ORI GIN AL PA PER

‘‘Deeply Woven Roots’’: Health Initiativesand Community Social Services of Faith-BasedOrganizations of the Hidalgo County, Texas

Johnny Ramırez-Johnson • John Park • Colwick Wilson •

Sharon Pittman • Hector Luis Dıaz

� Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

Abstract Faith-based organizations (FBO) continue to play a significant role in the lives

of individuals and communities in the United States. This study focused on the contri-

butions of FBO to the health and well-being of residents of Rio Grande Valley, South

Texas. Specifically, this study examined two main areas of involvement of FBO in Hidalgo

County, Texas: health initiatives and community social services. Despite their influential

and historical involvement, FBO partnership in the delivery of health and social services is

not well accounted for. This study explores the characteristics of the clergy, parishioners,

and FBO that are associated with community health initiatives and social services.

Analyses revealed that FBO deliver a remarkably wide range of services. On a weekly

basis, one in six or 17 % of Hidalgo County residents were reported as receiving some

form of health assistance or social services from county FBO. Variations exist depending

on the characteristics of the clergy and the FBO. Policy and practice recommendations

include engaging in additional networking, organizing resources, and strengthening FBO

health initiatives.

Keywords Faith � Health � Clergy � Hidalgo � Texas � Services

J. Ramırez-Johnson (&) � J. ParkLoma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USAe-mail: jramirez@LLU.edu

C. WilsonUniversity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

S. PittmanSouthern Adventist University, Collegedale, TN, USA

H. L. DıazUniversity of Texas–Pan American, Edinburg, TX, USA

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J Relig HealthDOI 10.1007/s10943-013-9807-x

‘‘Deeply Woven Roots’’: Faith-Based Organizations and Public Health

The nature of the argument set forth by this article is twofold. First, the need to abandon

isolationist mindsets in dealing with public health and promote interdisciplinary approa-

ches—‘‘In public health, people largely continue thinking within institutional confine-

ments’’ (Gunderson, and Cochrane 2012, page 160). Second, the need to account for the

role that faith-based organizations play in health promotion and delivery and the role

mapping their contributions has in such promotion—‘‘Mapping of religious entities con-

tributing to health is important for optimal alignment in resource constrained settings and

should be undertaken more widely leading to the establishment of a comprehensive

database’’ (Schmid et al. 2008; African Religious Health Assets Programme 2006).

The relevancy of the two aforementioned arguments for this study is intertwined.

Though many faith-based organizations actively provide care for their congregants and

communities, few congregations report and even fewer see ‘‘see themselves as acting in

working partnership with public agencies’’ (Gunderson and Cutts 2011, page 2). There is a

growing body of international and national literature presenting the idea that faith-based

organizations and their religious ideology or ‘‘impulses’’ ought to be better understood and

mobilized for public health (Gunderson and Cochrane 2012; Cochrane and Gunderson

2012; Cutts et al. 2012; Cochrane et al. 2011; Haddad et al. 2008; Thomas et al. 2006).

Following Williams and his associates, this study focused on the senior clergy adapting

his questionnaire and making it relevant to the Hidalgo County (Williams et al. 1999).

Following what Cutts and associates identified as the ‘‘physical embodiment’’ of religion

and health promotion dialectical, interdisciplinarian approach which takes human shape in

the body of each FBO senior clergy (Cutts et al. 2012, page 1318). The embodiment of

beliefs and praxis works as an integration of ‘‘the physical condition of the body with the

person’s belief system and social context, referred to as the spiritual and social body’’

(Thomas et al. 2006, page 5). From Masangane, South Africa to Minneapolis, Minnesota

and from the fight against AIDS pandemic to the health initiatives in the Rio Grande Valley

of Texas, the senior clergy and their FBO are promoting the health of their communities,

and this study focuses on one such approach located in Hidalgo County, Texas.

FBO Role in Health Initiatives and Social Involvement: Hidalgo County, Texas

On a weekly basis, 135,983 people are served by the 245 surveyed faith-based organiza-

tions (FBO) in Hidalgo County, Texas. This client population represents 17 % or one out

of every 6 residents of the county-wide population of 797,810 (Census 2012; Reininger

et al. 2008). This assistance comes from FBO of diverse religious and denominational

affiliation (see Table 1). The fact that such a volunteer religiously driven commitment

exists is a unique manifestation of what The Rev. Gary R. Gunderson calls the ‘‘deeply

woven roots’’ of many FBO. Such roots ground them as pivotal community providers for

some of the most basic health and social service needs (Gunderson and Cochrane 2012;

Cochrane and Gunderson 2012; Cutts et al. 2012; Cochrane et al. 2011; Gunderson and

Cutts 2011; Gunderson 1997). For the purpose of this study, health is defined as more than

traditional medical interventions; it is understood as including health initiatives for the

treatment of the whole person (see Table 2 for list of interventions practiced by Hidalgo

County FBO); social services, in turn, is defined as community social programs and

interventions provided by FBO to the community at large other than for direct prosely-

tizing (see Table 2).

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Table 1 Religious affiliation offaith-based organizations inHidalgo County, TX (N = 245)

Denomination N Percent

Non-denominational 126 51.3

Christian 53 21.6

Pentecostal 25 10.2

Baptist 24 9.7

Catholic 16 6.5

Muslim 1 .4

Table 2 Characteristics of community programs offered by the faith-based communities in Hidalgo County(N = 245)

Program area % FBO Contacts per week

Withprograms

Total % ofHP

Mean Range % externalfunding

Education 58.8 17,143 2.4 130.9 0–100 56.3

Substance abuse 29.2 2,567 .36 42.8 1–90 25.9

Child abuse/neglect 22.2 914 .13 26.1 1–98 19.4

Parenting 43.2 3,208 .45 39.6 0–90 36.8

Domestic violence 27.2 1,118 .16 28.0 1–40 21.1

Job training/unemployment 9.1 210 .03 13.1 0–50 7.7

Adoption/foster care 4.9 101 .01 50.5 2–10 3.2

Homeless shelter 15.2 1,060 .15 44.2 2–50 12.1

Soup kitchens 16.5 14,490 2.0 452.8 0–90 12.6

Adolescent/youth 57.6 6,885 .97 58.4 1–99 49.8

Elderly 26.7 2,420 .34 47.5 1–99 23.1

Long-term severe illness 6.6 200 .03 16.7 1–63 6.1

AIDS 5.8 147 .02 18.4 3–25 2.8

Prison/jail programs 23.9 2,051 .29 50.0 1–63 19.4

Food and clothing distribution 60.0 24,011 3.4 226.5 1–99 50.2

Counseling/teaching/discussion 59.3 6,059 .85 52.2 1–100 49.4

Spiritual outreach 80.2 26,859 3.8 175.6 1–106 66.0

Day care/nursery 18.9 1,793 .25 43.7 1–90 17.4

Recreation/community center 19.3 2,350 .33 71.2 0–90 14.6

Social/political activism 13.6 4,234 .60 249.1 0–63 9.3

Visits/visitations 66.7 3,730 .52 30.8 1–150 56.7

Financial 16.5 813 .11 30.1 0–81 13.8

Administration 12.4 1,174 .17 61.8 1–81 9.7

Miscellaneous volunteer work 41.2 7,258 1.0 95.5 1–99 34.4

Immigration status 9.9 270 .04 13.5 0–25 8.5

Language issues 13.6 802 .11 40.1 1–27 9.3

Preventative health 20.7 4,116 .58 122.5 0–54 15.8

Listed above are the health and social services provided by FBO. HP stands for the Hidalgo populationwhich is calculated to be 774,769 according to the US Census 2010

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The fact that FBO provides some type of weekly support via health initiatives to 17 %

of the Hidalgo County population is indicative of the FBO volunteer capabilities to provide

for the health needs of the Hidalgo County, Texas, inhabitants. According to a telephone

survey done by the Texas Department of State Health Services, 39 % of the Hidalgo

County residents do not have health insurance or access to health services (Texas

Department of State Health Services 2011). Evidence shows that FBO serve as ‘‘health

centers’’ across America ‘‘bringing health and healing to thousands’’ (Gunderson 1997).

Research findings suggest that FBO-sponsored health services contribute to improving

the health and well-being of their clients (Campbell et al. 2007). FBO working as ‘‘health

centers’’ have initiated social service and health programs in their respective communities

across America (Gee et al. 2005; Anderson 2004; Gunderson 1997). In spite of their

limited resources, FBO work and collaborate to promote individual and community health

via community health centers (Gee et al. 2005; Stammer 2009). Cnaan and Boddie (2002)

point out that the role of FBO’ in providing health and social services to mainstream

society has not been properly emphasized or explored. Furthermore, it is noted that tension

exists between secular and religious organizations that provide social services (McGrew

and Cnaan 2006; Evans 2011; Achtenberg et al. 2009; Eckhard and Park 2009).

Kettell (2012) outlined the significance of the contribution of FBO to society and the

‘‘Liberal Democrat’’ political agenda. The contributions of FBO include health and social

services which have in turn led to positive community change, policy development, and

implementation in society (Blum 2001; Campbell et al. 2007; Cnaan and Boddie 2002;

Chaves 1999; Johnson 2002). A census of congregational social services revealed that

88 % of congregations participate in the provision of at least one health program in the

form of counseling, substance abuse, nursing home, hospital care, or general health edu-

cation (Cnaan and Boddie 2002). It has been documented that each FBO in the USA

provides an average of 2.4 programs and served 102 people per month (Cnaan and Boddie

2002). FBO play an ever-increasing role in providing health and social services to the

community (Chaves 1999; Cnaan et al. 1999; Watson et al. 2003). This vision of com-

munity involvement of FBO comes from ‘‘deeply woven roots,’’ a set of interconnections

and social interactions motivated by a spiritually minded philosophy (Gunderson 1997).

FBO and Clergy Characteristics and Community Involvement

The willingness to come and minister to malaria plagued Memphis citizens in 1878 can be

attributed to a religious ideology that ‘‘defy simplistic models of health intervention’’

(Gunderson and Cochrane 2012, page 3). This is so because FBO’s role cannot be

explained with lineal medical models or simplistic preventative ideology, the role is

complex in providing both ideological approaches to conceiving health as pertaining to

what God expects of you as well as what God wants you to do in favor of your neighbors

(Gunderson and Cochrane 2012). In that spirit, annually, FBO serve more than 70 million

people and their services are valued at over $20 billion (Johnson 2002). Research findings

show that the following characteristics of FBO are positively associated with the number of

health and social service programs offered by the FBO: the number of years the FBO has

been in the community, the membership size of the FBO, annual budget of FBO, and the

number of paid staff members (Desmond et al. 2010; Gee et al. 2005; Blum 2001; Tsitsos

2003; Caldwell et al. 1995; Cantrell et al. 1982; Lincoln and Mamiya 1990; Olsen 1988).

These factors are also a likely proxy for a range of financial and human resources that FBO

can draw on to meet the needs of the community (Desmond et al. 2010; Tsitsos 2003;

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Carson 1990; Eng and Hatch 1991; Jones 1982; Lincoln and Mamiya 1990). It is inter-

esting to note that the extent to which FBO cooperate with other entities such as religious,

government, and community organizations has not been sufficiently documented. Many

FBO participate in food distribution programs and/or collaborate with government agen-

cies to varying degrees (Brown and Adamczyk 2008; Ebaugh et al. 2000; Cnaan et al.

1999; Carson 1990). This may also be a significant component in the involvement of FBO

in the community.

Reportedly, several clergy characteristics are associated with the number of programs

offered by the FBO to the community. Prior research has found positive associations

between the minister’s age, education level, years of experience, and the number of pro-

grams offered by the FBO (Turner 1973; Caldwell et al. 1995; Lincoln and Mamiya 1990;

Tsitsos 2003). At the same time, clergy and ministers who have other concurrent full-time

jobs frequently are less able to participate in community services offered by the FBO (Gee

et al. 2005; Caldwell et al. 1995).

Hidalgo County, Texas

Bordering Mexico and as part of the Rio Grande Valley, the Hidalgo County in Texas has a

unique cultural context. Approximately 89 % of the population identifies with Hispanic or

Latino background (Census 2007), and 83.1 % of its population has been raised speaking a

language other than English (Census 2007). Because of the central role of religion in these

people’s lives, FBO play a major role in the provision of health-related and community

social services to the Hidalgo County. For the residents of this county, there is a strong

cultural link between religion and identity as stated by Trevino (2009):

As the twentieth century waned, religion remained an integral part of Mexican-

American life. Despite the perennial concern about declension, the Tejano com-

munity was still overwhelmingly Catholic in the 1990s, and the basic contours of

Tejano Catholicism had changed little over time. Mexican-American Catholicism

continued to be home-centered, loosely tied to institutional practices and strongly

based on folk traditions… a clear pattern of historical continuity and similarity

characterized the religious life of Mexican Americans of all faiths as the century

drew to a close. For Catholic and Protestant Tejanos alike, religion had been and

remained a struggle for and an expression of self-determination, and it continued to

be as entwined with their chosen way of life in the late twentieth century as it had

been during the formative Spanish and Mexican eras.

Trevino’s cultural argument points to a strong role for cultural ideas, moral beliefs, and

religious traditions as intertwined in the fabric of the Hidalgo County population.

Methods

This investigation explored the role of FBO in the delivery of human services, including

health, education, and support services to Hidalgo County, Texas, community residents.

This study had two main objectives. First, we sought to identify all the programs and

services that the FBO of Hidalgo County provides to its community members. Second, we

examined specific individual (clergy) and organizational (FBO) factors that are associated

with the number of programs offered by the county FBO.

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Hypotheses

H1 Years in the community, FBO membership size, annual budget of FBO, and the size

of the paid staff will be positively associated with the number of health-related and

community social programs offered by the FBO.

H2 Clergy’s age, education, years served in ministry, and other paid employment will be

positively associated with the number of health-related and community social programs

offered by the FBO.

Study Population

A comprehensive list of FBO was developed by combining data sets from the Hidalgo

County assessor’s office of all religiously affiliated property owners and tenants. This

resulted in a master list containing 301 FBO. All senior clergy were identified and invited

to participate in this project in an effort to obtain maximum participation of the listed FBO

within the Hidalgo County.

Attempts were made to contact each clergy through phone calls, visitations, and

community referrals. The purpose of the study and the procedures of the interview process

were explained to each clergy member. Participants were required to sign the IRB-

approved informed consent forms and confidentiality statements prior to the interview

session. Each interview lasted between 60 and 120 min with an average of 90 min per

interview. Interviews were conducted by graduate and undergraduate social work students

from the University of Texas–Pan American after they received ethics training and IRB

approval (Table 3).

Interviewees were given the option to take the survey in English or Spanish. Data were

collected from senior clergy between January and May of 2009. The sample of senior

clergy included 46 females and 255 males for a participation rate of 81 % (N = 301),

which is notably higher when compared to the participation rate of 60 % reported in a

previous study (Caldwell et al. 1995).

Dependent Variable

1. Number of health-related and community social programs offered by the specific FBO.

Independent Variables

1. FBO characteristics

a. Years in community

b. FBO membership

c. Annual budget

d. Number of paid pastoral staff.

2. Characteristics of the senior clergy

a. Age

b. Formal education

c. Years serving as clergy

d. Other paid employment.

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Statistical Analyses

Multivariate analyses were performed to examine the relationship between the FBO, the

clergy characteristics and the number of programs offered. Descriptive analyses and cross-

tabulation were used to organize and illustrate the characteristics of programs offered by

the FBO of Hidalgo County. The associations between the characteristics of the clergy,

organizational resources, indicators of organizational performance, and the mean number

of programs offered by the FBO were explored. Prior to the statistical analyses, the

assumptions of normality, linearity, and homogeneity of variance were examined for the

variables of interest in this study. The variables (fan identification, cultural orientation, and

attributions) of the study were examined. After careful examination, a total of 56 cases

were deleted from the analyses resulting in 245 cases to be analyzed. Multivariate

regression analyses were performed examining the relationship between the FBO char-

acteristics (years in community, FBO membership, annual budget, and the number of paid

clergy staff) and the number of programs offered as shown in Tables 4 and 5. The second

multivariate regression analyses examined the relationship between the clergy character-

istics (gender, age, education level, years in ministry, and other paid employment) and the

number of programs offered as shown in Tables 6 and 7. In the interest of parsimony and

clarity of presentation, bivariate analyses and cross-tabulations are presented in table

format.

Findings

H1 Years in the community, FBO membership size, annual budget of FBO, and the size

of the paid staff will be positively associated with the number of health-related and

community social programs offered by the FBO.

Table 3 Descriptive statistics ofthe relationship between FBOcharacteristics and the number ofprograms offered (N = 245)

FBO characteristics N Mean # of programs

Years FBO in community

0–12 72 7.3

13–24 33 7.5

25–36 26 8.9

37? 69 8.6

FBO membership

Less than 50 28 6.4

50–99 48 5.7

100–199 53 8.3

200? 63 10.4

Annual budget

Less than $60,000 47 7.5

More than $60,000 112 9.7

Paid clergy staff

None 27 7.3

1 38 7.1

2 or more 76 10.0

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The statistical findings of this study partially substantiate Hypothesis 1. The annual

budget of the FBO was found to be significantly associated with the number of programs

offered, b = .40, t = 3.44, p \ .01. Less than 25 % of FBO of Hidalgo County reported

having an annual budget of less than $60,000. FBO with more than $60,000 annual budget

Table 4 Model summary for regression model for FBO characteristics and the number of programs offered(N = 245)

Model R R2 Adj. R2 SE of estimate Sum of squares F

1 .11 .01 .00 4.98 26.39 1.06

2 .21 .04 .02 4.93 45.72 1.88

3 .43 .18 .15 4.59 130.0 6.18*

4 .44 .19 .15 4.59 103.0 4.90*

* Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed)

Table 5 Regression coefficients for ANCOVA model for FBO characteristics and the number of programsoffered (N = 245)

Model Unstandardized coefficients Standardized coefficients T

B SE b

1 Constant 8.41 .90 – 9.34**

Years FBO in community .02 .02 .11 1.01

2 Constant 8.26 .89 – 9.24**

Years FBO in community .02 .02 .10 .89

Size of FBO membership .00 .00 .18 1.63

3 Constant 7.53 .85 – 8.82**

Years FBO in community .01 .02 .04 .38

Size of FBO membership .00 .00 -.01 -.11

Annual Budget 6.03 .00 .42 3.77**

4 Constant 7.43 .86 – 8.65**

Years FBO in community .01 .02 .04 .37

Size of FBO membership -5.30 .00 -.02 -.16

Annual budget 5.65 .00 .40 3.44**

Number of paid staff .05 .05 .11 1.03

** Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed)

Table 6 Model summary for regression model for clergy characteristics and the number of programsoffered (N = 245)

Model R R2 Adj. R2 SE of estimate Sum of squares F

1 .01 .00 -.01 4.97 124.30 .02

2 .19 .04 .02 4.90 125.80 2.59

3 .19 .04 .02 4.92 174.80 1.73**

4 .22 .05 .02 4.90 43.69 1.82**

** Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed)

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offered a mean of 9.7 programs, whereas the FBO with less than $60,000 annual budget

offered a mean of 7.5 programs. FBO membership size, years in community, and other

paid staff were not significantly associated with the number of programs offered by the

FBO (Table 8).

As shown in Table 3, FBO that have been in the community between 25 and 36 years

reported having the highest mean number of programs (8.9), while those that have been in

the community 12 years or less offer the lowest average number of programs (7.3)

assigned to those. Such differences, however, are not statistically significant. FBO with a

smaller membership have fewer programs than FBO with a larger membership. FBO with

less than 100 members offered approximately 6 programs compared to FBO with over 200

members, which offered over 10 programs. FBO who had a paid clergy staff offered more

programs in the community. FBO with 2 or more paid staff members offered an average of

10 programs compared to 7.3 programs offered by FBO who had no paid clergy staff

members.

H2 Clergy’s age, education, years served in ministry, and other paid employment will be

positively associated with the number of health-related and community social programs

offered by the FBO.

Statistical findings partially support Hypothesis 2. The education level of the clergy was

the only significant predictor for the number of programs offered by the FBO. A Pearson’s

correlation found a significant but weak negative correlation between ‘‘number of years of

formal education of the clergy’’ and ‘‘number of programs offered to the community’’

(r = -.182, p = .007). An ANOVA, in turn, found significant differences in the ‘‘number

of programs offered to the community’’ by ‘‘clergy age groups’’ (F = 4.52, df = 2,

p = .012). Clergy members in the 18–29 age group and those in the 65 and over age group

Table 7 Regression coefficients for ANCOVA model for clergy characteristics and the number of pro-grams offered (N = 245)

Model Unstandardized coefficients Standardized coefficients T

B SE b

1 Constant 8.09 1.50 – 5.38**

Age .07 .55 .01 .13

2 Constant 4.46 2.18 – 2.05*

Age .25 .54 .04 .46

Education level .21 .09 .19 2.27*

3 Constant 4.43 2.19 – 2.03*

Age .20 .58 .03 .34

Education level .21 .09 .19 2.28*

Years served in ministry .01 .05 .02 .25

4 Constant 2.77 2.47 – 1.12

Age .05 .59 .01 .09

Education level .20 .09 .18 2.11*

Years served in ministry .01 .05 .01 .16

Other paid occupation 1.34 .94 .12 1.43

** Correlation is significant at the .01 level. * .05 level (2-tailed)

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offered the lowest mean number of programs, while members of the clergy in the middle

age group offered the highest number of programs.

Seventy-one percent of the clergy of Hidalgo County have some college education (13

or more years of education). The other 29 % have 12 years or less of formal education,

which is comparable to Lincoln and Mamiya’s (1990) study, where it is reported that 26 %

of urban clergy had 12 years or less of formal education.

Cross-tabulations of the descriptive analyses reveal meaningful patterns for the vari-

ables of gender, age, years in ministry, and other paid employment, as shown in Table 3.

Gender was not a significant predictor for the number of programs offered by the FBO

according to the multivariate analyses. In Hidalgo County, the clergy consists of 23 %

female and 77 % male. The percentage of female ministers in Hidalgo County is much

higher than the percentage of female ministers in all African-American churches reported

by Lincoln and Mamiya (1990), where there were only 3 % female ministers in urban

African-American FBO. Also, Caldwell et al. (1995) reported 8 % female ministers in their

sample of African-American churches in the northern region. Thus, female ministers

appear to have greater representation in Hidalgo County, Texas, when compared to other

communities in the USA, which suggests increased opportunities for the female clergy

members in Hidalgo County.

Clergy who have served for 6–10 years reported offering the highest mean number of

programs (9.2) compared to other clergy with fewer years of service. According to our

study, approximately 19 % of FBO in Hidalgo County do not have a minister receiving a

salary. Moreover, ministers who spend less than 30 h/week in ministry also engage in a

Table 8 Relationship betweenclergy characteristics and thenumber of programs offered(N = 245)

Clergy characteristics N Mean numberof programs

Gender

Male 152 8.1

Female 46 7.8

Age

18–29 years 10 6.8

30–45 years 63 7.8

46–64 years 78 9.0

65? years 29 6.6

Education

0–12 years 55 6.3

13–15 years 24 8.8

16? years 109 8.6

Years in ministry

1–5 79 7.5

6–10 52 9.1

11–19 30 7.7

20? 36 7.6

Other paid employment

None 11 7.8

Less than 30 h 21 8.7

More than 30 h 32 5.8

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separate full-time occupation. As a matter of fact, 27 % of Hidalgo County ministers have

other full-time jobs, while another 15 % have other part-time jobs (less than 30 h/week).

Descriptive analyses revealed that clergy who participated in other paid employment were

involved in leading 8.7 programs for the FBO, while clergy who worked for more than

30 h led 5.8 programs for the FBO. This suggests that clergy, not burdened with other

occupational responsibilities, tend to lead more programs than their colleagues holding two

or more employments.

Discussion

This study provides the first known empirical data regarding FBO and their health ini-

tiatives and social involvement in Hidalgo County, Texas. All across America and around

the world, FBO have played an integral role in providing valuable social service and health

programs (Ottoni-Wilhelm 2010). In Hidalgo County, FBO offer a wide range of essential

services to the community in spite of the limited resources of non-profit organizations

(Ebaugh et al. 2003; Seley et al. 2002; Carson 1990). In the current study, two important

determinants of the differences in the functioning of the FBO and clergy member were

identified: the annual budget of the FBO and the education level of the clergy.

Annual budget was the most important determinant for the FBO in the provision of

social service and health programs to the community. FBO with an annual budget

exceeding $60,000 offered on average more than 2 programs than FBO who had an annual

budget lower than $60,000. Blum (2001) states that FBO are willing to be involved in the

issues of social justice and develop outreach programs, but financial limitations ‘‘hamper

many congregations efforts to do more.’’ As confirmed by our study, FBO are restricted

financially to provide valuable services to their respective communities. Our study con-

firmed that the FBO’s financial resources play an integral role in the FBO capabilities to

provide services to the community.

A unique characteristic of Hidalgo County is the high female representation in the FBO

leadership. In Hidalgo County, the clergy consists of 23 % female and 77 % male. The

percentage of female ministers in Hidalgo County is much higher than the percentage of

female ministers in the FBO previously reported (Lincoln and Mamiya 1990; Caldwell

et al. 1995). Female ministers appear to have greater representation in Hidalgo County,

Texas, when compared to other populations of the USA. The finding suggests female

clergy members play an important role in providing valuable programs and services to the

community and confirms the acceptance of female leadership in FBO. The relatively high

female representation among the Hidalgo County clergy as identified by our sampling

methodology indicates the distinctive trait of this community.

The education level of the clergy was the most significant predictor for the clergy in

providing services in the community. Higher levels of education were associated with

increased professional relationships, increased knowledge and opportunity of social and

community services, increased awareness of the needs of community and its people,

cultural awareness and sensitivity, increased social support, and attitude adjustment, which

are all important factors for the motivation and involvement of providing community

services and programs to the community (Carter 2009; Gunderson 1997; Koepke 2011).

Education appears to provide clergy with the tools, knowledge, and resources to make a

significant contribution to the needs of society.

The limitations of this study are noted. Consistent with the US Census Bureau 2010, the

sample consists of a predominantly Hispanic population, which is not representative of the

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population of the USA. For this reason, the findings of this study are not generalizable to

all FBO and communities nationwide. In addition, the majority of FBO who participated in

this study identified themselves as Protestant or Catholic. Only one clergy participant

adhered to a different faith tradition (Muslim). This study cannot confirm the role of other

religious or spiritual organizations in the types of programs offered to their respective

communities. However, in regards to Hidalgo County, it is the first step toward under-

standing the role of FBO in providing services to their community members. We encourage

future researchers to expand upon their research to include the roles of the different faiths

and traditions that are represented in the USA and to address other cultural and ethnic

backgrounds.

Implications and Future Outlook

Religion and health intertwine in the world of FBO, and this is clear from the efforts

exerted in Hidalgo County, Texas, and such efforts are an echo of the worldwide efforts of

FBO (Gunderson and Cochrane 2012; Cochrane and Gunderson 2012; Cutts et al. 2012;

Cochrane et al. 2011; Haddad et al. 2008; Thomas et al. 2006). FBO contribute to pros-

ociality to benefit people and society (Saraglou et al. 2005). Without FBO, our society

would lack a social safety net that is vital to what the Supreme Court has called ‘‘a

beneficial and stabilizing influence in community life’’ (Cnaan and Boddie 2002). FBO and

their clergy are committed to providing services that positively impact the people of the

community. Currently, community centers and FBO collaborate in limited ways to pro-

mote individual and community health, yet a comprehensive effort to coordinate the dif-

ferent organizations is still needed (Gee et al. 2005). There has been some collaboration

between the FBO and other organizations for the provision of services, but it does not

sufficiently meet the needs of the community. Nevertheless, the specific factors that may

determine the levels of cooperation have yet to be identified. These are some of the

implications for policy and practice, which include promoting the collaboration between

FBO and other community-based organizations. We encourage communication and col-

laboration among FBO with other public health agencies and organizations such as County

Departments of Public Health, hospitals, and mental health providers. This could facilitate

utilizing and maximizing the diverse resources of the community that could help increase

access and utilization to the programs offered by the FBO. The Hidalgo County Public

Health Department could play a key or leading role in organizing and strengthening FBO

health initiatives. Future research must seek to shed light on the details of networking

dynamics between FBO and other local organizations, including local, state, and federal

governments. Also, investigation is needed to better understand the complex interactions

among religious values, race relations, and community networking. FBO may provide

valuable services to people who are experiencing financial limitations and challenges in the

USA. With Gunderson and Cocharane, this study argues for the benefits of mapping the

efforts of FBO in promoting the health of their communities (Gunderson and Cochrane

2012).

Acknowledgments The PI conducted this research under the auspices of The University of Texas–PanAmerican (UTPA) as part of the Border Issues Research Initiative while on sabbatical from the School ofReligion at Loma Linda University (LLU) and as a visiting professor with the Department Social Work,College of Health Sciences and Human Services at UTPA. The PI is particularly thankful to MSW student,Sandra CobosTrevino, and BSW student, Rebecca Lopez, and psychology student, Kyle Williams forserving as research assistants. The PI and Co-PI are equally thankful to all the students from the Department

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of Social Work who participated in the data collection process. We also thank the Social Services TaskForce Support Group chaired by Mrs. Nancy G. Saenz, LMSW and Zeniff Moreno, secretary. We alsoexpress our gratitude to all the faith-based organizations’ senior clergy for sharing their valuable time withus to make this research possible. This research was conducted under UTPA Institutional Review Board-approved Project No. IRB #2008-122-11, ‘‘Hidalgo County, Texas, Hispanic Faith-Based Communities: AStudy of Latino Health Initiatives’’ and was fully funded by the School of Religion, Loma Linda UniversityIntramural Research Grant Program, 2008–2009.

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