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Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

PowerPoint PowerPoint Presentations forPresentations for

Philip G. Zimbardo Philip G. Zimbardo Robert L. Johnson Robert L. Johnson Vivian Vivian McCannMcCann

Prepared byPrepared byBeth M. SchwartzBeth M. Schwartz

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Seventh Edition


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Chapter 1Chapter 1

Mind, Behavior, and Psychological Science


Claim:Claim: If kids eat large amounts of sugar, If kids eat large amounts of sugar, they become hyperactive.they become hyperactive.

Problem:Problem: How would you How would you test the claim that test the claim that sugar makes sugar makes children children hyperactive?hyperactive?


What Is Psychology–What Is Psychology–and What Is It and What Is It NotNot??

Psychology is a broad field, with many specialties—but fundamentally, psychology is the science of behavior

and mental processes.



Psychology is not:• All about mental disorders and therapy

• Focused solely on diagnosing and treating mental problems



Psychology:• Comes from psyche (Greek for “mind”) and

-ology (meaning “a field of study”)• Literally means “the study of the mind”• Covers both internal mental processes and

external, observable behaviors• Based on objective, verifiable, scientific

evidence

Figure 1.1 Work Settings of PsychologistsSource: 2009 Doctorate Employment Survey, APA Center for Workforce Studies. March 2011



Three Ways of Doing Three Ways of Doing PsychologyPsychology

Main Categories:• Experimental psychologists• Teachers of psychology• Applied psychologists


I/OI/O SportsSports

Clinical/CounselingClinical/Counseling

EnvironmentalEnvironmental

SchoolSchool

ForensicForensic

Use knowledge developed by experimental psychologists to tackle human problems

Applied Psychological Applied Psychological SpecialtiesSpecialties


Psychology Is Not PsychiatryPsychology Is Not Psychiatry

Psychiatry:

•Medical specialty

•Holds an MD (Doctor of Medicine)

•Training in treatment of mental and behavioral problems

•Licensed to prescribe medicines

Psychology:

•Broad field of study

•Holds a Ph.D (Doctor of Philosophy)

•Training emphasizes research methods

•Advanced study in specialization


Pseudo-PsychologyPseudo-Psychology

Erroneous assertions or practices set forth as being scientific psychology• Horoscopes

• Handwriting analysis

• Fortune telling

• Subliminal messages


Critical Thinking Skills: Critical Thinking Skills: Six Questions to AskSix Questions to Ask

1. What is the source?

2. Is the claim reasonable or extreme?

3. What is the evidence?

4. Could bias contaminate the conclusion?

5. Does the reasoning avoid common fallacies?

6. Does the issue require multiple perspectives?


What Are Psychology’s Six Main What Are Psychology’s Six Main Perspectives?Perspectives?

Six main viewpoints dominatemodern psychology: biological, cognitive, behavioral, whole-person, developmental, and sociocultural perspectives.

Each perspective grew out of radical new concepts about mind and behavior.


BiologicalBiological

Whole-PersonWhole-Person

DevelopmentalDevelopmental

CognitiveCognitive

BehavioralBehavioral

SocioculturalSociocultural

Six Modern Perspectives of PsychologySix Modern Perspectives of Psychology


What Determines BehaviorWhat Determines Behavior??

The brain, the nervous system, the endocrine system, and

genes

Fields of Study:Fields of Study:

NeuroscienceEvolutionary Psychology

PerspectivePerspective


Cognitive

Whole-Person

Behavioral

Developmental

Sociocultural

SourcesSources::

Rene Descartes


View of Human NatureView of Human Nature::

We are information-processing systems.


A person’s unique pattern of perceptions, interpretations,

expectations, beliefs, and memories

SourcesSources::

Wilhelm WundtWilliam James



Cognitive

Whole-Person

Behavioral

Developmental

Sociocultural


View of Human NatureView of Human Nature::We respond to surroundings

according to principles of behavioral learning.

What Determines BehaviorWhat Determines Behavior??The stimuli in our environment, and the previous consequences

of our behaviors

SourcesSources::John B. WatsonB. F. Skinner



Cognitive

Whole-Person

Behavioral

Developmental

Sociocultural


What Determines BehaviorWhat Determines Behavior??Psychodynamic: processes in

our unconscious mindsSource: Sigmund Freud

Humanistic: our innate needs to grow and to fulfill our best

possible potentialSources: Carl Rogers, Abraham

Maslow

Trait and temperament: unique personality characteristics that are consistent over time and

across situationsSource: Ancient Greeks



Cognitive

Whole-Person

Behavioral

Developmental

Sociocultural



The Interaction of heredity and environment, which

unfolds in predictable patterns throughout the

lifespan

SourcesSources::

Mary AinsworthJean Piaget



Cognitive

Whole-Person

Behavioral

Developmental

Sociocultural



The power of the situation: social and cultural

influences can overpower the influence of all other

determining factors.

SourcesSources::

Stanley MilgramPhilip Zimbardo



Cognitive

Whole-Person

Behavioral

Developmental

Sociocultural

Field of StudyField of Study::

Cross-cultural psychology

Table 1.2 A Sampling of Women’s Contributions to Psychology



How Do Psychologists How Do Psychologists Develop New Knowledge?Develop New Knowledge?

Psychologists, like all other scientists, use the scientific method to test their ideas

empirically.


Empirical InvestigationAn approach to research that relies on sensory experience and observation as research data

How Do Psychologists How Do Psychologists Develop New Knowledge?Develop New Knowledge?

Scientific MethodA four-step process for empirical investigation of a hypothesis under conditions designed to control biases and subjective judgments

TheoryA testable explanation for a set of facts or observations


The Four Steps of the Scientific MethodThe Four Steps of the Scientific Method

Developing a hypothesisDeveloping a hypothesis

Gathering objective dataGathering objective data

Analyzing the resultsAnalyzing the results

Publishing, criticizing, and Publishing, criticizing, and replicating the resultsreplicating the results


Developing a Developing a hypothesishypothesis

Gathering objective data

Analyzing the results

Publishing, criticizing, and replicating the

results

Hypothesis

• A statement predicting the outcome of a scientific study; the relationship among variables

Operational Definitions• Exact procedures used in

establishing experimental conditions and measurement of results



Developing a hypothesis

Gathering Gathering objective dataobjective data



results

Data• Pieces of information

gathered by a researcher to be used to test a hypothesis





Analyzing the Analyzing the resultsresults


results

Based on statistical analyses of results, the hypothesis is accepted or rejected.






Publishing, Publishing, criticizing, and criticizing, and replicating the replicating the

resultsresults


The completed study is presented to the scientific community.

Replicate• Redoing an experiment to

see if you get the same results

Figure 1.5 Four Steps in the Scientific Method



Questions Science Cannot AnswerQuestions Science Cannot Answer

The scientific method is not appropriate for answering questions that cannot be put to an objective, empirical test.

• Ethics• Morality• Preferences• Aesthetics• Existential issues• Religion• Law


Five Types of Psychological ResearchFive Types of Psychological Research

ExperimentsExperiments

SurveysSurveys

Naturalistic ObservationsNaturalistic Observations

Case StudiesCase Studies

Correlational StudiesCorrelational Studies


Types of Psychological ResearchTypes of Psychological Research

Independent Variable

Dependent Variable

Experimental Group

Control Group

Random Assignment

ExperimentsExperimentsThe researcher controls all conditions and The researcher controls all conditions and

directly manipulates the conditions.directly manipulates the conditions.



Positive Correlations

Negative Correlations

Zero Correlations

Correlational StudyCorrelational StudyThe relationship between variables is studied, The relationship between variables is studied, but without experimental manipulation of an but without experimental manipulation of an

independent variable; cause-and-effect independent variable; cause-and-effect relationships cannot be determined.relationships cannot be determined.


Types of CorrelationsTypes of Correlations



Political Pollsters

Marketing Consultants

SurveysSurveysA technique used in descriptive research; A technique used in descriptive research;

typically involves seeking people’s responses to typically involves seeking people’s responses to a prepared set of verbal or written itemsa prepared set of verbal or written items



Childrearing Practices

Shopping Habits

Animal Behavior

Naturalistic ObservationsNaturalistic ObservationsA form of descriptive research involving behavior A form of descriptive research involving behavior assessment of people or animals in their natural assessment of people or animals in their natural

surroundingssurroundings



Small Sample Size

Lack of Control

Limited Generalizability

Case StudiesCase StudiesResearch involving a single individual (or, at Research involving a single individual (or, at

most, a few individuals)most, a few individuals)


Biases in Psychological ResearchBiases in Psychological Research

Expectancy Bias

• The researcher allows his or her expectations to affect the outcome of a study

• Blind controlControlling Bias:• Placebo: a sham “drug” or fake treatment• Double-blind control: both participants and

researchers are unaware of group assignment


Ethical Issues in Psychological Ethical Issues in Psychological ResearchResearch

American Psychological Association (APA)• Ethical principles of psychologists and code

of conduct• Shields participants from potentially harmful

procedures• Ensures confidentiality

Institutional Review Board (IRB)• Examines all studies proposed


Ethical Issues in Psychological Ethical Issues in Psychological ResearchResearch

Informed Consent

• Participants must be informed of all procedures, and any potential dangers, so they may opt out they so desire.

Deception

• Allowable if no substantial risks are likely

Animal Studies

• Specific guidelines need to be followed.

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