Countering Terrorist Identity Building Liane Rothenberger, Kathrin Müller & Ahmed Elmezeny ISAC-ISSS Conference, Austin | November 2014

Content 1. Objectives & Relevance 2. Theoretical Background 2.1 Terrorism

2.2 Discourse as Strategic Communication

2.3 Identity

2.3 Sampling

3. Methodology 3.1 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)

3.2 Discourse Strategies / Coding Scheme / Identity

4. Results 4.1 Findings

4.2 Counter-narratives

4.3 Conclusion & Outlook

References

1. Objectives & Relevance

TERRORISM

DISCOURSE

COMMONLY, ANALYSIS

OF MAINSTREAM MASS MEDIA COVERAGE (RELIGIOUS)

TERRORIST GROUPS

I D E N T I T Y

COUNTER

NARRATIVES ?

GROUP IDENTITY BUILDING

→ RECRUITMENT

2.1 Terrorism -“Kill one, frighten one thousand” - an old Chinese saying

- terrere (verb. lat.) – to bring someone to tremble through

great fear

- “Propaganda of the deed” - Bakunin

- The perspective of communication sciences: Terrorism as

a communication strategy of sub-state actors, which

include unpredictable violence against certain targets and

creates a mood of extreme fear in civilian population (cf.

Schmid, 2011, p. 780)

>250

Definitions in: Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research (2011, pp. 99-148)

2.1 Terrorism Figure 1: Waldmann’s (2000, 2001) typology of terrorism

social-revolutionary ethnic-nationalistic religious Major issue: social and political revolution

Goal: an equal opportunities post-society based on

Marxist ideals

Counterparts: radicals, changers of culture, politics,

economy and administration

Major issue: national and ethnic

Goal: liberation/autonomy of/for a territory

Counterparts: members of minority groups (self-

perception: suppressed, dominated by majority)

Major issue: religion

Goal: millenarian/utopian visions of society based on

religious principles

Counterparts: religious conservatives, widespread

mostly in Islam → islamists

The (two) Testimony(ies): “There is no god but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God”

2.2 Discourse as Strategic Communication Terrorist and extremist organizations are increasingly

present online and able to communicate own stories (cf. Chen, 2010):

2006 ≈ 5.000 web sites

2010 ≈ 100.000

2014 ≈ ?

In the course of mediatization/digitalization, terrorist groups strategically communicate...

via web sites, blogs, forums, social media

→ targeted information transfer

→ own framing of messages

no censorship

no regulation

no gatekeepers

→ Deutungshoheit (DE) ≈ interpretational sovereignty; prerogative of

interpretation (EN)

2.2 Discourse as Strategic Communication

“[A]ll social phenomena and objects obtain their

meaning(s) through discourse, which is defined as a

structure in which meaning is constantly negotiated

and constructed” (Laclau, 1988, p. 254).

- Discourse strategies are the techniques of choice for

legitimisation, especially when it comes to persuasion.

They reproduce unequal power relations or produce new

ones by means of representation and depiction of

social actors and their actions (cf. Jørgensen & Philips,

2002, p. 63).

2.3 Identity “[T]hrough discourses, social actors constitute objects of knowledge, situations and social roles as well as identities and interpersonal relations” (Wodak et al., 2009, p. 8). “[I]dentity [... is] the process of construction of meaning on the basis of a cultural attribute, or related set of cultural attributes, that is/are given priority over other sources of meaning.” (Castells, 1997, p. 6)

→ religion, gender, nationality, race, sexuality… + three forms of identity marked by an omnipresent context of power relations: (1) legitimising, (2) resistance & (3) project (Castells, 2010)

DISCOURSE → CONSTRUCTION OF IDENTITY (FORM)

STRATEGIC USE OF DISCOURSE → EMPHASIS ON PARTICULAR FORM

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS → WHICH IDENTITY (FORM)?

2.3 Sampling

The starting point - the list of groups defined as

terrorist organizations by the EU - renewed at

least every six months (11 persons & 25

organisations).

Version dated July 2013; Pages: About Us,

Mission Statements & Press releases (13

Text units)

We have developed a Glossary of figures of

speech in order to facilitate strategies detection

The sample includes the following terrorist groups: Social-revolutionary terrorism: - Fuerzas armadas revolucionarias de Colombia (Revolutionary

Armed Forces of Colombia – FARC) - Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan (Kurdistan Workers’ Party – PKK) Ethnic-nationalistic terrorism: - International Sikh Youth Federation (ISYF) - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) Religious terrorism: - Gama’a al-Islamiyya - Hizballah Military Wing (and all units reporting to it, including

the External Security Organization)

3.1 CDA (MaxQDA) Fairclough (1995) describes CDA as a tool “to systematically explore often opaque relationships of causality and determination between (a) discursive practices, events and texts, and (b) wider social and cultural structures, relationships and processes” (p. 132). CDA as “a problem-oriented interdisciplinary research movement, subsuming a variety of approaches. What unites them is a shared interest in the semiotic dimensions of power, injustice, abuse, and political-economic or cultural change in society” (Fairclough, Mulderrig, & Wodak, 2011, p. 357). Discourse analysts should be “actively involved in the topics and phenomena they study” and “focus on relevant social problems.” (Van Dijk, 1997, p. 22 f.).

3.2 Discourse Strategies/Coding Scheme

4.1 Findings

Terrorist

group

Strategy of discrediting opponents

(demontage and dismantling)

Strategy of positive self-presentation

(constructive strategies)

FARC What a miserable president do we have in Colombia. Only a machine acts like you capitalists do, oligarchs, pipi Yankees or whatever your name is.

Democratic and revolutionary opposition We are a belligerent force, a political, revolutionary organization with a project for our country. the ones that keep up the banners of change and social justice

PKK The new implementers of genocide policies against Kurds State suppression policies of massacre, oppression, torture, genocide and assimilation; backward and antidemocratic mentalities; racist-chauvinist Unionists

Martyrs of the revolution; the revolutionary movement; democratic solution project of the people; a beacon for socialism and internationalism

4.1 Findings Terrorist

group

Strategy of discrediting opponents

(demontage and dismantling)

Strategy of positive self-presentation

(constructive strategies)

LTTE the Sinhala state oppression and discrimination unfolded in its ugly forms threatening the national identity; high-handed tactics of terror; a repressive racist state adopting the methods of brutal violence; tyranny; Sinhala chauvinistic forces; attacking everything that defined the Tamils as a nation

Struggle for freedom and dignity Collective Tamil aspirations for identity, homeland and nationhood A national liberation organization with the overwhelming support of the Tamil masses

KZF The systematic violation of riparian rights of Punjab, the Sikh holocaust, the genocide of the Sikhs, Khalistan is yet another reminder of malice and hate of Indian government and radical hindu organizations towards the Sikhs

Peaceful, democratic and righteous struggle to liberate Khalistan

4.1 Findings Terrorist

group

Strategy of discrediting opponents

(demontage and dismantling)

Strategy of positive self-presentation

(constructive strategies)

Hizballah Pressuring threats pactised by the foreign Zionist entity

Islamic freedom fighting movement; correct beliefs Islam rejects violence as a method to gain Power

GAI Lie propagators; the unbelievers' crusades, the hypocrite's dubiousness and the phony's fabrications in religion; the mortal enemies; foreign invaders; hegemony of one superpower on the international arena

Muslims have to concert their efforts and try to affect a renaissance in these countries so as to become the way they used to: strutting in glory and grandeur. a close-knit community; one righteous path

4.1 Findings : Strategies of Justification / Legitimization (trigger event) FARC “As commander Alfonso Cano said: the FARC were born to resist to the oligarchic

violence, which systematically uses political crime to annihilate the democratic and revolutionary opposition.”

PKK “Democrats of the West, the communists of the East and the national liberationist movements across the world made a new anti-capitalist movement a priority for revolutionary youths. This was the birth of the 1968 youth movement.”

LTTE “Foreign colonialism laid the foundation for the present national conflict.” KZF “Operations “Bluestar” and “Woodrose” were massive acts of state terrorism.” Hizballah “The Israeli invasion of 1982 provided the catalyst for Shiite radicalism;

Hizbullah is an Islamic freedom fighting movement founded after the Israeli military seizure of Lebanon in 1982.”

GAI “Religion was and is still the major motive of all revolutions and popular uprisings in the Muslim countries till they could gain their independence from the foreign invaders.”

4.1 Findings Approximate text structure (themes) and line of argumentation: 1. “WHO/WHAT/WHY WE are/do GOOD” → occasionally supported by “THEY are/do BAD” → supported by “WE want resp. WE DON’T want” (usually related to what THEY are/do) 2. “WE want CHANGE” → supported by “because THEY are/do BAD” → supported by “because WE don’t WANT it to continue” → occasionally supported by “because WHO/WHAT/WHY WE are/do GOOD” Leading roles: WE are/do and WE want CHANGE Supporting roles: THEY are/do and WE DON’T want

1.

2.

3.

4.

4.

4.2 Counter-narratives

5 different approaches to counterterrorism (according to Crelinsten 2014): coercive, proactive, persuasive, defensive, and long-term “involves understanding and dealing with the ideas that underpin the use of

terrorism in social and political life. This has ideological, political, social, cultural

and religious aspects” (Crelinsten, 2014: 6) e.g. anti-communist frame for PKK (using constructivist strategies)

4.3 Conclusion & Outlook

Conclusion A strong to very strong emphasis constructive and

destructive strategies

WE/US/OUR-perspective is dominant

Trying to justify / legitimize their actions

Different Context → Similar strategies

Outlook Enlarging the sample for each type of terrorism

Analysis of changes over time

Inclusion of social media

References Castells, Manuel (1997): The Power of Identity. Malden, Oxford: Blackwell. Castells, M. (2010). The power of identity (2 ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Chaliand, Gerard (1987): Terrorism. From Popular Struggle to Media Spectacle. London: Saqi Books. Chen, H. (2012). Dark web: Exploring and data mining the dark side of the web. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. Council common position on the application of specific measures to combat terrorism., 2013/395/CFSP C.F.R. (2013, July 25). Crelinsten, R. (2014). Perspectives on Counterterrorism: From Stovepipes to a Comprehensive Approach. Perspectives on Terrorism, 8(1), 2-15. Easson, J. J., & Schmid, A. P. (2011). 250 - plus academic, governmental and intergovernmental definitions of terrorism. In A. P. Schmid (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of terrorism research (pp. 99-157). Abingdon: Routledge. Elter, Andreas: Propaganda der Tat. Die RAF und die Medien. Frankfurt am Main 2008. Fairclough, N. (1995). Communication in the mass media discourse. London, New York: Arnold, E. Fairclough, N., Mulderrig, J., & Wodak, R. (2011). Critical Discourse Analysis. In T. A. van Dijk (Ed.), Discourse Studies. A multidisciplinary Introduction (2nd ed., pp. 357-378). London et al.: Sage Publications. Farnen, Russell F. (1990): Terrorism and the Mass Media: A Systemic Analysis of a Symbiotic Process. In: Terrorism, Vol. 13 No. 2, p. 99-143. Frey, Bruno S. (2004): Dealing with Terrorism – Stick or Carrot? Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. Habermas, J. (1979). Communication and the evolution of society. Boston: Beacon Press. Hallahan, K., Holtzhausen, D., Betteke, v. R., Verčič, D., & Sriramesh, K. (2007). Defining strategic communication. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 1(1), 3-35. doi: 10.1080/15531180701285244

Jones, R.S., & McEwen M.K. (2000). A Conceptual Model of Multiple Dimenions of Identity. Journal of College Student Developement, 41 (4), 405-414 Jørgensen, M. W., & Philips, L. J. (2002). Discourse analysis as theory and method. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Laclau, E. (1988). Metaphor and social antagonisms. In C. Nelson & L. Grossberg (Eds), Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture (pp. 249-257). Urbana: University of Illinois.

References Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Mefalopulos, P., & World Bank. (2008). Development communication sourcebook: broadening the boundaries of communication. Washington DC: World Bank. Schmid, A. P. (1992). The response problem as a definition problem. Terrorism and Political Violence, 4(4), 7-13. doi: 10.1080/09546559208427172 Schmid, A.P. (2004). Frameworks for Conceptualising Terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 16(2), 197-221. doi:10.1080/09546550490483134 Schmid, A. P. (2011). The definition of terrorism. In A. P. Schmid (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of terrorism research. Abingdon, OX: Routledge. Waldmann, P. (2000). Terrorismus als weltweites Phänomen: Eine Einführung. In K. Hirschmann & P. Gerhard (Eds.), Terrorismus als weltweites Phänomen. Schriftenreihe zur neuen Sicherheitspolitik (Vol. 18, pp. 11 – 26). Berlin: Berlin Verlag Arno Spitz. Schmid, Alex P. & de Graaf, Janny (1982): Violence as Communication. Insurgent Terrorism and the Western News Media. London u.a.: Sage Publications. Smith, R. D. (2013). Strategic planning for public relations (4 ed.). Abingdon, OX: Routledge. Van Dijk, T. A. (1997). The study of discourse. In T. A. v. Dijk (Ed.), Discourse as structure and process. Discourse studies. A multidisciplinary Introduction (Vol. 1, pp. 1-34). London: Sage. Waldmann, P. (2001). Terrorismus: Provokation der Macht. München: Gerling Akademie Verlag. Weber, M. (1976). Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft. Grundriss der verstehenden Soziologie. Tübingen: Mohr. Wilkinson, Paul (1987): Terrorism: An International Research Agenda? Problems of Definition and Typology. In: Wilkinson, P. / Stewart A.M. (Hg.): Contemporary Research on Terrorism. Aberdeen University Press, p. xi-xx. Wodak, R., de Cillia, R., Reisigl, M., & Liebhart, K. (2009). The discursive construction of national Identity (2 ed.). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press

Thank you for your

attention!

Contact: liane.rothenberger@tu-ilmenau.de