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Objective Assessment of Hypnotically Induced Time DistortionAuthor(s): Philip G. Zimbardo, Gary Marshall, Greg White, Christina MaslachReviewed work(s):Source: Science, New Series, Vol. 181, No. 4096 (Jul. 20, 1973), pp. 282-284Published by: American Association for the Advancement of ScienceStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1736478 .

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Time perception is one of the mostimportant, although least studied, con-sequences of the socialization process.Infants and children, whose behavioris primarily under the control of bio-logical and situational exigencies, mustbe taught to develop a temporal per-spective in which the immediacy of theexperienced reality of the present isconstrained by the hypothetical con-structs of past and future. Societythereby transforms idiosyncratic, im-pulsive, and potentially disruptivebehavior into approved, predictable,controllable reactions through the time-bound mechanisms of responsibility,obligation, guilt, incentive, and delayedgratification (1). The social acceptabil-ity of such reactions often depends ontheir rate of emission as much as uponother qualitative aspects. Thus, we de-velop, in addition to a sense of tem-poral perspective, a time sense of

Time perception is one of the mostimportant, although least studied, con-sequences of the socialization process.Infants and children, whose behavioris primarily under the control of bio-logical and situational exigencies, mustbe taught to develop a temporal per-spective in which the immediacy of theexperienced reality of the present isconstrained by the hypothetical con-structs of past and future. Societythereby transforms idiosyncratic, im-pulsive, and potentially disruptivebehavior into approved, predictable,controllable reactions through the time-bound mechanisms of responsibility,obligation, guilt, incentive, and delayedgratification (1). The social acceptabil-ity of such reactions often depends ontheir rate of emission as much as uponother qualitative aspects. Thus, we de-velop, in addition to a sense of tem-poral perspective, a time sense of

6. S. R. Nelson, D. W. Schulz, J. V. Passonneau,O. H. Lowry, J. Neurochem. 15, 1271 (1968).7. A. G. Gilman, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.67, 305 (1970).8. 0. H. Lowry, D. W. Schulz, J. V. Passonneau,J. Biol. Chem. 242, 271 (1967).9. 0. H. Lowry and J. V. Passonneau, AFlexible System of Enzymatic Analysis (Aca-demic Press, New York, 1972), pp. 151 and194.10. - , F. X. Hasselberger, D. W. Schulz,J. Biol. Chem. 239, 18 (1964).11. B. M. Breckenridge and J. Norman, J.Neurochem. 12. 51 (1965); ibid. 9, 383 (1962).12. B. M. Breckenridge, Proc. Nat, Acad. Sci.U.S.A. 52, 1580 (1964).13. E. A. Brunner, J. V. Passonneau, C. Molstad,J. Neurochem. 18, 2301 (1971).14. R. F. O'Dea, M. K. Haddox, N. D. Goldberg,J. Biol. Chem. 246, 6183 (1971).15. W. B. Stavinoha, B. R. Endecott, L. C, Ryan,Pharmacologist 9, 252 (1967).16. J. F. Jongkind and R. Bruntink, J. Neurochem.17, 1615 (1970); D. F. Swaab, ibid. 18, 2085(1971); J. A. Ferrendelli, M. H. Gay, W. G.Sedgwick, M. M. Chang, ibid. 19, 979 (1972).17. L. J. King, G. M. Schoepfle, 0. H. Lowry,J. V. Passonneau, S. Wilson, ibid. 14, 613(1967).18. M. J. Schmidt, personal communication.15 January 1973; revised 1 March 1973 g

6. S. R. Nelson, D. W. Schulz, J. V. Passonneau,O. H. Lowry, J. Neurochem. 15, 1271 (1968).7. A. G. Gilman, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.67, 305 (1970).8. 0. H. Lowry, D. W. Schulz, J. V. Passonneau,J. Biol. Chem. 242, 271 (1967).9. 0. H. Lowry and J. V. Passonneau, AFlexible System of Enzymatic Analysis (Aca-demic Press, New York, 1972), pp. 151 and194.10. - , F. X. Hasselberger, D. W. Schulz,J. Biol. Chem. 239, 18 (1964).11. B. M. Breckenridge and J. Norman, J.Neurochem. 12. 51 (1965); ibid. 9, 383 (1962).12. B. M. Breckenridge, Proc. Nat, Acad. Sci.U.S.A. 52, 1580 (1964).13. E. A. Brunner, J. V. Passonneau, C. Molstad,J. Neurochem. 18, 2301 (1971).14. R. F. O'Dea, M. K. Haddox, N. D. Goldberg,J. Biol. Chem. 246, 6183 (1971).15. W. B. Stavinoha, B. R. Endecott, L. C, Ryan,Pharmacologist 9, 252 (1967).16. J. F. Jongkind and R. Bruntink, J. Neurochem.17, 1615 (1970); D. F. Swaab, ibid. 18, 2085(1971); J. A. Ferrendelli, M. H. Gay, W. G.Sedgwick, M. M. Chang, ibid. 19, 979 (1972).17. L. J. King, G. M. Schoepfle, 0. H. Lowry,J. V. Passonneau, S. Wilson, ibid. 14, 613(1967).18. M. J. Schmidt, personal communication.15 January 1973; revised 1 March 1973 g

personal tempo, which involves boththe estimation of the rate at whichevents are (or should be) occurringand affective reactions to different ratesof stimulus input (2).The learned correspondence betweenour subjective time sense and objectiveclock time can be disrupted by thephysiological and psychological changesthat accompany some types of mentalillness, emotional arousal, body tem-perature variations, and drug-inducedreactions (3). However, it is possibleto modify either temporal perspectiveor tempo within a controlled experi-mental paradigm by means of hyp-nosis. Our previous research demon-strates the marked changes in cogni-tion, affect, and action that result whenhypnotized subjects internalize the in-struction to experience a sense of "ex-panded present" (4). However, thedata used to document such changes

personal tempo, which involves boththe estimation of the rate at whichevents are (or should be) occurringand affective reactions to different ratesof stimulus input (2).The learned correspondence betweenour subjective time sense and objectiveclock time can be disrupted by thephysiological and psychological changesthat accompany some types of mentalillness, emotional arousal, body tem-perature variations, and drug-inducedreactions (3). However, it is possibleto modify either temporal perspectiveor tempo within a controlled experi-mental paradigm by means of hyp-nosis. Our previous research demon-strates the marked changes in cogni-tion, affect, and action that result whenhypnotized subjects internalize the in-struction to experience a sense of "ex-panded present" (4). However, thedata used to document such changes

Table 1. Tempo modification. Data are mean deviations in the rate from baseline performance.Treatment N No Objective Combinedfeedback feedback

Hypnotized 12 .534 .233 .38Role players 12 .299 .004 .15SWaking controls 12 .023 .043 .03P < .025 P < .005 P < .001*P < .01 for comparisonwith role players;P < .001 for comparisonwith waking controls. t Com-parisonwith waking controlsnot significant.

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Table 1. Tempo modification. Data are mean deviations in the rate from baseline performance.Treatment N No Objective Combinedfeedback feedback

Hypnotized 12 .534 .233 .38Role players 12 .299 .004 .15SWaking controls 12 .023 .043 .03P < .025 P < .005 P < .001*P < .01 for comparisonwith role players;P < .001 for comparisonwith waking controls. t Com-parisonwith waking controlsnot significant.

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in this and related studies (5) havebeen too subjective and gross. In thepresent study we attempted to alterpersonal tempo and measure the be-havioral consequences with precise,objective techniques.The experience of tempo was sys-tematically varied (speeded up orslowed down) by time-distorting in-structions administered to hypnoticsubjects and controls. If effective, sucha manipulation should generate asyn-chronicity between clock time and thesubjective passage of time. This asyn-chronous responding was assessed bymeans of the objective precision of aspecially designed operant conditioningand recording apparatus. As predicted,the operant behavior of these hypno-tized subjects was significantly alteredrelative to their own normal baselineand also to that of subjects in twocontrol conditions.

The volunteer subjects were 36 Stan-ford University undergraduates of bothsexes, who were selected from amongthe high scorers on a modified versionof the Harvard group scale of hypnoticsusceptibility (6) administered in theirintroductory psychology class. Theywere each randomly assigned to oneof three treatments: hypnosis, hypnoticrole-playing, and waking nonhypno-tized controls. Before the experiment,the hypnosis group underwent a 10-hour training program designed toteach them to relax deeply; to concen-trate; to experience distortions in per-ception, memory, and causal attribu-tion; and to induce autohypnosis. Theother subjects received no prior train-ing. During the experiment, the testingprocedure was identical for all subjects;an experimenter who was unaware ofthe experimental treatment deliveredthe standardized instructions to thesubject, who sat isolated in an acousticchamber. A second experimenter in-duced a state of hypnotic relaxation inthe hypnosis group and instructed thehypnotic role-playing subjects to trytheir best to simulate the reactions ofhypnotic subjects, to behave as if theywere really hypnotized throughout thestudy. The waking controls were toldonly to relax for a period of timeequivalent to that given to subjects inthe other two treatments.

Subjects were taught to press a tele-graph key at different rates in order

in this and related studies (5) havebeen too subjective and gross. In thepresent study we attempted to alterpersonal tempo and measure the be-havioral consequences with precise,objective techniques.The experience of tempo was sys-tematically varied (speeded up orslowed down) by time-distorting in-structions administered to hypnoticsubjects and controls. If effective, sucha manipulation should generate asyn-chronicity between clock time and thesubjective passage of time. This asyn-chronous responding was assessed bymeans of the objective precision of aspecially designed operant conditioningand recording apparatus. As predicted,the operant behavior of these hypno-tized subjects was significantly alteredrelative to their own normal baselineand also to that of subjects in twocontrol conditions.

The volunteer subjects were 36 Stan-ford University undergraduates of bothsexes, who were selected from amongthe high scorers on a modified versionof the Harvard group scale of hypnoticsusceptibility (6) administered in theirintroductory psychology class. Theywere each randomly assigned to oneof three treatments: hypnosis, hypnoticrole-playing, and waking nonhypno-tized controls. Before the experiment,the hypnosis group underwent a 10-hour training program designed toteach them to relax deeply; to concen-trate; to experience distortions in per-ception, memory, and causal attribu-tion; and to induce autohypnosis. Theother subjects received no prior train-ing. During the experiment, the testingprocedure was identical for all subjects;an experimenter who was unaware ofthe experimental treatment deliveredthe standardized instructions to thesubject, who sat isolated in an acousticchamber. A second experimenter in-duced a state of hypnotic relaxation inthe hypnosis group and instructed thehypnotic role-playing subjects to trytheir best to simulate the reactions ofhypnotic subjects, to behave as if theywere really hypnotized throughout thestudy. The waking controls were toldonly to relax for a period of timeequivalent to that given to subjects inthe other two treatments.

Subjects were taught to press a tele-graph key at different rates in orderto illuminate various target lights in anarray of ten colored lights. In the firstof five 2-minute trials, a comfortableoperant rate of responding was estab-lished, and it became obvious to the

SCIENCE, VOL. 181

to illuminate various target lights in anarray of ten colored lights. In the firstof five 2-minute trials, a comfortableoperant rate of responding was estab-lished, and it became obvious to the

SCIENCE, VOL. 181

in vivo energy status is maintained, op-timal fixation is accomplished byfreeze-blowing the brain.W. DAVIDLUST

JANET V. PASSONNEAUNational Institute of NeurologicalDiseases and Stroke,National Institutes of Health,Bethesda, Maryland 20014

RICHARD L. VEECHNational Institute of Mental Health,St. Elizabeths Hospital,Washington, D.C. 20032

References1. R. L. Veech, R. L. Harris, D. Veloso, E. H.Veech, Fed. Proc. 31, 122 (1972).2. - , J. Neurochem. 20, 183 (1973).3. M. J. Schmidt, D. E. Schmidt, G. A.Robison, Science 173, 1142 (1971).4. M. J. Schmidt, J. T. Hopkins, D. E. Schmidt,G. A. Robison, Brain Res. 42, 465 (1972).5. S. R. Nelson and M.-L. Mantz, Fed. Proc.30, 496 (abstr.) (1971).

in vivo energy status is maintained, op-timal fixation is accomplished byfreeze-blowing the brain.W. DAVIDLUST

JANET V. PASSONNEAUNational Institute of NeurologicalDiseases and Stroke,National Institutes of Health,Bethesda, Maryland 20014

RICHARD L. VEECHNational Institute of Mental Health,St. Elizabeths Hospital,Washington, D.C. 20032

References1. R. L. Veech, R. L. Harris, D. Veloso, E. H.Veech, Fed. Proc. 31, 122 (1972).2. - , J. Neurochem. 20, 183 (1973).3. M. J. Schmidt, D. E. Schmidt, G. A.Robison, Science 173, 1142 (1971).4. M. J. Schmidt, J. T. Hopkins, D. E. Schmidt,G. A. Robison, Brain Res. 42, 465 (1972).5. S. R. Nelson and M.-L. Mantz, Fed. Proc.30, 496 (abstr.) (1971).

Objective Assessment of Hypnotically Induced Time DistortionAbstract. The objective precision of operant conditioning methodology vali-dates the power of hypnosis to induce alterations in time perception. Personal

tempo was systematically modified by instructions to trained hypnotic subjects,with significant behavioral eflects observed on a variety of response rate measures.

Objective Assessment of Hypnotically Induced Time DistortionAbstract. The objective precision of operant conditioning methodology vali-dates the power of hypnosis to induce alterations in time perception. Personal

tempo was systematically modified by instructions to trained hypnotic subjects,with significant behavioral eflects observed on a variety of response rate measures.

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subject that the sequential onset andoffset of the lights was controlled byresponse rate. The functional relation-ship betweenresponserate and changein the light stimulus was determinedby relay circuits in the apparatusandcan be characterized as a "conjugate"schedule of reinforcement (7). Thisschedule creates a dynamic interplaybetween behavior and a selected en-vironmentalevent-the stimulus eventchanging continually as response ratevaries. Pressing the key at a faster orslowerrate than that required o illumi-nate the targetstimulus ight turnedonone of the other lights in the array.Itwas only by empirically determiningthe rate appropriate o reach a particu-lar targetand then by maintaining hatrate consistently that a subject couldsatisfy the task demand,"to keep lightX illuminatedas long as possible."Of the remainingfour trials, the firstand thirdwere baselineand the secondand fourth were experimental.On onebaseline trial, each subject was in-structed to keep the red light illumi-nated, which requiredthree presses persecond. On the other baseline trial afaster rate of six responsesper secondwas requiredto maintain the illumina-tion of a blue light. Interspersedbe-tween these baseline trials and the ex-perimental trials were the instructionsto modify personal tempo. After beingtold about the differences betweenclock and subjectivetime, all subjectswere instructed o altertheirperceptionof tempo,by experiencing ime as slow-ing down ("so that a second will seemlike a minute, and a minute will seemlike an hour"), and also by experi-encing time as speeding up. Betweenthese two tempo modification instruc-tions, subjects were told to normalizetheir experienceof time. The order inwhich these two tempo instructions(slower and faster) were given to eachsubject was counterbalanced acrossconditions (and did not have a signifi-cant effect upon the task behavior). Acumulative recorder provided an on-going display of the subject'sresponserate and indicatedwhether respondingwas on- or off-target. In addition, anevent recorder and electronic timersindicated to the experimenterthe se-quence and duration of the stimuluslight levels being activated by varia-tions in rate of responding.The reinforcer for maintaining aparticulartarget light level is probablythe sense of competencea subjectfeelsin being able to satisfy the experiment-er's demand to do so. Knowledge of20 JULY 1973

being off-targetshould serve as a nega-tive reinforcer and guide efforts tomodify respondingto achieve the posi-tive consequencesof on-targetperform-ance. Such performance depends pri-marily upon two variables: a stable,veridical sense of personal tempo andthe environmentalfeedback necessaryfor monitoring the effects of differentresponserates. Our tempo instructions,in conjunctionwith hypnosis,were de-signed to alter the first of these, andvariation in feedback was introducedto alter the second. Within our re-peated-measurements actorial design,the arrayof lights remainedfunctionalduring the experimental periods forhalf the subjects (objective feedback),and they were extinguishedduring theexperimentalperiodsfor the other sub-jects in each of the three conditions(no feedback). Those in the no feed-back condition had to rely entirely ontheir memory of the previouslyappro-priate baseline rates that they wereasked to reproduce n the experimentalperiods, while objective feedback sub-jects had direct access to the externalinformation provided by the illumi-nated array.Since the electronic relay circuits inthe apparatusfunction on fixed, real-

time parameters,a subjectoperatingona subjectivetime dimensionnot in syn-chronywith clock time would have dif-ficulty satisfying the task demand ofachieving and maintaininga particularstate of the apparatus.The absence offeedbackfrees task behavior from real-ity demands, thereby generating con-siderableasynchronousresponding.Butoff-target responding can result fromeither intentionally altering responserate (without changing time sense) oraltering personal tempo and thus indi-rectly affectingresponserate. Feedbackserves as a reality monitor to create aconflict only in subjects motivated tochange their response rate voluntarilywhile also being motivated to maintainthe target light level. For those whohave internalized an altered sense oftempo, there is not a conflict betweentwo competing motivations but ratheran inabilityto successfullyperform thetask because of their altered cognitivestate. They should continue to respondasynchronously even in the presenceof feedback; the intentional respond-ers should resolve their conflict in thedirection of the most salient rein-forcer-being on-target.Only the hypnotic subjectswere re-liably able to translatethe verbal sug-

Fig. 1. Cumulative ecordsof representativeypnotized ubjectduringeach of five2-minute est periods.The slope of the curve indicatesrate of responding. uperim-posedon thiscurveareupward nddownward eflections; ownward eflectionsignifywhenresponserate is synchronizedwith targetstimulusrate (on-targetarrow), andupwarddeflectionsndicateasynchrony off-targetarrow).283

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gestion of asynchronicity betweenclock time and personal time into be-havioral "reality." This is shown incomparisonsof mean ratesof response,percentageof total time on- and off-target, mean deviation in individualresponserates from baseline to experi-mentalresponselevels, and in even themore subtle measuresof variability-indisplacementof the response distribu-tion.The sequence of responding for atypicalhypnoticsubject s shown in thecumulative response curves in Fig. 1.From an initiallylow operantlevel, thesubject responds appropriatelyto therate demandsimposed by target levels3 and 6, being on target most of thetime. Instructions o speed up time re-sult in a steeper slope, while instruc-tions to slow tempo lower the responserate. In this case, the slopes of the re-sponse curves for the two altered timeperiods almost converge. The substan-tial percentage of time the subject isrespondingat off-targetrate levels re-veals the extent of asynchronicitybe-tween his altered experienceof tempoand the constant rate requirementsprogrammed nto the apparatus.Our research design permits bothwithin- and between-subject compari-sons. Duringbaseline trials, there wereno reliable differenceson any measurebetween groups. An analysis of vari-ance performedon the mean deviationin operantrate from baselineto experi-mental responding (Table 1) demon-strates a highly significant treatmenteffect (P