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Software Project Management4th Edit ion

Dispersed and cross-border

projects

Chapter 11(part two)

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Why ‘virtual projects’?

The physical needs of software developers (according to an IBM report):

• 100 square feet of floor space• 30 square feet of work surface• Dividers at least 6 feet high to muffle noise• Demarco and Lister found clear statistical links

between noise and coding error rates• One answer: send the developers home!

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Possible advantages

• Can use staff from developing countries – lower costs

• Can use short term contracts:– Reduction in overheads related to use of

premises– Reduction in staff costs, training, holidays,

pensions etc.• Can use specialist staff for specific jobs

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Further advantages

• Productivity of home workers can be higher – fewer distractions

• Can take advantage of time zone differences e.g. overnight system testing

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Some challenges

• Work requirements have to be carefully specified

• Procedures need to be formally documented

• Co-ordination can be difficult • Payment methods need to be modified

– piece-rates or fixed price, rather then day-rates

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More challenges• Possible lack of trust when there is no

face-to-face contact

• Assessment of quality of delivered products needs to be rigorous

• Different time zones can cause communication and co-ordination problems

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Time/place constraints on communication

Same place Different place

Same time Meetings, interviews

Telephone,Instant messaging

Different times

Notice boardsPigeon-holes

EmailVoicemailDocuments

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Other factors influencing communication genres

• Size and complexity of information – favours documents

• Familiarity of context e.g. terminology – where low, two-way communication favoured

• Personally sensitive – it has to be face-to-face communication here

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Best method of communication depends on stage of project• Early stages

– Need to build trust– Establishing context– Making important ‘global’ decisions– Favours same time/ same place

• Intermediate stages– Often involves the paralled detailed design of

components– Need for clarification of interfaces etc– Favours same time/different place

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Best method of communication depends on stage of project

• Implementation stages– Design is relatively clear– Domain and context familiar– Small amounts of operational data need to

be exchanged– Favours different time/different place

communications e.g. e-mail

• Face to face co-ordination meetings – the ‘heartbeat’ of the project

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What do we mean by ‘culture’?

Personality

Culture

Human nature

Specific to individuals Inherited and learned

Specific to groups Learned

HumanityBiological

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Be careful of stereotyping

e.g. country A versus country Bnote over-lapping area

individuality scores

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

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Hofstede

• Wrote book ‘Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values’ McGraw-Hill 1984

• Based on a questionnaire survey of 100,000 IBM employees worldwide

• Analysed responses by country and tried to identify national differences

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Power distanceExtent to which inequality is seen as a

inevitableDeference to those in authority

1. Malaysia 10415= France 6842=. UK, W.Germany 3549. Ireland 28

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Power distance

LowLess centralizationFlatter organizationManagers consult

before making decisions

Close supervision disliked by staff

HighGreater centralizationMore management

layersManagers make

decisions on their own

Close supervision welcomed by staff

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Uncertainty avoidance

Lack of tolerance for ambiguity and need for formal rules

1. Greece 11210= France 8629. W.Germany 6547= Ireland, UK 35

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Uncertainty avoidanceLowLive by the dayLess resistance to changeLoyalty not seen as a

virtueMore risk-takingHope of successManagers do not need to

be technical expertsRules may be broken for

pragmatic reasons

HighWorry about the futureResistance to changeLoyalty is seen as a virtueLess risk-takingFear of failureManagers need to be

experts in area they manage

Rules should not be broken

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Power distance/ uncertainty avoidance

Unc

ert

ain

ty a

void

an

ce

low

high

Power distancehigh

‘Village market’

‘Well-oiled machine’

‘Family’

‘pyramid of people’

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IndividualismConcern for yourself as opposed to concern for the priorities/rules of the group to which you belong

1. USA 913. UK 8910. France 7112. Ireland 7015. Germany 67

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Individualism vs collectivism

IndividualismCalculated

involvement with organizations

Employees expected to defend their own interests

Rules apply to allPrivate life important

CollectivismMoral involvement with

organizationsEmployees expect

organization to defend their interests

Rules vary according to relations

Private life can be invaded

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Masculinity vs Femininity

Hofstede identified those dimensions where globally the responses of women tended to differ from those of men

He then tried to relate the overall scores of countries with these differences

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Business areas affected by ‘femininity’

Less occupational segregation by genderSome young people want careers, but

others do not (not gender oriented)Organizations should not interfere with

people’s private livesLower job stressLess industrial conflictAppeal of job restructuring permitting

group integration

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‘Masculinity’ – country scores

1. Japan 957. Ireland, Jamaica 689. UK, W. Germany 6635.France 43

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Later work• Some later work looked particularly at

far east• New dimension emerged – long term

view or ‘dynamic confucianism’

General problemHow do apply this in practice?