to cleaner fuels, especiallymagnetohydrodynamics and synthetic gas, mayultimately alleviate some of this difficulty. Moreimmediately, it can be expected that available coalsupplies will increase, though at fairly high prices. At leastsome of the recent scarcity was due to the impendingstrike, and this factor will have been removed.Additionally, expect in the long term that the rate of pro-duction will increase in response to higher prices, and thatshortages in equipment for coal transportation in this areawill :De somewhat alleviated.

The principal use of coal in Tennessee is electric powergeneration, and the principal purchaser is the TennesseeValley Authority, which generates over 98 percent of thestate's electricity. About 78 percent of this electricity isgenerated in coal-tired steam plants. TVA has only oneoperating nuclear unit which is located at Brown's Ferry,Alabama. Coal shortages have severely restricted avail-able electricity recently. But over the longer term, theavailability and cost of electricity depends on .nuclearplant construction and long term cost of nuclear fuelwhose price also will increase. TVA is planning only fornew nuclear plants, and expects to have nuclear capacityequal to its coal-fired capacity by 1982. This is probably anoptimistic estimate of the rate of construction of nuclearfacilities. On the other hand, rising prices will probably

129

mean that historical growth rates in electrical demand willnot be maintained. In fact, rapid development of solarenergy could reduce residential and commercial demand.

THE FUTURE IS NOWAll this does not make a very neat package. Still, a few

general conclusions are obvious. The future is now. Themove is .into an era when energy will be much more ex-pensive than it has been. Recognize this and plan for it inorder to deal rationally with the changed environment.This means more attention to using energy resourcesmore efficiently and designing new facilities and makinginvestment decisions with the life cycle as the criteria. Themost important thing to learn is that the world is a morecomplex place than can be imagined. To naturally fear anddistrust this complexity is a mistake. It is the complex eco-system, with many interdependent parts, which is stableand healthy, The future is now the energy shock is now.Adjust and act now. Decisions now will greatly determinethe energy future.

Mr. Carroll V. KroegerDirectorTennessee Energy OfficeNashville, Tennessee

10 13

A LOOK AT ENERGYIN THE FUTURE

In general, the attempt to develop new ways of doingthings goes through a series of stages. Optimistic calcula-tions, are made by technical people proving whateverscheme it may be, will be terrific. The public is thenapproached for support and funding. Development ofelectrical energy technology or gas production involvesbuilding a device that costs now $500 million. And so, itbecomes expensive. To put things into context, right nowthe spending on energy development is less than half thatspent on the race to get to the moon. So the country is lesscommitted, at the moment, to solving its energy problemsthan it was to getting to the moon, which to a certain ex-tent was a debatable necessity. The need is to solve theenergy problem. Between the back of the envelope solu-tion that is first calculated andthat $500 million object thatproduces consumable energy lies a great valley of tech-nology where secondary effects set in that upset the initialcalculations. This has always happened. It has happenedto the nuclear program which began in high hopes around1944.

URANIUMIn the last two years we have just reached the point

where uranium can produce more energy than it took to re-fine it. This is the kind of banner technology coming along.It didn't happen very quickly and it is rather difficult to de-termine what it costs.The price of atomic energy remains ahidden fact which contributes to the difficulty of decisionsabout future energy. In the past the cost of nucleardevelopment was largely included in the military budgetand thus cannot be separated. Five years may be neededto determine the actual cost of atomic energy. Becausethose who are the most knowledgeable about energy donot have the basic facts on which to base decisions, thispicture of confusion will likely exist in the near future.

Neither is it known how much uranium is available inthe United States. There are estimates available whichwere made by the old Atomic Energy Cortimission. Thesewere probably underestimated by a factor of two in orderto enhance the selling of the breeder reactor. This is justone of the facts of political life. A need is to find out howmuch uranium there is, and what its going to cost. Thisprobably will take a drilling program of about 5 years.

COALThere is a tremendous amount of coal. Just how great,

we are really not sure. There is a few hundred years' sup-ply of coal, at least, if properly utilized. In exploring forzinc in Middle Tennessee, commercial operations areturning up vast amounts of coal. They are producingabout $20 million worth of drilling for this geologicalinformation, but the information is not being cataloged forfuture use. Tennessee does not have the least notion of themineral supply situation. This is not different from the restof the country. The private energy industries keep thisinformation and have been less than cooperative withattempts to find out how much coal is available.

GASIn the gas situation, it was discovered that with the cog-

nizance of people in the government, the owners of gas re-serves were purposefully underestimating the amount ofgas reserves by a sizable amount. The person responsiblefor this in the government had collected part of thatinformation. He burned the information in violation of adirect order from a congressional committee and waswilling to take the consequences. In Washington therehave been four energy advisors in the last two years. In aspace of six months, the dealing has been with threedifferent groups from time to time. If the right directioncan be discovered, and a number of multiple approachestaken to guard against failure, a workable - solution forenergy problems can be found, in about ten years. There isjust no possibility of bringing anything in sooner unless acrash program can be initiated.

Development is still normal, which means, not wastingany money. A crash program of about double the moneymight be able to reduce the development time about 25percent. To move into crash programs beyond that,probably would be wasting the taxpayers' money.

The use of natural gas should peak somewhere around1980. The use of oil will, perhaps, peak earlier than that.These predictions may well be off by five to ten years. Thegas and oil reserves are not known. The Department of theInterior is not moving expeditiously to find out. No matterhow the data are handled, they show that one had betternot depend on either natural gas or oil for installations thathave a great lifetime. Well planned and well built schoolbuildings certainly are likely to be in use for twenty orthirty years. This extends beyond the point where one caneven hope to use natural gas or oil for heating. The use ofoil, which will probably be reserved for vehicles, is going

to be impractical for heating in any kind of building that isgoing to last for an appreciable amount of time.

ALTERNATIVESOne can hope that conservation measures are having

some effect. It wouldn't help to turn out the lights in anelectrically heated school building, for example, becausethe light is probably a more efficient heater than the heat-ing system itself. Now a large system could burn coal di-rectly, but installation and maintenance of the proper pol-lution control would be quite difficult. The technology forboilers that will clean up coal for large sized installations isprogressing rather well. New models might be available inabout five years.

The coal gasification development program is inserious difficulty and it's very doubtful that producingappreciable amounts of gas will come sooner than 10years and probably not even then, unfortunately. Again,this is the valley of that technology where secondaryeffects not anticit.And have entered into the real worldand are destroying the time scales in essence.

This part of the country is going to have to rely on elec-trical heating. It probably will not have any other choice.TVA is now attempting to identify future demands for newelectrical capacity. They are finding that electricity will

1 411

continue to replace oil and gas for heating. This is terriblybad news for the management because they really don'tknow where they are going to get the money to install thenormal capacity to meet that demand. The cheapestversion of electrical heating is a rather inefficient use ofenergy. The laws in conversion and transmission make thesimple end use of electricity very wasteful of energyreserves. It's considerably, by several times, less efficientthan an automobile engine, for example, or would beabout half as efficient as burning the fossil fuel directly atyour installation. Now, for more expense, however, onecan install a heat pump system, provided you're talkingabout both air conditioning and heating. The heat pumpsystem raises the 'efficiency in Tennessee roughly aboutthree times, which is rather dramatic. The heat pump,which is about $15000 / ton roughly, raises the efficiencyof an electrical system equal to that of directly burningfossil fuel.

CONCLUSIONThere is no way the cost of energy is going to go down

in the United States because new methods are more com-plicated and more costly than the existing technology.The reason for this is that the public puts anti-pollutionand safety requirements on energy technology. This isvirtually impossible for the technical community to reactto immediately, as it takes five to ten years to build. Thevery difficult requirements along with the mine safetylaws, making the most hazardous part of Americanindustry a bearable place for people to work and tooperate, have impacted the system. There is just no way toavoid it. There is an administrative panic, where the attackon the problem is not even well organized and is not goingto be well organized at any time soon. The public has torespond well to the conseqUeges. It is,expected they will.

0

12

Dr. John B. DicksDirectorEnergy Conversion DivisionThe University of TennesseeTullahoma, Tennessee

15

ENERGY DEMANDAND CONSERVATION

The country is blessed with energy resources, soblessed that for years a cheap and plentiful supply ofenergy in a variety of forms was a natural expectation ofU.S. citizens. During the period from World War II until1970 the price of energy, in essentially all forms, was asteadily decreasing fraction of our budget. That is, thecost of energy in comparison with other goods andservices, kept going down, down, down. A very rationalresponse was made to that situation. We have lots ofenergy and it's going to be cheap. It's so cheap that there isno need to worry about it. 5.;

A couple of things have happened that began tochange very significantly this de facto national energypolicy. One is, through the so-called environmentalmovement, the price of energy being paid was not reallythe total cost of that energy; that there were a lot ofexternal costs associated with energy production that theuser of that energy was not paying. An example,mighthelp. Benefits are paid for people who contracted blacklung in underground mining back in the 40's and 50's.About a billion dollars a year! That's what is now paid for acost that was surely in that cost of coal when it was mined,but it didn't appear in the price of the coal. The same on airpollution problems and many °trier things associated withenergy production and use. In the mid 60's and thefollowing years, that was no longer going to be the case.Internalize these costs so that the price more adequatelyreflected that total cost. That was the first major change inour national energy policy.

ARAB EMBARGOAnother thing happened about that same time. It was

much less expensive to go overseas to obtain ouradditional supplies of oil and gas. It was cheaper to buy itfrom the Arabs, from the Venezuelans, from others aroundthe world, and, therefore, to move overseas withoperations, purchases, refining, resulted in less domesticself-sufficiency. The ratio of proven reserves divided bythe annual consumption of energy was decreasingsteadily. From a number, typically of twenty, that is twentyyears worth of supply proven in the ground, to a numbernow for gas which is below nine, shows a steadilydecreasing reserve in domestic supply. Low price's onInterstate gas shipment were maintained to the point thatthere was less incentive to explore for additional gas.Therefore, less domestic supplies were built up, and, atthe same time, the low price on gas was a de facto en-couragement for people to use it. This caused a rapid ac-celeration in the consumption of gas. The national energy

consumption pattern accelerated like a train going down-hill; growth rates rising from a level of two percent in theearly 50's to almost five percent in 1972. That was, the set-ting in October, 1973 when the Arabs lowered the boom.Between the mid 60's and 1973 the nation had gone fromessentially self-sufficiency to a point where it was import-ing more than one-third of all the oil used in addition toincreasing that dependence by a million barrels per dayeach year. That is, each yearthe United States was import-ing an additional million barrels per day. Therefore, if theArab embargo had hit two years from now instead of a yearago, the shortfall would not have been three millionbarrels per day, it would have been six million barrels aday. War could have been declared. This is the real world.The embargo was followed by an escalation in price, due,in no small part, to an international cartel of oil companiesand nations, and a rapid expansion of price of oil wasfound that rippled back through the economy to the priceof other energy resources.

WHAT TO DONow to face that very harsh but real fact and decide

what to do about it. There is another addition to our na-tional energy policy and that is, to get these imports down.There is no way to continue to have an outflow ofAmerican cash, particularly to the Arab states, at the rate itis going now. It will send us as close to bankruptcy as Italynow finds itself. The way to get these imports down in the

16 13

near term is even tougher than the long term. In the nearterm it will take fairly harsh public policies. Whether to en-joy a fair measure of voluntary response to this trulynational problem or accept the thesis that Americansusually operate by mutual coercion, that is, respond as aNation and as individuals as long as everyone else has todo the same thing is the deliberation now.

The second way to cut down on our imports is to in-crease the domestic supply to move toward a sufficientdegree of domestic self-sufficiency. That takes a long pe-

Tegilk.,L III

Vi-nod of time. It's typical in new energy supply technologiesto require a quarter century of hard work before they reallybegin to account for something.

The last new ingredient of a national energy policy is tomake an economic response to this new price situation.When the price of something changes, in this case,energy, then the rational person will try to find out whatways he can absorb that price increase in a way that costshim the least amount of money. Now, if there were nosubstitutes for energy, a problem would arise becausethere would be an inelastic response to that price change,simply because of no alternatives, and that, fortunately, isnot the fact. The fact is that there are lots of alternatives,substitutes, for energy, particularly in the way to use thatenergy. There are lots of opportunities to use that energymore efficiently, and that's what is going on in the systemnow.

Another way to make that economic response tohigher price is to now develop some new kinds of energysupply technologies that prior to the price change weresimply not economical. There are ways to go aboutmaking new kinds of energy sources in the States, butwhen oil costs $4 or $5 a barrel, they simply weren'teconomical. At $11 a barrel, a lot of things becomeeconomical. To keep in mind that all the actions chosen totake in the area of conservation, particularly in the long

14

17

run, are simply economic responses to price, will keep thesituation straight. This does not mean constraining lifestyles, or slowing down economic viability, butmaintaining that economic viability by being rationalcitizens. Now, there's a lot of fiction floating around that ittakes x percentage energy growth rates in order to main-tain a growth in the standard of living. The thing to keep inmind is doing at minimum total cost those things that arenecessary to maintain a given standard of living, and aslong as 'there are surrogates to energy, alternatives toenergy use, then it's not all necessary to maintain the samegrowth rate in energy demand in order to maintain growthrate in our standard of living.

ROOM FACTORSThink about the sectors of use of energy and about

what an economic response to price means. Start with aroom. The room is blessed with windows that lets light inbut also leaks heat in the wintertime. The worst of allpossible situations: to have windows that leak the heat,and a need to close the curtains and shut out the light. Thelights have to be turned on. The room is typical of Americain which energy wasn't considered when designed. To talkabout being rational economic citizens, start thinkingabout those buildings you occupy, that you're responsiblefor, and the homes that we all live in, and begin to think interms of how to save money at the bottom line savingmoney through saving energy.

Think of the thermostat on the wall. More frequentlythan not these thermostats do not work at all, and, whenthey do work, they don't work very well. The thermostat isset and stays at a constant level day and night whetherthere are people here or not. That, typically, means that toleave the temperature the same day and night in thewintertime, is throwing away a very significant amount ofenergy by not spending a few more dollars on a thermo-stat that will move the temperature up and downdepending upon whether it is day or night and whether ornot people are in the room.

AUTOMOBILESConsider the automobile. It gets about 14 miles to the

gallon, if its well tuned. Now that's a simple result ofAmerican choices in the relatively limited market and amarket in which the bigger and heavier the car was themore dollar profit there was to the automobile manufac-turer. That's the kind of car he would push; he still pushesit today. It has been discovered that the same amenity oftravel and freedom of travel can .be had but at up to twice

the miles per gallon. It doesn't come overnight. It'll take10-15 years to do it, but there's the capability sitting outthere to double the efficiency of automobiles in terms ofmiles per gallon if there is a commitment to that proposi-tion.

INDUSTRIESLook at our industries and find that the energy use has

been essentially a negligible factor in many industrialist'scalculus of how they worry about their costs. Energy, typ-ically, amounted to only a small amount of the final priceof the goods that an industrialist was selling. There were afew exceptions such as in the production of aluminum andpaper, but generally energy cost was a small amount of thefinal cost. When the old energy cost becomes multipliedby a factor of three or four, then the rational industrialistlooks around and finds that he is not only wasting energybut he is wasting money along with it now. He startsanalyzing his factory, doing such simple things as repair-ing a broken window or even monitoring his stack gas onhis heater or his furnace and lo and behold he finds he cansave 20 or 30, sometimes 40 percent of his energy costswith relatively simple low capital cost actions in his plant.This has resulted in, in only 12 months, an increase in theoutput per unit energy input of our economic system inour industry of about five percent.

A five percent shift in one year is a very impressive gain,but there are many additional things one can do given a bitmore time. And:given a bit more time, applies to con-servation as well as it does to supply. That is, there aresome actions, fortunately, that can take on the demandside that are quick, that are important, and that areeffective. That's because there is essentially so muchwaste that there is some fat in the system that can be

trimmed off without very much harm at all. But, on the longterm, there are many things that can be done by way of ourindustrial processes, the way to build our building, andother commitments of energy that will supply us with veryimportant gains.

EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

If we look at Sweden, West Germany, other Europeancountries that have the same kind of per capita incomethat we have and the same kind of life style, one finds thatthe energy consumption per capita is as much as twice aslow as ours. That is a real example of what our energy usecould be. We could save in the long run nearly half of theenergy we now use by doing something differently, andstill not sacrifice our life style. The numbers are all in fairagreement that, given energy price at around 11 dollars abarrel in 1974 dollars, our total energy demand growth bythe early 1980's will drop from its recent value of about 41/2percent down to a level of about 2 percent. These aresimply making economic responses to that energy priceand they do not imply major changes in life style.

IMPLICATIONSWhat are the implications of this? It makes a very big

impact in our projected requirements for energy sup-plies. It gives us more time to work out the newer tech-nologies and to put them in place in the newer plants. Itgives us a chance to delay on some of the capital commit-ments that otherwise would have to be made in order tohave a new power plant on stream ten years from now. InMinnesota, school buildings are essentially uninsulated.There's a little bit of fiberglass here and there, but even inMinnesota, most of our school buildings are uninsulated.The same is true here in Tennessee. What does that mean?Don't look back and kick ourselves about that because itwas done while thinking about minimizing initial cost ofthose buildings, and energy was cheap and plentiful. Butnow it's different and it's time to look back at those build-

1815

ings and see what can be done now that an investment willpay us off in less than five years. What actions can betakenthat have a return on our investment at least 25 percent?Now that beats savings and loan by a fair amount. In vir-tually every building there are some investments, waitingfor that kind of decision.

EDUCATIONFinally, the education process itself is near the center

of this situation. The national energy problem is thoughtof as something that somehow those guys up inWashington have to solve and its even mostly their fault.When looking at the situation one finds in helping to solvethe problem, it comes back to individual actions ascitizens, as homeowners, and as superintendents ofschool buildings. By example of what we do at schoolbuildings, in our homes, and what we work out with thekids to take home to their parents, is the educationalprocess itself. Translate it to the greater question of how touse resources, that is a way of a Nation, moving to a newlevel of sophistication and responsibility in resourcemanagement.

In going down through the last decades of this century,look back and be very grateful for one of the most impor-tant gifts that America ever received from outside itsown borders. That gift was the Arab embargo because theArab em bargo brought us up short to a problem that hadbeen rapidly escalating. It was emerging for at least tenyears but in a sort of quiet way that we were all able to putaside and forget about. It brought us up sharp about threeyears ahead of when it otherwise would have happened.Those could be three very important years; frustrating,difficult, traumatic, but if done right, could be the bestyears of our lives and in this piece of this century.

Dr. John H. GibbonsDirectorEnvironmental CenterThe University of TennesseeKnoxville, Tennessee

16

19

CODES AND STANDARDSRELATED TOENERGY USE IN BUILDINGS

There are two types of energy legislation beingproposed around the country. The first type, deals withamending the building codes, involving some legalquestions, to require certain criteria in the design of newbuildings before a permit can be issued. The second typeof legislation deals with an energy or power budget which,in essence, looks past the design and past theconstruction into the actual energy that is used in thebuilding. It sets some kind of magic limit of a per unit basis,on a person basis or on a per square foot basis, whichshould not be exceeded. If it is, the offender is penalized.There are examples of each of these already in effect andthere are numerous examples being proposed.

There are tremendous pressures on legislators and onthe public to pass legislation for energy conservation.Most of the legislation on buildings in the past has dealtwith the protection of the life, health, and safety of thepublic. The concept of energy conservation adds anotherdimension which will be substantially tested in the courtsbecause it affects so many segments of the Americanpeople and American industry. These segments havesubstantial financial stakes in these problems, and willseek the remedies of the courts if they feel wronged.

ASHRAE AND ENERGY CONSERVATION STANDARDS

There is some degree of history to the subject ofproviding the technical basis for energy conservationlegislation. This was started about a year and a half agowhen the National Conference. of States on BuildingCodes and Standards (NCSBCS), a group comprised ofrepresentatives of all fifty states, generally in the buildingcode areas, asked the National Bureau of Standards toprepare some kind of a document that would be the tech-nical basis for legislation on the subject of energy conser-vation in new buildings. The National Bureau of Stand-ards proceeded to develop such a document without con-sulting, or with very minimal consulting. As a result, theycame out with a document which was immediately with-drawn. NCSBCS then turned to the. private sector andasked ASHRAE to take on the development, using what-ever they could salvage from the National Bureau ofStandards. Understand that ordinarily in the building field,standards development from scratch usually takes aminimum of five, and many times, ten or fifteen years. Infact, most of the standards are really evolutionary. Thepressures being what they were,ASHRAE was asked toseeif they could develop something in a period of months.ASHRAE is pretty well down the road, but still not finished.

ASHRAE put together a committee which comprisesover 100 members and about 10 subcommittees. The wayin which the Committee was organized was in panels bytopic. There are panels that cover the building itself, thesystems that go into the building, the equipment that goesinto the building, water heating, electric power, lighting,solar and wind energy, and then there is a section called"others". One of the big problems is the subject of theimpact that buildings have on the natural resources, onthe supply of energy. The big problem is primarily theelectrical energy used in buildings, where it comes from,and how much of our natural resources it uses. This is ahighly controversial subject, one which has not yet beenresolved, and one which will not for some time to come.

The purpose of ASHRAE standard 90 is to enablepeople to design buildings with good thermal quality, andfit them out with efficient equipment and systems,hopefully allowing flexibility to provide innovation. This issomething that is used for the design of buildings and notthe'operation.

It's intended to cover all new buildings includingmobile homes and manufactured buildings. To look atsome of the statistics on single family homes, one will findthat in some recent years there have been more singlefamily homes built on wheels than built on the ground.

In one or two-family and low rise multi-familyresidences, ASHRAE Standard 90 covers the thermalquality of the walls, the roof, the floor, and the foundationwalls, based on the heating intensity required throughoutthe year. In most of these buildings, the heating energyrequirements are_fairly closely relaled to the duration andintensity of the winter season. In all other buildings thedocument deals with heat losses by degree days for walls,roofs, and floors, but, since heat gains are relativelyindependent of, at least dry bulb temperature, it deals withheat gains in terms of latitude. The further North one goesthe less intensive the requirements. It deals with air

alba Ar;

4F11 ,"*TPIE

leakage, which is a substantial proportion in many types ofbuildings, of the energy requirement. Since the standarddeals with buildir g products and building systems, it isobviously ridiculous to require 4W' insulation in a 31/2" studwall. Now, at some time in the future, that may be neces-sary, but right now there are provisions in the documentfor shifting the insulation around the building, so that ifone can't provide the degree of insulation required in awall or in.the roof, put in what you can and put more inwhere you can, provided that the total heat loss or heatgain of the entire building does not exceed what it wouldhave been had you been able to insulate it in accordancewith each of these individual requirements.

HEATING AND AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMSWhen it comes to the heating and air conditioning sys-

tems, the document discussed the procedures that areused in determining the capacities required, indoordesign conditions, ventilation requirements, controls, andwhat types of controls to have. Making provision for set-back and shut-off and for zoning are discussed. Thefundamental idea here is to require that the designer andthe builder of the buildings incorporate those featureswhich will permit the user to operate it efficiently. It is theuser who is the key to energy efficiency, moreso than thedesigner, provided that he is given the tools to do it. Thestandard deals with simultaneous heating and cooling,which is primarily used in buildings larger than houses.Schools are a perfect example of that case. Different typesof systems and under what conditions they can and can'tbe used, like multi-zone units, dual duct systems, reheatsystems are included. Outside air for cooling, theeconomy cycle, minimum requirements for insulatingpiping and duct work, and duct construction to minimizeduct leakage are likewise discussed.

In heating and cooling equipment, minimumefficiencies for electrically and heat operated coolingequipment, for heat pumps, coefficient of performanceand seasonal performance factors, and maintenancelabelling, requiring that the manufacturers of equipmentprovide labels that will instruct the user in propermaintenance procedures are included.

Service water heating equipment efficiency, and sum-mer-winter hookups are other areas involved. One of themost inefficient ways of providing domestic hot water is aboiler that sits around all summer long, keeping the boilerhot just to provide some hot water, Insulation of domestichot water piping, control of temperature, control of pumps

iF

2017

in recirculating systems and limitation of flow, in thingslike shower heads are discussed.

ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMSAlso included are electric power systems, correction of

power factor, minimizing voltage drop, switching of light-ing, and metering of energy. It has been demonstrated, inalmost every case where its been tried, particularly in theresidential structures when electricity is included in therent, the energy consumption is 10, 20, or 30 percentgreater than if you make each tenant pay for it. One of thebig questions to face there is to require that each tenanthave the provision to be made financially responsible forthe energy that he uses. If this works for electricity, won't italso work for gas? Won't it also work for steam and hotwater in the central system in an apartment house? At thispoint it was decided to stop with an electric meter be-cause it is reasonable and practical.

In lighting, a thing called a "lighting power budget" wasset up, which, based on the use of efficient lamps and ef-ficient lighting fixtures, an upper limit for the installed ca-pacity of lighting equipment was established. Since theenergy by lighting is a function of, not only the installedcapacity, but how much it's used, provisions were madethat make it possible for the occupants of the building toturn them off when they're not needed.

Many of the required things just discussed end upusing more energy than they conserve. In order to complywith this document, you can take any one of two paths.Path One requires that you follow all of the precedingrequirements to the letter. Path Two says that if you candemonstrate that your idea, or your innovation, will useless energy than you would have used had you followed allthe requirements, you would be permitted to do it. Thatsection then describes how you're to analyze andcompute the equivalent annual, energy use. Since in smallbuildings, the cost of providing alternative energy usecould be prohibited, excluded are all one and two familyresidential buildings and small commercial buildings,where temperature is controlled from a single point. Therea certification by a knowledgeable professional, on whathe has done to lower energy consumption, will beadequate.

For those people who wish to take advantage of solaror wind energy in their buildings, the document providesfull credit for their use. If you want to use more energy todo certain things in your building and it exceeds your

18

21

budget, the only way you can do it is by taking some of theburden away using non-depletable energy sources, suchas solar, wind or geo-thermal.

Generally speaking, most of the things required costmoney and it has taken a great deal of judgment and tem-perament, in order to make requirements "reasonable,"insofar as economics are concerned. Recognize that thisdocument applies to all buildings, not only to public build-ings, where life cycle cost may well be in the best interestof the taxpayers, but also to speculative buildings wherelife cycle cost is against the interest of that builder and hisprofession. The requirements imposed by this documentare not the total solutions to the problem.

THE ENERGY BUDGETThe next type of legislation is the energy budget. The

energy budget that most people talk about today is theamount of energy used by a building. In most buildings,energy is used in two different forms, in fuel and in electric-ity. The energy budget of a building is expressed as theannual B.T.U.'s in the fuel that you buy, plus the annualB.T.U.'s in the electricity that you buy divided by thesquare footage of the building. The Federal GeneralServices Administration suggests that for federal officebuildings an energy budget of 55,000 B.T.U.'s per squarefoot per year is a realistic, obtainable goal. The ideabehind the energy budget is good, but enforcement is aproblem. The technology and the costs involved to provecompliance with an energy budget before a building isbuilt is limited at best today, and is relatively expensive.The knowledge is being widely diffused, the cost is

coming down, but the profession and the industry today isnot yet at a point where we can prove compliance with anenergy budget. However, the other basic problem is Whosets the budget?" Who is going to play God and say howmuch energy to use? That again, creates some very dif-ficult legislative problems.

THE POWER BUDGETAnother approach being taken is the so-called "power

budget," which is now in effect in Ohio, on a trial basis forabout a year. It's due to go into effect officially in 1976. Itlimits the installed capacity of the equipment and sys-tems in a building. That is an erroneous way to do it be-cause in most buildings there is no relationship betweeninstalled capacity and energy use.

It's interesting to see and note what really happens inbuildings; to see what energy actually goes'through the

meter or into the tank. Some data on actual buildings inoperation have been collected showing their energy useand reasons examined concerning the buildings use of theenergy that they do or that they don't use.

Most people are concerned primarily with seeing thatthe equipment installed in buildings is capable of meetingthe peak loads whether it's heating, cooling, or a combina-tion. The concept of energy use in buildings adds anotherdimension to the design process that is totally different inmany respects to the way one has been taught to think.

The major determinant of energy use in buildings is thedemand that occupants place on the buildingS' morethan the type of system or the boilers or the chillers or theenergy source. Build buildings for people, not for ma-chines, not for glass, not for insulation, not for autb-mation centers, and not for heat recovery.

The quantity of energy used in buildings is not neces-sarily related to the design mode or the installed capacity.If the installed capacity of an air conditioning system is cutby fifty percent, there's a good chance of increasing theenergy consumption, not reducing it. So there is no rela-tionship between installed capacity and energy consump-tion in most buildings other than houses.

ENERGY USAGEThe majority of energy use in a building occurs during

a time when the outdoor temperature is moderate so thatthe HVAC systems, the heating and air conditioning sys-tems are operating at part load. Conversely, a very smallfraction of the energy use occurs at times when the out-door temperature is at the annual extreme and the sys-tems are at or near peak loads. Figure 1 will give an ideaof why this occurs. This is a curve showing the annual en-ergy use for heating and cooling a building related to out-side temperatures. Note that in the 20 degree increment oftemperature between 0 and 20°F., the building uses lessthan five percent of its annual energy. In the 20° incre-ment between 80° and 100°, it is using about 12 percent ofits annual energy. In then° increment from 50° to 70° thebuilding uses about 45 percent of its annual energy.

In many types of commercial buildings, dependingupon the building itself, its location, its orientation, its typeand intensity of use, more insulation is not necessarilybetter. Information shows that energy use is not related toinsulation, particularly in commercial and institutionalbuildings. However, the concern should be about howefficiently the heating and cooling systems operate duringmoderate temperatures than during extreme tem-peratures. This means looking at heating and air condi-tioning energy use as a function of different things duringdesign. Look at energy use in terms of hours of operationbecause this is the primary determinant of energy use. Bynever operating the system, energy is not used. What runsall those hours, typically at full loads? Fans and pumps.One will find that in many buildings the fans and pumpsuse more energy in a year than the chillers do. In terms ofheating and cooling loads, energy must be expended tosatisfy the cooling loads of internal gains in the buildingand from external heat gains. The amount of heatingenergy required is a function of the heat loss, outside airflow and HVAC heating system energy requirements.

100

80

60

40

20

0

FIGURE 1HVAC ENERGY USE AS

A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE

/////

...-

..--------*

..-e-..".

-- ..-- - !

/ .

///.

//II

I

0 20 40 60 80

PERCENT TOTAL ANNUAL ENERGY USE

100

2219

FIGURE 2TOTAL GAS CONSUMPTION 37,500 MCF

39,000 BTU/SF/YR

GAS CONSUMED FORCOOLING.18,600 MCF.

50%

GAS CONSUMED FORHEATING15,800 MCF42%

MISCELLANEOUS GASCONSUMPTION3,100 MCF8 °/o

DISTRIBUTION OF EXISTING GASENERGY CONSUMED

STUDY OF FAIRFAX COUNTY SCHOOLSIN VIRGINIA

Talking about something like office buildings or hospi-tals, there are many factors that differ from building tobuilding, but if there ever was a class of buildings whoseuse tends to be relatively similar, whose programs tend tobe similar, whose hours and days of operation tend to besimilar, it would be schools. All of the schools in FairfaxCounty, Virginia, operate under virtually identical weatherconditions and schedules. Generally speaking, thecharacter of the architecture is, at least, similar. The threeschools with the highest consumption are probably all-electric schools. They range from 131/4/sq. ft. a year downto 3.80/sq. ft. a year, a factor of 4:1. These schools are in anarea where the utility company has an electric rate of a flat1C/kilowatt hour with no demand charge, so that the costis directly related to the actual energy use in kilowatt

20

23

FIGURE 3ALLIED MEDICAL FACILITIES

THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY

TOTAL ELECTRICAL CONSUMPTION2,983,000 KW-HRS

107,000 BUT/SF/YR HEATING AUXILIARIES164 x 103 KW-HRS550/o

COOLING AUXILIARIES648 x 103 KW-HRS

22.0%

LIGHTS705 x 103 KW-HRS24.0%

ELEVATORS90 x 103 KW-HRS3.0%

VENTILATION1104 x 103 KWHRS37.50/o

MISCELLANEOUS271 x 103 KW-HRS

9.0%

DISTRIBUTION OF EXISTINGELECTRICAL ENERGY CONSUMED

hours. The same things hold true for high schools in thatsame county. Even knock off the top three again, you'restill going from 71/20/sq. ft. down to 41/2c/sq. ft. which isalmost 2:1.

That is the electric use and it really doesn't mean toomuch unless one looks at the fossil fuel energy use. Aboutthe only interesting correlation here that can be made isthat generally those schools that have the highest fossilfuel energy use also have the lowest electric energy use.

1100

1000 -

900

800

FIGURE 4VENTILATION1104 x 103 KWH

LIGHTINGKW 705 x 103 KWH

700 -

KWH x 103 600 -

500 -

400 - INSTALLEDLIGHTING

300 INSTALLED 258 KWVENTILATION

200 - 151 KW

100 -

ALLIED MEDICAL FACILITIESTHE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY

I I -ENERGY USED YEARLY BASIS-INSTALLED CAPACITIES

COOLING AUXILIARIES648 x 103 KWH

INSTALLEDCOOLING110 KW

HEATINGAUXILIARIES164 x 103 KWH

INSTALLEDHEATING

28 KW

COMPARISON OF INSTALLED CAPACITIES VERSUS ACTUAL YEARLY ENERGY USE

These buildings probably have conventional EastCoast school house boiler plant designs and similar airside systems, which in many cases are unit ventilators. Allthese schools pay the same price for fuel so that thesefigures are directly related to fuel consumption.

OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY STUDYFigures 2 through 4 show the results of a study on one

building at Ohio State University. This particular buildinghappens to have absorption cooling with a gas-firedboiler, which is also used for space heating. Just the gasuse alone of this building is 395,000 B.T.U.'s per squarefoot per year. Remember, GSA said one could do theheating, cooling, lighting for 55,000 B.T.U.'s per squarefoot per year this is 395,000. Figure 3 shows the electricuse, which is an additional 107,000 B.T.U.'s per square footper year for one university building. Figure 4 is therelationship between the installed capacity of the variousclasses of equipment and the amount of energy that theequipment uses in a year. The installed Capacity of theventilation equipment is only 151 kw, but look at the

amount of energy it uses. Whereas, the lighting load isalmost twice the installed capacity of the ventilation, theenergy used is only about two-thirds as much. It is not theinstalled capacity or the design capacity, it's how muchthat particular system component or accessory is usedthat determines its energy use.

CALIFORNIA STUDYFigure 5 shows the results of a study on three schools

in one district in California built under the systemsconcept. It shows the variation from year to yearespecially when from the 71-72 school year to the 72-73school year they endeavored to institute some energyconservation measures.

SHOPPING MALL IN PENNSYLVANIAFigure 6 will allay a lot of questions about the energy

use iniplications of hours of operation and type of buildingconstruction and materials. This is data from an enclosedmall type shopping center, about 50 miles north of Phil-adelphia. It happens to be an all-electric building, where

2421

FIGURE 5ENERGY BUDGETS

Huntington Beach, California

Fountain Valley HS1970-19711971-19721972-1973

BTU/SF/YR169,507163,670148,967

Marina HS1970-19711971-19721972-1973

136,275143,267141,908

Edison HS1971-19721972-1973

123,871145,708

FIGURE 6SHOPPING MALL

ALLENTOWN, PENNSYLVANIA

ALL ELECTRIC

BTU/SF/YRAUTO CENTER 74,000DEPARTMENT STORE. 114,000DEPARTMENT STORE 102,000

I ETY STORE 100,000RESTAURANT 409,000BANK 131,000DRUG STORE 129,000FOOD MARKET 205,000DRY CLEANER 688,000BOOK STORE 104,000DOUGHNUT STORE 326,000

the construction of each store is identical, and each storehas its own unitary all electric heating and cooling system.Each store is metered and billed individually. Theshopping mall operates a fixed number of hours per day, afixed number of days per week. All the stores are open forvirtually the same number of hours. If there were ever acase where the amount of energy used would be verysimilar, this would be it. Yet there is a ratio of almost 10 to 1in energy used.

There has been a movement towards establishing an-nual energy budgets for buildings as the basis for legisla-tion or as guidelines for designers to meet. While such amovement is favored by many knowledgeable people,there are numerous pros and cons. In favor of the energy

22

budget is that it establishes target energy consumptionsfor buildings.

The major problem is the establishment of the budget.Glancing over the preceding facts reveals the enormity ofthe problem. Other problems include the means fordetermining the budget during design, and the means forenforcement.

Various interest groups in the design and constructionindustries favor the energy budget as a means to "pass thebuck" to other segments of the industry.

There has been a similar, but smaller movementtoward the power budget, which limits the installed ca-pacity of the energy using systems in a building. In addi-tion to the problems facing the energy budget, the powerbudget concept fails to take into account the major factorin energy consumption, the use of the building.

FACTORS INFLUENCINGENERGY CONSUMPTION

The major factors in design that can influence energyconsumption are the selection of the type of cooling plant,the type of air side systems, the handling of the internalheat gains (primarily lighting), the control schemes andheat recovery.

Of somewhat less importance are the energy source,the thermal quality of the building (except housing), thearchitecture and the type of heating system.

The major operating factors that influence energy con-sumption over which designers have very little control butmust take into consideration when designing are the re-quirements and use habits of the occupants of thebuilding, the hours of operation and whether or not thereare going to be computers. Computer rooms in officebuildings have been known to have energy budgets inexcess of 1,500,000 B.T.U. per square foot per year.

Minor, but still important operating factors are mainte-nance, occupancy and the use of domestic hot water, ex-cept in hobsing where it can be a significant portion of thetotal heating energy.

In most commercial and industrial buildings, theelectric bill is computed from monthly demand charts andmeter readings that tell you how much energy has beenused and when. This must be anticipated in the design of

25

the building, since the owner has to live with it for the life ofthe building.

By reducing the energy consumption, one may notlower the operating cost. A study was made on a large highrise office building where a system was recommendedthat had the highest annual energy requirements becauseit was not only the lowest in first cost, but the operatingcost was also lower. The reason was that the owner of thebuilding was buying district steam and there was 100%demand rate for the following 12 months. The systems thathad the highest capacity and therefore the highestdemand had the highest operating cost. The cost forenergy used amounted to less than one-third of the annualenergy bill. The othertwo-thirds of the bill was for demandcharges which were imposed solely because of theinstalled capacity of the system.

CONCLUSIONThe conclusion to this story is that there is no conclu-

sion. The key to this whole business is there is no onegood answer for every situation. Look at each buildingindividually. If the answers were so simple, there wouldn'tbe such a wide variation of numbers as seen here.

Any consideration for legislating either power budgetsor annual energy budgets must be carefully evaluated ifthey are to result in wise energy management.

The challenge of designing energy efficient buildingswill be here for a long time to come. There are numeroussignificant ways in which to meet this challenge. Anunderstanding of what happens in existing buildingscontributes to the ability to do the best possible job forclients.

Mr. Lawrence G. SpielvogelPresidentLawrence G. Spielvogel, Inc.Wyncote HouseWyncote, Pennsylvania

LOW ENERGYUTILIZATION SCHOOL

There are certain things built into the way buildingsuse energy. They are built in for a number of reasons.Whether they are used properly or not becomes the nextstage of the whole energy use cycle. Schools areimportant because they represent about seven percent ofall buildings in the United States. They are fairly largeenergy users. Buildings in total are responsible for about33 percent of all the energy that is used in the UnitedStates.

The concern is about the availability and use of sourceenergy when we talk about energy utilization and energyconservation, and it makes quite a difference in the fig-ures used particularly when one realizes that there is any-where from a 3 to a 4:1 inefficiency in the use of electricityfor heat between the source and the actual end use. Itmakes quite a difference in the conversion factor that onedeals with.

NEW YORK CITY SCHOOLSNew York City runs about 1,000 schools, about half of

them ate oil-fired, and about half of them are coal-fired.They keep very good records on energy use on a month bymonth basis, kilowatt hours of electricity, gallons of oil,and tons of coal. The oil-fired schools used about 127,000B.T.U.'s per square foot. This figure pertains to sourceenergy. In New York City, Con Edison is one of the leastefficient utilities in the country. It has a heat generationrate of about 12,300. In addition to that they have about a10 per cent, as all utilities do, transmission and trans-former loss; so that their heat rate is about 13,500 to pro-duce 3,413 B.T.U.'s of efficient end use. Other utilities maybe in the neighborhood of 10,000 or 11,000 in comparison.

The coal-fired schools used slightly more on theaverage, about 137,000 B.T.U.'s per square foot, of whichthe larger percentage is in heating, and less in cooling.Most of these are the older schools schools with prob-ably a foot and a half or two feet higher floor to floorheight, with wood windows that are narrow and in very badrepair, and with caulking around the windows which is nolonger effective. A good deal of the additional heat use inthe older buildings is a result of both the volume of thebuilding and the deterioration of the maintenance in thebuildings themselves.

The end figures are interesting. Let's say between125,000 and 137,000 represent about the energy contentof a gallon of oil or a little bit less. In the New York Cityschools, they use about a gallon of oil per sq. ft. Convert

2623

that into 350 or 400 or whatever and it begins to give you afeeling about the questions and alternatives in energy useand what both the economic and the fuel consequencesare.

In addition to the general figure, careful studies weremade about 16 of the buildings going into the analysis ofthe number or boilers, burner capacity, types of boilers,and types of ventilation equipment. There were 560 cubicfeet per minute of ventilation per typical classroom. NewYork has a requirement of 15 cubic feet per minute peroccupant and that's what generated the amount ofventilation required. Various other characteristics werenoted, such as 2.4 watts per sq. ft. in the typical classroom,fluorescent fixtures, and so forth.

A graph was devised about four years ago of energyusage, both in electricity and fuel oil, which revealed thefuel oil usage is very low during the Summer months, al-though the schools are operated on a 12-month basis.There is a reduced Summer program, but they are open.The electricity usage is also lower in the Summer andmaintains a fairly level, average of about 8000 kilowatthours per thousand square feet, and it's a fairly constantcurve during the Winter months. A Division of Fuel Man-agement gets these figures on a monthly basis. If any-thing looks non-typical or excessive, a team is sent out tosee whether the equipment is functioning properly. It is avery carefully monitored system. It's a system thatoperates more efficiently on an energy use per square footbasis than any of the other systems looked at. Minnesotamade an analysis of all their schools in a report which wasissued about six months ago. Their typical usage is abouttwice the number of B.T.U.'s per square foot as used in theNew York City schools. Of course, they have much moresevere winters, about a thousand degree days more thanNew York City schools, but there isn't a difference to theextent of the fuel use difference. The peaks in the electri-city usage may have been on the basis of either incorrectmeter readings or projected meter readings that might nothave been accurate.

WINDOWLESS SCHOOLAnother school in New York that ought to be the most

energy efficient is a windowless school with individualcontrols in each room. The fuel oil usage is about 40%more than any of the other schools. The electricity usageis more than double the average of any of the otherschools. There's one other school that is almost as highand it's also a sealed school with minimum windows. Thegeneralization is that any school that can operate for

2427

130125120-

110-

100

90-

LIGHT OUTPUT IN LUMENS PER WATT

70-

so-

COW DELUXE FLUORESCENT MULTINAPORALINE MERCURY

150.WLUCALOX

400WLUCALOX

10011WLUCALOX

major parts of the time, taking full advantage of naturalconditions, is inherently going to be more efficient than aschool that is completely dependent on mechanicalsystems and mechanical cooling at all times. All thefigures seen confirm that.

Suburban schools that operate on a sealed schoolbasis use about twice the energy per square foot that theNew York City schools do. The sealed school, incidently,had the greatest variation in internal conditions. Theinternal temperature conditions, although they werepresumed to be set for the same setting on all thethermostats, varied from about 63-80° in differentclassrooms at the same time. The control and theresponsiveness that one would expect from that system,were actually not delivered.

A quarter of the energy used in the New York City Sys-tem is in lighting. A third of the energy is in the heating toreplace the air that is required for ventilation, and twice asgreat as the heating that is required to make up for theconducted losses through the walls and roof of the build-ing. The buildings are fairly well built to good insulationstandards. However, the mandatory air changerequirement constitutes in New York twice therequirement for fuel input that the heat loss through thewall of the building actually requires.

FOOT CANDLES CONTROVERSYThere's been a good deal controversy about light levels

whether 60 FC, 70 FC, 120 FC, or whatever, are necessaryand effective. There is a school built in 1897 with an in-candescent system. The actual light levels vary from about100 FC down to as low as 5 FC on the chalkboard wall, a20:1 difference between the highest and lowest light levelsin this room. A fluorescent lighted room, designed to have60 FC of uniform light and the 60 FC (if you read your IESguide) is not to vary by more than 3:1 either side for anyof the surrounding areas. The light levels actually varied atfive feet in from the window from a thousand FC to again

35, 40, 30 and 30 at the chalkboard wall, a 35:1 differencebetween the highest and lowest light levels.

A converted school in which fluorescent replaced anoriginal incandescent system, presumably to deliver a uni-form 60 FC, doesn't. It varies from 90 near the window to 30and 25 at the opposite wall. In all of these, the team thatwent into the classrooms, inquired as to whether anyonewas aware of the light levels, whether they thought thelight levels were too high, too low, bad, good whatever.Nobody was at all aware of the light levels or the variationsof the light levels. They didn't have a feeling of it beinggood or bad, one way or another, and they were all inmarked contrast to anything that's given as absolutelymandatory guides in all of the school building informationthat you're given. The disconnection between thosestandards and the delivery were very impressive in thisinvestigation.

In a church in Sardinia, light is introduced verycarefully through four inch tiny slots in the wall, and theillumination quality of light is really quite remarkable. Thereflecting surface, a basal rock, gives a very soft, buteffective light. The assumption is that the quality of light issomething that's only readable in foot candles. Theeffectiveness of light has more to do with the quality oflight than the quantity of light.

LIGHT LEVELS ANDEDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT

A very careful scientific study, over a six year period,indicated that there is very little correlation betweenhigher light levels and greater educational achievement.Now, in order to see if some correlation between whatreally took place in schools and what the real lightrequirements were, a team went through a series ofactivities in the schools. These were the first twelve ofsome 250, each one of which has been evaluated to theamount of space, the temperature condition required, andthe ventilation level required. Three ambient light levels,with a range in each were developed. The lowest wasabout ten footcandles for halls and circulation spaces.The next was 15 to 30, which was general classroom am-bience, the other was 30 to a maximum of 50 for a highlyspecialized task. If there was something that requiredmore precision than that, it became a question ofanalyzing a particular task at the point where it was beingapplied. These 250 criteria are available to anybody as abasis of determining what light levels are actuallynecessary, and separate the idea of an ambience

background light level from a task light level. In mostcases, you'll find that the ambient light level is more thansufficient for all of the educational purposes. The reasonfor doing this, of course, is that 25 per cent, in the NewYork City Schools, at least, is in light use, and by goinginto these. variations, !here's at least a 50 per centreduction in that 25 per cent that's possible.

TASK LIGHTS IN AIRPLANESA light delivery system in a plane, is one in which each

person controls the light individually. The light is specifi-cally directed to the task and the ventilation is also spe-cifically and personally directed. Recently on a plane, acheck was made on the light level in which everybody wasreading, doing work, whatever. It was seven footcandles,but it was quite adequate for reading, and any of thegeneral purposes one has. There is a very interesting bookthat probably ought to have more circulation than it does,by a man by the name of Miles Tinker, who is at theUniversity of Minnesota. He made a series of studies onperceptivity and what the actual process is. The standardsof the IES are based on instantaneous, accuraterecognition of certain target figures, but that's really notthe way that people read and perceive and gather thatinformation. If may be the kind of feeling that's requiredfor a watchmaker, but one sees things in groups of words,gets an impression of what's being said, and doesn'tdepend on the accuracy of the particular message. Thisagain is a demonstration of a way that light can bedelivered. Of course, a person sitting on a seat in a plane isa fixed target and it's much easier to have task lighting.The principle, however, is applicable.

At the Denver Airport there is only one out of everytwelve of the corridor lights that is on and yet the generallight quality is more than adequate for any purpose what-soever. In La Guardia Airport in New York, there is about a10' x 10' corridor with a 10 foot floor to ceiling glass wallwith diffusing glass on the side of it. All of the overheadlights are on regardless. During the height of the energyshortage they apologetically had a little note that theywere eliminating unnecessary lighting. They are back atthe full light usage, and it's as wasteful now as it ever was.

SOLAR ENERGYThere is something else to be looked into in the study,

where and to what extent, solar energy can be usable inthe design of new schools and modernization of existingschools. It is very important to learn the method of build-ing and working with best use of solar energy, but it must

28 25

be remembered that virtually every building that's builtand that has been built, historically, is a solar energybuilding. Any building that has south orientation thatcaptures heat when it is wanted is a solar building. Anybuilding that has a thermal mass that retains the heat ofthe sun and releases it to the inside when it is wanted, is athermal building. Any building that takes advantage of theair movement that is caused by the sun, heating one areaand not heating another, and takes advantage of that airmovement, is a thermal building and a solar building. Thedefinition of a solar building as only dealing with solarcollectors is really just a small part, and a distorted part, ofthe whole responsibility for designing with the sun and fordesigning with natural conditions. Fir example, if you'reconcerned with the capturing of the heat during thewinter, if it's going to be used as an assist with the heatingsystem or for domestic hot water take the angle that's mosteffective in November, December, and January. If you'reconcerned with the use of the energy during the summeras a heat source that can then be converted through heatpumps to a cooling cycle, then you're interested in a verysteep angle of 20% off the horizontal. The angle that'smost affected in the winter is closer to 45°. The purpose ofcollecting solar energy is more important than theseabsolute rules that you find in many solar guides about theideal angle for the collectors. If one is dealing with non-concentrating collectors, there is heat all around, in thesky, in the direct sun, and the diffused sun in clouds. Evenon the north facing wall, there is some solar energy that iscollected throughout the year, lowest in December andhighest in July.

There are interesting systems that can be developed inwhich the solar heat warms the mass of the building andthat warm mass of the building can be converted into airmovement, then directly introduced. There is a man inFrance by the name of Trom who developed this kind ofsystem. A thermo-syphoning system has been developedwhere the heat causes a syphoning that can be intro-duced into the room directly without the necessity of anyadditional mechanical intervention. It's all powered by theconvection of the air currents themselves. The samemovement of the air can be used in the summer to cool thebuilding by opening vents at the top.

In a city in New Mexico, all of the buildings are facedjust slightly east to take maximum advantage of wintersunshine. All of the buildings, on the whole, are faced thesame way and the maximum amount of heat is collectedand introduced slowly through the heavy adobe walls.

26 29

VENTILATIONRemember ventilation was 35 per cent of the total

energy used in the schools in New York, and these werebased on 15 cubic feet per minute. Tests were conductedwith the participation of the National Bureau of Stand-ards to see what would happen, first of all, if the ventila-tion rates were cut in half, and second, if they weredropped completely. The oxygen content of the space wasmonitored through the whole thing. The carbon dioxidecontent was also monitored. There was a doctor and apsychologist in attendance. The psychologist was thereto see if anybody seemed to respond to odors, which isone of the reasons that is always attributed to the higherventilation rates. The test was conducted while a regularclass was in session 30 students in a room, through athree hour period. At the end of the period, with no ven-tilation on at all, the oxygen and the carbon dioxide con-tent of the room were both well within acceptable limits.The contribution of the air that came in through the out-side wall through infiltration plus the volume of air thatwas contained within the room both combined toeffectively provide adequate conditions. Therecommendation is that a maximum five cubic feet perminute be provided, and the control systems be put in sothat the ventilation system is on only when the class is insession. These two things in themselves would cut downthe amount of air necessary to replace air by about 75percent. And 75 per cent of 35 per cent is 25 per cent, or 26per cent, so that a quarter of all energy that is used, in theNew York City Schools, at least with that particular air pat-tern, could be saved just on the basis of the reevaluation ofthe ventilation standards themselves.

THE ROLLAGENA very important energy conserving device just begin-

ning in America, although it's been prevalent in Europe forprobably 100 years, is something they call "the rollagen."They are louvered-metal blinds that are used to roll downon the outside of the windows. They serve a number of dif-ferent purposes. They can be secured either with armsthat raise in the awning or they can be in fixed channelsalong the side. First of all they cut down solar heat whenyou don't want it on the outside of the building. In schoolsthey can be used very effectively as a darkening device,when you hay6"audio-visual presentations. They can beslightly opened if there is a little tension put on them. Theflaps open up and expose a series of holes that permit airto move through it without providing any draft. This is pro-viding you have an openable window behind it. And atnight, during the winter, if they're lowered, there's a dead

air space within the rollagen themselves. There's anotherdead air space between them and the glass and they arevery effective in reducing the amount of heat that's lostthrough glass to the outside, when the building is not inoperation. They are being installed in a community col-lege. It should reduce the heating and the air-conditioningload by about 20 percent, which really pays handsomelyin reducing mechanical costs. It did, however, addsomewhat to the general construction cost.

About 15 years ago, 71 percent of the building dollar,on the average in schools, was in general construction.Now it's 66 percent. 6.9 percent was in plumbing, as op-posed to 7.8 percent. 11:9 percent was in heating/ventilat-ing which now averages almost 14 percent, and what wasless than 10 percent in electricity at that time, now is over12 percent. There's been a big shift in the proportioning ofthe different trades in our buildings that reflect how great adependence on mechanical solutions and equipmentsolutions to solve what has formerly been solved as de-sign problems.

These are the kinds of savings that can be projected inschool buildings. Figure that 15 percent of the lighting canbe eliminated, 20.percent of the ventilation requirements,about 5 percent of the 18 percent of the heating losses forbetter thermal performance of the walls, and virtually all ofthe domestic hot water requirements. This can be donethrough either solar or waste heat. Just arbitrarily assumethat with more efficient use of systems one can save about10 percent of the other electrical uses. On existing build-ings the energy saving can be 27 percent of the total ofabout 50 percent of the total in new buildings. Again eachindividual building would have to be studied to see how ef-fectively we could do all of this. Finally, there are a num-ber of studies to see if there is any correlation between theage of a school, the size of the school, and the method ofoperation with energy use. The only trends found were therelationship of the older schools to higher fuel use be-cause of the volume and the deterioration of the controlsystems within the school.

Mr. Richard G. Stein, FAIARichard G. Stein & Associates, Architects588 Fifth AvenueNew York, New York

SOLAR HEATINGFOR BUILDINGS

This report presents some things in the area of solarenergy, where it is being applied, how effectively it is beingapplied and where it is being contemplated. Briefly, threecompleted projects are reported. The first one that hasnow been planned, approved and is ready for constructionas soon as the bond referendum has been approved is inFairfax County. The second one is also a project in North-ern Virginia that has been installed and is operating suc-cessfully. The last one is not necessarily a solar energyproject but is a proposal that Fairfax County is nowseriously considering which would employ a total energysystem.

The overwhelming majority of the present inventory ofbuildings in the United States was built without efficientuse of energy as a major construction consideration. Theenergy consuming substances and the function withinthem are not exactly as efficient as they should be.Buildings use about one third the energy consumed in theUnited States and, available sources indicate that, about40 percent of that is wasted. To recapture that 40 percentand use it properly, could achieve a 40 percent reductionin energy consumption in our buildings without ma-terially compromising the environment.

THERMAL UNDERGROUND SCHOOLTwo years 'ago in the Fairfax County School System a

somewhat unique school with a kindergarten through 8thgrade for some 990 pupils was to be built. Beingconcerned with efficient care of energy, it was suggestedto the architects that when the school was designed, theyconsider building the school into a hill, in such a way thatthe building site would be blended with the environment.In doing so, the roof of the school could be recovered asan outdoor space and play area. The building itself wouldbe surrounded with earth on at least three sides with thefront remaining open. By enlarging the school as much aspossible, sufficient exposure to the outside could beprovided so the children could look out and see when itwas raining, snowing, or the sun shining. Unfortunately,the architect got carried away, and while using theconcept to plan the school, strayed somewhat. Thatschool does use the natural surroundings and is now amounded structure which has two to three feet of earth allover it with penetrations on five sides. The idea was to takeadvantage of the natural insulation and build up thethermal mass. The building is heated, ventilated andcooled through the use of heat pumps with solarcollectors being used to supplement and augment theheat pump. The calculations showing effect on energy

3027

utilization to date are impressive and reveal the benefits ofgoing this route. Even though the school is covered againwith two to three feet of earth, it has a pleasant entrancewith plenty of exposure for the children to see what'shappening outside. Schools are still being designed forchildren as well as for energy conservation.

The school was brightened with super graphics. Thiskind of attractiveness continues to remind us of the needto accommodate the total environment when buildingschools. In order to achieve sufficient ceiling heights theysimply lower the floors. To go this way cancels the exteriorair temperature. The heat generated by lights and peoplecancels any other heat source input throughout theschool year.

Refrigeration equipment is turned on to cool the loadgenerated by the lights and people; in other words therewill be times that we will need cooling even when normalschools will be requiring heating. The heat is collected inthe 15,000 gallon hot water tank and temperature can bebrought up to 120°. The water is used to offset the pe-ripheral heat loss by day and maintains building tempera-tures at night and week-ends. Finally, the solar collectorpanels on the roof will provide the necessary hot water,offset the peripheral heat loss, and fill the hot water tankfor night and week-end setbacks. Refrigeration equip-ment and outside air are used for cooling.

SOLAR SCHOOL IN WARRENTON, VA.Another plan is the Warrenton High School again in

Northern Virginia. This is one of the schools that the Na-tional Science Foundation funded. There are four of themhaving sular systems installed. Three of them are to aug-ment the existing systems. Warrenton High's purpose is tocompletely heat five relocatable classrooms. The idea wasthat solar energy can be used to heat and cool publicschools. It also was to demonstrate that the technology isavailable.

An advantage that they wanted to identify was an ap-proximate. 80 percent reduction in fuel consumption. Ex-

28

cept for supplemental energy required to meet peak loads,fuel costs will be non-escalating. We know the sun doesn'tcharge any more for shining the next day and fuel supplyis non-interruptible. There is low maintenance. Of coursein the nation's best interest, solar energy saves the nationthat much in foreign exchange and balance of payment aswell as a conservation of our own fossil fuel reserves.

Some of the interesting estimates on this WarrentonHigh School project tell us the following costs as evalu-ated by the engineering firm that made the installation.The conventional systems they estimate in that particulararea vary according to sophistication of the design from$4.50 to $6.00 a square foot. Solar heating only, Warrenton'High School is estimated to be constructed and installedfor anywhere from $4.00 to $5.00 per square foot. Solarheating and cooling can be constructed effectively foranywhere from $6.00 to $8.00. Finally, the record indicatesat least in the Warrenton experience that the operatingcost of solar heated schools is one-fifth that ofconventional systems. It might well be worth spending areasonable amount more initially because the operatingand maintenance costs will be substantially reduced.

FOUR NSF FUNDED.SOLAR SCHOOLSIn a town called Osseo in Minnesota on the southside

of Minneapolis there is a. Junior High School for whichHoneywell, Inc., was awarded the contract to install a solarsystem for $358,000.00. Another is Grover ClevelandJunior High School in South. Boston, Massachusetts, andWarrenton High School which was mentioned earlier. Fi-nally, the fourth is an elementary school in Baltimore,Maryland.

Getting back to the Warrenton project, the system wasdesigned and built in 57 days even though no contractorwould bid for the construction of the collector, the pumphouse, or the storage facility, simply because there wereno drawings. The firm knew the basic rudiments andunderstood the engineering principles, and made theirdrawings as they went along. At the end of 57 days thebuildings were totally heated without any assistance fromany other source other than solar.

SOLAR COLLECTORSConcerning the solar collectors, a ladder rides along

on a track in order to take care of any replacement of anyof the glass should that occur from vandalism. Thus far,there has only been one glass broken. It appears thatsomething interesting is happening about the collector

31

which deters the children from breaking the glass. Thecollector is oriented to the south and is 53 degrees fromthe horizon. This is calculated to be the best situation forthe time of the year that the greatest amount of heat wasrequired.

The framing and the support for this entire collectorwas nothing more than the freight-like type. It was all builtwith local labor. When the solar panels are rested on theirframes, there is substantial insulation between the panels,between that surface and on the sides, and the doubleglazing on the top. Water is pumped up through thecollector at the top and down the header and hooked backinto the tank. From the tank it is distributed through a loopto the places where it is needed. Directly under the pumphouse are 550 gallon storage tanks. They are standardmanufactured tanks Which were assembled-on the site.The tanks are sealed, properly insulated on the side andthe top to store all the energy or heat collected from thecollectors, and used in several different ways. It might beinteresting to note that they are using just plain water, withno additives.

In summary, I look for solar energy to be a primarysource for heating and cooling in future constructed fa-cilities, in addition to being a major assisting energysource in existing buildings.

Mr. Edward StephanDirector, Federal Energy Management ProgramFederal Energy Administration12th and Pennsylvania Ave., NWWashington, D.C.

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCEOF FACILITIES

In order to Maintain heating and air conditioningequipment in good operating condition, one of the mostimportant things to do is keep filters clean and replacewhen needed. Dirty filters and coils increase operatingcosts. Ventilation air should be as low as needed for ven-tilation and odor control and turned completely off whenspace is unoccupied. The best way to control ventilationair is by a seven-day time clock. Fresh air intake louversshould be of good quality with low infiltration in the closedposition. Thermostats should be set to the lowesttemperature in winter and highest temperature in summerwhich will provide comfort conditioning. On heatingsystems, a 1-percent temperature reduction in the space isa 3 to 5 percent reduction in heating costs. All ductsoutside the conditioned space should be insulated with 2"duct insulation. Water lines on hot and chilled watersystems should be insulated for minimum losses. Coils onair-cooled condensing units should be kept clean and freefrom obstructions. Manually operated systems shouldhave proper controls in a convenient location. Finally, if acentral ventilation control wasn't installed originally,localized controls for ventilation can be added.

Regarding remodeling or replacement of heating andventilating equipment, using decentralized units reducesfirst cost as well as pipe and duct losses. Individual roomunits save energy by more accurate temperature controland provide more operating flexibility.

HEAT PUMPSUse heat pumps where practical. Heat pumps are the

"200-percent efficiency machines" because they produceabout two units of heat for each unit of energy used.

Economizer cycle on the unoccupied cycle, theinside air damper will be fully open with the outside airintake fully closed. The face and bypass damper will befully open to the heating elements. The heating elementswill cycle on call for heating.

On the occupied cycle, the outside air damper willopen to the minimum amount of air needed for ventilation.The heating elements will cycle on and off as needed forheating.

If the space temperature increases to a point wherecooling is needed, the outside air damper opens to 100percent and the indoor damper moves to the fully closedposition.

3229

If full ventilation cooling will not maintain room tem-perature, the outdoor air damper will close, the face andbypass damper faces off the heating elements, theminimum outside air damper will open, and themechanical refrigeration unit will start. On a decrease inroom temperature the sequence will occur in the reverseorder.

LIGHT CONSERVATIONConservation affecting lighting would call for turning

off lights when not needed for seeing purposes:

1. always with incandescent lamps,2. with fluorescent lamps, turn off when space will be un-

occupied for ten minutes or more,3. HID lamps off at end of work or day (25-percent life re-

duction for each 50-percent reduction of burning hours).

Provide switches for each area or room so that lightscan be turned off when not needed. Reduce lighting inhallways and other circulation spaces to about 20 percentof the level of the adjacent areas served. Substitutefluorescent lamps for incandescent lamps where possible.New sodium vapor lamp operates in many existingmercury fixtures (70 percent more light 10 percent lessWattage). Use metal halide lamps in place of mercurylamps (if ballast is compatible) in submarginal lightingsystems for more light without increasing energy use.(Provides 50-percent increase in light as same wattage.)Use the smallest wattage lamp which provides the level oflight needed. Use light finishes on the walls, ceiling, andfloors. Large dark areas absorb more light than lighterfinishes. Light finishes require less wattage input for thesame lighting level and render a more comfortable visualenvironment by providing better brightness ratios in thevisual field. Recommended reflectance for interiors are:

Ceilings 80-90%Walls 40-60%Furniture 25-45%Floors 20-40%

With a systematic lighting maintenance programgreater value can be obtained from the initial lightinginvestment. Not only is it possible to cut the total cost ofoperation in dollars and cents, but you can also get evengreater benefits in reducing the overall cost of light. Apoorly maintained lighting system may deliver only 50percent of the light it is capable of with propermaintenance. Here are six factors which cause light loss:

30

1. Lamp lumen depreciation2. Luminaire dirt3. Lamp outages4. Luminous finishes5. Room surface dirt6. Temperature and voltage

Two factors can cut light in half. They are lamp lumendepreciation and luminaire dirt depreciation. Lamp lu-men depreciation is uneconomical. To use these lamps tothe end of their life is impractical as they use as muchelectrical energy as new lamps and give much less light.

DIRT ACCUMULATIONSThe best way to keep track of your installation is with

periodic readings with a light meter. If you don't know theoriginal lighting level, cleaning and relamping a few fix-tures will give you a chance to see what your system's de-sign was originally. Frequently, this is quite a shock sincethe loss of light is so gradual that it isn't noticed until it is inpretty bad shape.

The maintenance of a lighting system breaks down intotwo major categories: Relam ping methods and cleaning.

Relamping may be accomplished on a spot basis asthey burn out one at a time or they may all be replaced.

THE 80/20 PLANThere are several ways a systematic schedule can be

set up. Here is how one plan works. It is called the 80/20.Put in all new lamps. Set aside either 20 percent additionalnew lamps, or the best 20 percent from the ones removed.

33

When the spares are used up for individual replacement,change the whole system again. The savings on laborshould more than offset the value of lamps discarded.Regardless of how you work out the system, the benefitsare there.

WATER HEATINGAll hot water faucets and valves should be kept in good

repair to prevent leaks of hot water. Locate hot waterheaters nearest the location where water will be used. In-sulate hot water pipes and tanks on all types of waterheaters, including space heating systems. Installadequate storage capacity to minimize demand charges.On large loads, install equipment to defer water heatingloads to off peak hours, if possible. Finally, set thermostatson water heaters to lowest temperature required.

FOOD SERVICE CONSERVATION OF ENERGYPreheat cooking equipment one section or burner at a

time, use the least amount of equipment needed and usefull loads where possible. Use the correct equipment foreach cooking operation. Insulated kettles have less heatloss, and run fully loaded dish racks. Don't forget to closeserving-line refrigerated cases when serving is completed.Remember not to leave hot water running, and don't leaverefrigeration equipment open.

In summation, remember the energy you waste costsjust as much as the energy you use wisely. Always take alook at your "energy efficiency ratio" on both presentequipment and any new or replacement equipment.

Mr. Charles H. PattersonCommercial SpecialistDivision of Power MarketingTennessee Valley AuthorityChattanooga, Tennessee

34 31

I

32

3

)NE UNITENERGY

:TRICITY)

HEATING SEASON

IN 101 1111

TWO UNENERGY(HEAT)

01 OUT

CZ

er3

The School Planning Laboratory assists schoolsystems, colleges and universities, local, state andnational agencies, industry, private planning and con-sulting firms, and foreign governments with FEA-SIBILITY STUDIES, CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT,FACILITY PLANNING, ,RESEARCH, SITE PLANNINGAND DEVELOPMENT, FINANCE, IN-SERVICETRAINING, AND MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION IN-FORMATION.

To obtain the.services of the Laboratory contact:Dr. Charles E. Trotter, Jr., Director

School Planning LaboratoryBox 8530, College of Education

The University of TennesseeKnoxville, Tennessee 37916

Tel: (615) 974-2501.

37