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COPING WITH JOB LOSS AND CAREER STRESS:

EFFECTIVENESS OF STRESS MANAGEMENT

TRAINING WITH OUTPLACED EMPLOYEES

THESIS

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

University of North Texas in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

By

Anne Miya Maysent, B.A.

Denton, Texas *

August, 1995

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mi //o. 7/67

COPING WITH JOB LOSS AND CAREER STRESS:

EFFECTIVENESS OF STRESS MANAGEMENT

TRAINING WITH OUTPLACED EMPLOYEES

THESIS

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

University of North Texas in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

By

Anne Miya Maysent, B.A.

Denton, Texas *

August, 1995

Maysent, Anne Miya, Coping with Job Loss and Career

Stress: Effectiveness of Stress Management Training with

Outplaced Employees. Master of Science (Industrial/

Organizational Psychology), August 1995, 66 pp., 4 tables, 7

illustrations, references, 126 titles.

The stress which accompanies job loss has been well

documented by DeFrank and Ivancevich (1986), Iverson and

Sabroe (1988), and Gordus (1986). Some of the responses to

job loss have included reduced psychological well-being,

depression, anxiety, as well as an increase in physical

symptoms. A stress management intervention was developed

and integrated into the services provided by one of the

nation's largest outplacement consultants. The purpose of

the intervention was to aid outplacement clients in the

management and resolution of stress associated with job loss

and career transition. Based on the results of this study,

the intervention had the effect of helping treatment

participants maintain their levels of effective coping when

compared to nonparticipants. This study supports the

hypothesis that stress management training can be helpful

for unemployed individuals and may impact their emotional

well-being as they go through the job search process.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES iv

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION 1

Reaction to Job Loss Overview of Stress Research Cognitive Behavioral Model of Stress Cognitive Behavioral Intervention Model Type A Behavior Pattern and Stress Type A Versus Hardiness Self Concept and Stress Summary of the Literature Hypotheses

II. METHOD 21

Subjects Intervention Part I: Understanding and Assessing Stress Part II: Managing Stress by Managing your

Thinking Part III: Managing Stress by Strenthening

Yourself Part IV: Managing Stress by Taking Control Part V: Action Planning to Improve Stress Management

Measures Procedure Statistical Analysis

III. RESULTS 42

IV. DISCUSSION 48

REFERENCES 51

ill

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Observed and Adjusted Means of the Personal Strain Questionnaire 43

2. Personal Strain Questionnaire Univariate F Test Results with (1,111) DF Group by Occasion 45

3. Observed and Adjusted Means of the Personal Resources Questionnaire 46

4. Personal Resources Questionnaire Univariate F Test Results with (1,111) DF Group by Occasion 46

IV

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. Vocational Strain Effects Group by Occasion 43

2. Psychological Strain Effects Group by Occasion ... 44

3. Interpersonal Strain Effects Group by Occasion ... 44

4. Physical Strain Effects Group by Occasion 44

5. Self Care Utilization Effects Group by Occasion .. 47

6. Social Support Utilization Effects Group by Occasion 47

7. Rational/Cognitive Coping Effects Group by Occasion 47

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Today companies are failing at an unprecedented rate.

There were over 57,000 corporate failures in 1986 which did

not take into account those companies who maneuvered out of

bankruptcy through down-sizing and restructuring (Offerman &

Gowing, 1990; Ropp, 1987). According to an article in the

April 1991 issue of FORTUNE magazine the impact of these

corporate failings has been keenly felt by managers in

companies such as Citicorp, Occidental Petroleum, Digital

Equipment, and Drexel Burnham Lambert. The size of these

layoffs ranged from 200 to 4,600 employees. This article

suggested that unemployment among managers doubled from 1990

to 1991.

The local employment situation is consistent with the

national trends. The Texas statewide unemployment rate was

eight percent for March, 1992 (U.S. Department of Labor,

1992) . Managers, professionals, sales staff, and technical

experts composed ten percent of the overall unemployed

population. The predictions for the future were equally

bleak. A study conducted by Fortune and Wyatt, Co., a

consulting firm, interviewed over 1,000 companies and found

that eighty-six percent of those companies reduced their

white collar employees in the past five years and forty-one

percent of the human resource executives predicted that this

trend would continue for the next five years.

The challenge to the unemployed worker and perhaps even

more so to the white collar worker is to develop job search

strategies that are effective while maintaining a high level

of motivation through-out their job search. The average job

search for a laid off manager or executive has increased

from six months in 1991 to over eight months in 1992 (U.S.

Department of Labor, 1992). Studies have consistently found

that job loss ranks between seventh and ninth in the

severity of stress it creates in comparison to over sixty

other life events (Holmes & Rahe, 1967; Masuda & Holmes,

1967; Paykel, 1971). Some events that have equal or greater

amounts of stress are the death of a spouse or divorce

(Holmes & Rahe, 1967). Research suggests that job loss

increases an individual's risk for emotional, as well as

physical illness (Iverson & Sabroe, 1988; Liem & Rayman,

1982).

Reactions to Job Loss

Studies investigating the relationship between health

and job loss have found that general health reports became

progressively more negative as the length of unemployment

increased (Warr & Jackson, 1984). A similar study found

that the number of individuals who reported a

physician-diagnosed illness increased with the duration of

unemployment (Cook, Cummins, Bartley & Shoper, 1982).

A study done by Jackson, Stafford, Banks & Warr (1983)

found that psychological distress increased as individuals

went from employed to unemployed status and the reverse

pattern occurred when workers became reemployed. O'Brien

and Kabanoff (1979) surveyed both employed and unemployed

individuals and found that the jobless sample noted an

elevated level of stress symptoms also a greater prevalence

of heart trouble, shortness of breath, and vision problems.

Researchers also found (Cook et.al, 1982; Redburn, 1983)

more heavy drinking and alcohol abuse among unemployed

individuals.

Unemployment can impact individuals on an emotional or

psychological level. Studies conducted by Banks and Jackson

(1982) and Bebbington, Harry, Tennant, Sturt and Wing (1981)

suggested that their unemployed samples had more

"psychiatric problems" than comparable employed groups.

Finlay-Jones and Eckhardt (1981) found these effects across

age lines. They studied young job-seekers and found that a

significant number of their sample was experiencing

emotional distress. They reported that seventy percent of

those individuals began experiencing problems after

beginning their job searches. Studies conducted by Feather

and his colleagues (Feather, 1982; Feather & Barber, 1983;

Feather & Davenport, 1981) found that those subjects with

the highest motivation to find a job, and those who rated

work as highly attractive had the highest scores on various

depression indices.

Considering the research that supports the belief that

unemployment can play a role in increasing an individual's

vulnerability to illness combined with the belief that job

loss is generally experienced as a highly stressful change

event, a program was developed to prepare newly displaced

workers for the difficulties that lay ahead. It was

developed with the hope that preparation might relieve some

of the physical and emotional trauma frequently experienced

by unemployed individuals.

A stress management program was developed for the

clients of Drake Beam Morin, Inc., one of the nation's

largest outplacement firms (Fortune, April 1991). Drake

Beam Morin, Inc. provides support to displaced employees in

the form of counseling, training, and clerical services.

Drake Beam Morin recognizes that the trauma of losing one's

job is often devastating, but they also believe that the

event, if handled properly, can result in a positive

outcome.

Before describing the program developed for the Drake

Beam Morin clients, the area of stress and the extensive

research surrounding it will be discussed. Stress is

generally viewed as a combination of one or more of the

following factors: an environmental stimulus, an

individual's response to the stimulus and the interaction

between the two (Beehr & Franz, 1986; Ivancevich & Matteson,

1980). Considerable research has focused on how individuals

appraise stimuli. According to Wrubel, Benner, & Lazarus

(1981) if an individual perceives a stimulus as threatening

they are more likely to label the response as stressful

rather than stimulating.

Overview of Stress Research

Selye (1956) conceptualized stress as the struggle to

overcome a noxious stimulus. He proposed that it was the

struggle itself that was far more damaging to the individual

than the damaging gualities inherent in the noxious

stimulus. Selye believed that the individual went through

three stages when responding to a stimulus: alarm, defense,

and exhaustion. He proposed that the way one defended

him/herself from a stimulus would either lead to a negative

experience, exhaustion, or a positive experience,

adaptation.

Elliott and Eisendorfer (1982) classified stress on a

temporal continuum. They proposed that stressors fell into

four basic categories: acute or time limited, serial events

that follow one primary event, such as the adjustments

following a divorce, chronic intermittent events like

regularly scheduled staff meetings, and chronic stressors

such as disabilities. Because the individual is able to

habituate to long term stressors, the strain or damage to

the organism is reduced (Davis, 1963; Goffman, 1963).

However, Elliott and Eisendorfer (1982) suggested that it

was the intermittent stressful events that caused the most

damage. Their rationale was that given the frequency of the

stressors the individual did not have sufficient time to

reacclimate or adjust to the stimulus, therefore they dealt

with the next stressor with limited or deficient resources.

Lazarus and Cohen (1977) characterized stress by the

quality of the stimulus. They categorized events as:

cataclysmic such as catastrophes, major changes like a plant

closing, or daily hassles such as traffic congestion. They

proposed that it was not the larger cataclysmic stressors

that caused the greatest damage to the individual, it was

the slow deterioration of defenses brought on by daily

traumas. This belief was supported by research done by

Holmes and Rahe (1967) and Holmes and Masuda (1974).

Besides quality, quantity, and duration, stress has

also been categorized by the physical or psychological

impact it causes. Attempting to define stress has proven to

be a difficult and frustrating task for many researchers

(Dohwenrend & Pearlin, 1980; Pearlin et al., 1981; Rabkin &

Streuning, 1976). Lazarus (1966) initially addressed this

dilemma by viewing stress as an organizing concept for

understanding a wide range of phenomena used by humans and

animals to adapt to their environments. He suggested that

stress could not be reduced to a singular process. He felt

that it ought to be left up to each individual researcher to

define the form of human adaptation they were attempting to

isolate (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).

Cognitive Behavioral Model of Stress

Lazarus and his colleagues (1966, 1981; Coyne &

Lazarus, 1980; Folkman, Schaefer & Lazarus, 1979; Lazarus,

Kanner & Folkman, 1980; Lazarus & Launier, 1978) developed a

stress model that focused on the individual. They suggested

that stress and coping was relational and process oriented.

The relational aspect defined stress as a relationship

between the individual and the environment that the

individual perceived as exceeding his or her resources or

endangering his or her well-being. The process orientation

reflected the belief that the relationship between the

individual and environment was dynamic and constantly

changing and that the relationship was bidirectional with

the environment and the individual impacting each other.

Once an individual perceived a stressor they would attempt

to reduce the stress by changing the environment or their

perception of it. The individual continually appraised and

reappraised the situation in an attempt to reestablish a

state of equilibrium. Therefore, these researchers did not

view stress solely as an environmental trigger or as the

individual's response, but as a complex combination of

cognitive appraisal, judgement, and response.

The characteristic that set the cognitive behavioral

model and extensions of it (Lazarus, Averill & Opton, 1970;

Lazarus & Launier, 1978) apart from earlier stress models

(Cannon, 1935; Selye, 1956) was the prominent role that

individual perception and coping played. Rather than a

passive Stimulus-Response model, Lazarus and others looked

at the individual as an active participant in their

perception and actions. Folkman (1984) expanded this

formula to include controllability of the event and its

impact upon the individual's experience of stress. This

dynamic and relational model suggested that an individual

could change their environment, appraisals or cognitions,

and behavior from one stressful event to another and within

a single stressful incident.

Applying this model to all events would lead to

considerable frustration because some conditions cannot be

improved by simply thinking differently about them. The

question was asked "When is a stressor manageable?".

Roskies (1987) and Meichenbaum (1985) delineated over twenty

distinct problems amenable to stress innoculation or stress

management training. These problems ranged from anger

control, test anxiety, dental fear, to the prevention of

physical illness. Roskies believed that the best

distinction between problems best treated via improving

coping skills versus those handled through drug treatment or

medical interventions is a clinical judgement. A judgement

based on a mutually agreed upon idea of the problem by a

trained clinician and the individual. Unless both the

individual and the clinician agree upon the cause of the

stress there exists no basis for stress interventions on the

individual level.

The Lazarus model for intervention (Beck, 1976; Ellis,

1962; Lazarus, 1966; Mahoney, 1980; Meichenbaum, 1977, 1985)

focuses on increasing the individual's competencies to

manage his or her environment. This follows the belief that

effective stress management depends upon possessing the

necessary cognitive and behavioral skills to confront the

stressor and to use those skills to deal with it. It is the

clinician or counselor's role to prepare the individual for

these change events through education and training.

Effective management of stress should not be confused

with elimination of stressors. Bandura (1977a, 1977b)

suggested that the human condition always included

challenges and threats to its existence or to its

equilibrium. Therefore, successful treatment of stress

reactions should not attempt to rid an individual of stress,

the goal ought to be to aid the individual in the

amelioration of stress by increasing their effectiveness in

functioning in spite of distress.

Cognitive Behavioral Intervention Model

Meichenbaum (1985) proposes a three stage model for

implementing a cognitive behavioral treatment that included:

10

conceptualization of the problem and goals for treatment;

skill acquisition; and application. In the first stage the

counselor familiarizes him or herself with the presenting

problem and the approach used by the distressed individual

in an attempt to handle it. While information is gathered

from the individual the counselor distributes information

about the stress process.

The activities that occur during this early stage

reflect basic core ideas upon which cognitive behavioral

therapy is founded (Bandura, 1977a, 1977b; Ellis, 1970,

1973; Lazarus, 1966, 1981). Some of these elements

include; the importance of the person/environment

relationship; the active role of the individual in affecting

this relationship; a present versus historical focus; and

attention to the responses to specific problems rather than

to global behavioral patterns.

The second stage of Meichenbaum's (1985) treatment

emphasizes the acquisition and rehearsal of new coping

behaviors. There has been considerable debate over the

optimal skills and strategies that should be acquired by

individuals during this period (Bernstein & Borkovec, 1973;

DeBerry & Einstein, 1981; Goldfried, 1977, 1979; Holmes,

1984; Lehrer, Woolfolk, Rooney, McCann & Carrington, 1983).

Lazarus and Launier (1978) and others (Kahn, Wolf, Quinn &

Snoek, 1964; Mechanic, 1962) have divided the various coping

strategies and behaviors into two camps. The first is

11

problem focused. This category covers techniques such as

information gathering, problem solving, communication skills

training, time management, utilization of social supports

and direct efforts to alter or exit from the environment.

The second category covers emotional regulation strategies.

Included in this category are searching for meaning,

emotional distancing, affective expression, cognitive

relabeling, and relaxation training.

Folkman and Lazarus (1984) have shown that both forms

of coping, problem focused and emotional regulation, are

used in most stressful encounters and that the relative

proportions from either category vary according to how the

encounter was appraised by the individual. Folkman and

Lazarus (1980) analyzed over thirteen hundred stressful

episodes and found that in ninety-eight percent of the

situations both emotion based and problem focused coping

skills were used. However, Folkman (1984) goes on to

distinguish between an individual's attempt at coping versus

the effectiveness of the coping strategy. She points out

that coping refers to the cognitive and behavioral efforts

to master, reduce or tolerate the internal or external

demands created by a stressful situation. This definition

did not assume the strategies are always effective, it

refers to efforts to manage demands, no matter the success

of those efforts.

12

Frequently, individuals use coping strategies that can

be improved or that are completely ineffective. The

challenge to the counselor developing a stress management

program is to isolate the unique qualities inherent in the

population being addressed and provide them with coping

techniques which build upon their strengths.

Pearlin and Schooler (1978) recommended using a variety

of interventions rather than offering a single intervention

as the panacea for all individuals in all circumstances. If

an intervention program hopes to be consistent with Lazarus'

(1985) model that focused on the individual's role in

perceiving and responding to the environment, it ought to

have sufficient flexibility to meet the needs of various

situations.

The third stage of Meichenbaum's (1985) model reflects

a shift in emphasis from skill acquisition to application of

new knowledge to existing or potential stressors. During

this period the individual should have sufficient knowledge

of various techniques to assess a situation, apply one or

more technique and evaluate the effectiveness of the

intervention based on his/her own level of functioning.

Type A Behavior Pattern and Stress

Within Drake Beam Morin's client population, the Type A

behavior pattern is frequently seen. The Type A behavior

pattern developed out of studies by Friedman and Rosenman

(1974) in which seemingly healthy individuals began to show

13

signs of coronary heart disease. Upon closer examination

these researchers found that these individuals exhibited a

pattern or style of coping with stressful stimuli that we

now call the Type A Behavior Pattern (Rosenman, 1978).

The Type A Behavior Pattern is an action-emotion

complex that is exhibited by individuals who are engaged in

a chronic struggle to achieve an unlimited number of goals

in an unreasonably short period of time (Friedman, 1969).

Kobasa, Maddi and Zola (1983) point out that these

individuals tend to be extremely demanding of themselves and

never seem truly content unless they are battling multiple

deadlines, obstacles and harassments (Sparacino, 1979).

Waldron (1978, 1977) suggested that Type A individuals

are driven, impatient, and competitive, but also have more

external signs of success, higher occupational status, more

rapid career advancement and higher academic honors (Glass,

1977) . The Type A pattern is a double edged sword for many

individuals. It is a pattern that can bring about many

rewards, but at a high cost to the individual.

Roskies (1987) refers to Type A individuals as

competent performers and results oriented. She does not

assume that all Type A individuals suffer from coronary

heart disease or severe stress reactions. A number of

researchers have found that when Type A individuals are

faced with difficulties they simply try harder and will

usually persist long after others have given up. They do

14

this by ignoring many warning signs of stress including

fatigue and illness (Carver, Coleman & Glass, 1976; Matthews

& Carra, 1982; Silber, 1961a, 1961b). Research on the Type

A style suggests that although these individuals can handle

significant amounts of stress, the cost of coping for the

individual is usually very high.

The Type A individual is frequently rewarded by rising

upward within the business community (Glass, 1977). They

are often given and appear to thrive on greater and greater

challenges within their workplace (Schlaegel, Wellwood,

Copps, Gruchow & Schratt, 1980). As a result, the Type A

pattern is commonly seen among individuals who have risen

through the corporate ranks into management and executive

positions. However, when Type A individuals begin to feel

the strain physically or emotionally they have difficulty

connecting their behavior and stress inducing thoughts with

their symptoms. Instead, they are more likely to blame

their symptoms on a demanding environment and believe it to

be the price one must pay for doing a good job (Folsom,

1985).

Type A Versus Hardiness

Kobasa (1979, 1983) suggests that the factors that

differentiate individuals who are achievement oriented and

successful while also competent at managing high levels of

stress includes: a sense of commitment to what they are

involved in; a realistic belief in their sense of control;

15

and their perceptions of situations as challenging rather

than threatening. He and others (Kobasa, Maddi, & Kahn,

1982; Kobasa, Maddi & Zola, 1983; Kobasa & Puccetti, 1983)

suggest that not only do these qualities, which he

categorizes as "hardiness" increase productivity, but they

also lead to health benefits, intrinsic motivation and

increased satisfaction vocationally and personally.

Roskies (1987) suggests that Type A individuals can be

trained to adopt some of these "hardy" qualities. It

requires they use fewer reactive appraisals of situations

and exhibit greater flexibility in choosing responses to

their environment. She suggests that it is the ability to

exert effective control over cognitions, behavior and

physical responses that allows the individual to increase

coping efficiency by responding to challenges in a way that

minimizes negative impact and strain.

Applying the ideas of control, challenge, and

commitment (Kobasa, et al., 1983) to stress management

requires a closer examination of each of these ideas in the

context of coping. Researchers have suggested that

generalized beliefs about control (internal versus external)

and situational control appraisals are related to coping

effort and persistence (Bandura, 1982, 1977; Lefcourt,

197 6). It has been suggested that the strength of the

expectations for mastery determine how long and how much

effort an individual will exert (Bandura & Schunk, 1981;

16

Brown & Inouye, 1978; Schunk, 1981). Strickland (1978) and

Anderson (1977) noted that people with an internal locus of

control were more likely to engage in problem focused coping

patterns than were people with an external locus of control.

The perception or expectancy for control appears to

factor into an individual's appraisal of stress versus

challenge. Folkman (1984) suggested stress appraisals were

likely when the desire for control was not matched by

expectations for control or when exercising control would

increase the level of distress. The perception of a

situation as challenging was more likely when encounters

relevant to one's well-being were appraised as potentially

controllable, either by one's emotional coping or by

altering the environment and that these coping efforts would

not create additional distress.

Under conditions of challenge positive emotions such as

eagerness, excitement, and hopefulness are dominant and have

been found to facilitate problem focused coping (Lazarus,

1980). A study by Anderson (1977) supports this hypothesis.

He interviewed businesspeople who had been negatively

impacted by a flood. Looking at those individuals who

adopted an external versus internal locus of control and a

threat versus challenge appraisal of the situation he found

that after two and a half years those who adopted internal

and challenge appraisals were more successful and had used

more effective problem focused coping skills.

17

The third area which Kobasa (1983) attributes to

effective coping is commitment or an active involvement in

the coping process. This relates back to the internal

versus external locus of control. Individuals who perceive

themselves as possessors of control are more likely to

participate in the management of their environment.

Self Concept and Stress

One area that has not been addressed by any of the

previously presented research has to do with the challenge

some stressors present to an individual's self-concept.

Pearlin, Lieberman, Menaghan and Mullan (1981) suggest that

there are two dimensions of self concept that are relevant

to stress appraisals: mastery and self-esteem. Mastery

refers to control expectancies discussed earlier. Self

esteem refers to the judgements one makes about one's self

worth. These investigators found that when individuals were

faced with persistent strains, unscheduled or unexpected

life events, such as job loss, which they viewed as proof of

their inability to affect their lives, they suffered classic

symptoms of stress. These symptoms ranged from emotional

malaise to physical ailments. These investigators found

that coping efforts that were effective with this job loss

population were both problem and emotion focused. The

problem focused technigue reguired that individuals seek out

comparative scenarios that resulted in a better/worse

outcome. By doing so the individuals were better able to

18

view their situation on a continuum, rather than from the

singular perspective of failure. The emotion focused

technique called for cognitive reframing or relabeling of

success. Previously these individuals had defined success

in economic terms so that when their economic base was

threatened by job loss their self-image was called into

question. By redefining success in terms other than

financial, these individuals were able to maintain a higher

level of self esteem.

Kobasa (1979) proposed that unemployed individuals who

had less hardy personalities would have more stress related

symptoms following job loss and unemployed Type A

individuals would display more negative effects (emotional,

physical, behavioral and psychological) than would Type B

individuals. Kobasa and Puccetti's research (1983)

suggested that Type A individuals were likely to be less

effective in adopting coping strategies that reduced the

negative effects of job loss, particularly emotion-focused

and problem-focused activities. Recalling the principles of

the Type A behavior pattern, these individuals strive to

control uncontrollable events, maintain unrealistically high

standards for themselves, and adopt external loci of

control. Therefore, it can be extrapolated that this

population is at high risk for stress reactions when faced

with unemployment and its attendant concerns and emotional

challenges. A review of the literature done by DeFrank and

19

Ivancevich (1986) reported that individuals who were high on

hardiness (control, commitment and challenge) were more

likely to be effective in using various coping strategies to

reduce the negative effects of job loss.

Summary of the Literature

Summarizing the research presented, job loss is usually

perceived as a highly stressful event in one's life. The

degree to which it is perceived as threatening or harmful

depends on an individual's employment history (Cobb & Kasl,

1977), economic status (Hepworth, 1980; Jackson & Warr,

1984), emotional balance (Gore, 1978; Lajer, 1982),

personality factors (Freidman & Rosenman, 1974; Kobasa,

1979), and coping strategies (Folkman, 1984; Lazarus, 1981).

An intervention that is aimed at minimizing the negative

emotional, physical and behavioral effects of job loss needs

to synthesize all the previous research. The intervention

should have the following components as recommended by

Lazarus (1979): reduction of the distressing environmental

conditions; tolerance of or adjustment to the negative

events and its realities; maintenance of positive self

image; maintenance of emotional equilibrium; and continued

satisfactory relations and social supports.

Based on the belief that job loss is a highly stressful

event for an individual to experience, developing these

resources within that individual that might reduce the

negative effects of job loss stress would be beneficial. A

20

program to combat the stress associated with job loss would

need to address the physical, cognitive, and emotional

components associated with stress.

Hypotheses

A stress management program which incorporated and

addressed the physical, cognitive and emotional effects

associated with stress was developed with the belief that if

individuals conducting a job search were given this type of

stress management training,

Hypothesis 1: Their use of effective stress management

techniques would increase;

Hypothesis 2: As their use of appropriate stress

management techniques increased, their perception or

experience of stress would decrease.

In order to test both of these hypotheses, the stress

management program, "Managing your Career and Lifestyle

Stress" was administered to individuals who were unemployed

and actively looking for jobs.

CHAPTER II

METHOD

Subjects

The treatment group consisted of 76 (70 men and 6

women) unemployed Drake Beam Morin, Inc. clients who

completed all phases of the stress management program and

follow-up questionnaires. The ages of the participants

ranged from 27 to 67 with a mean age of 47 years. The 76

participants were primarily Caucasian along with one

Asian-American, two Mexican-Americans, and three

African-Americans. These individuals had left careers in

insurance, finance, real estate, and engineering to name a

few. All participants were white collar workers and

generally had occupied mid and upper level management

positions prior to being unemployed.

The control group was randomly selected from the

existing DBM client population who had not opted to

participate in the stress management training. Fifty people

were asked to participate and 37 completed all the necessary

questionnaires to be included in the control group. Of the

37 control group members there were 33 men, four women, two

Mexican-Americans, and one African-American. Their ages

ranged from 32 to 59 years with the mean age of 46.

21

22

Intervention

The intervention developed for the Drake Beam Morin

clients focused on each of these components. The program

titled Managing Career and Lifestyle Stress (Drake Beam

Morin, copyright, 1991) is divided into components

addressing the body of stress and coping literature. The

five sections are 1) Understanding and assessing stress; 2)

Managing stress by managing your thinking; 3) Managing

stress by strengthening yourself; 4) Managing stress by

taking control; and 5) Planning to improve stress

management. The intervention is a two part workshop

facilitated by trained counselors. A thorough examination

of each component follows.

Part I: Understanding and assessing stress

The first section focuses on introductions, rapport

building, and education of the clients. The participants

are asked to fill out the Holmes-Rahe Stress Inventory

(Holmes & Rahe, 1967) which appropriates values to life

change events. These 43 events are representative of

health, work, family, personal, social and financial areas

of life adjustment. There has been considerable alterations

and extensions made to the original scaling items used by

Holmes and Rahe (Brown & Birley, 1968; Horowitz, 1977;

Hurst, Jenkins & Rose, 1978 Paykel, Prusoff & Uhlenhuth,

1971), however Rahe (1974) suggests that among all these

lists there is a surprising unanimity of life events

23

considered stressful. The goal of offering participants

this stress inventory was not for the counselor to quantify

the individual's stress level, but to illustrate to the

participants that stress can be induced by both positive and

negative events. The primary stress agent is that of

change. All the events on the inventory cause the

individual to move from a steady state of psychological

adjustment into a state of disequilibrium. This view of

stress was supported by several researchers who found that

the degree to which an individual was forced into a state of

disequilibrium was related to an increased risk for

psychological distress (Dowenhrend, 1973; Hough, Fairbank &

Garcia, 1976; Rahe, 1979). These researchers did not

attach the state of disequilibrium to positive or negative

events, but simply to change events. Using this measure it

was hoped that participants would have tangible evidence of

the stress they are experiencing.

During this period the counselor assessed the

functional level of the participants as was suggested by

Roskies (1987). The participants were encouraged to discuss

their personal experiences with and perception of stress.

From this the facilitator guided the discussion toward a

didactic format of teaching different theoretical models of

stress and its management. This cerebral approach is more

effective with individuals who are intellectually astute and

career oriented. Jenni and Wollersheim (1979) found

24

cognitive interventions effective in reducing typical Type A

behaviors that exacerbated the experience of stress. The

didactic approach is supported by Lazarus (1967) and Lazarus

and Folkman (1984) who suggested that part of the

intervention ought to provide individuals with much needed

information concerning the processes they were experiencing.

Models of stress. The first model presented to the

participants was Roskies' (1987) theory that Type A behavior

does not automatically lead to dysfunction or physical

impairment. She suggests that in the standard stress

situation an individual is faced with a change event. The

individual mobilizes all of his or her resources, thoughts,

feelings and actions to deal with the threat. After they

have adjusted to or eliminated the distressing event they

regroup so as to replenish their resources to meet the next

challenge. Roskies suggests that it is the Type A

individual's nature to maintain a level of hypervigilence

for stressful stimuli as well as a higher than normal level

of physical activity. Therefore, when they are faced with a

stressor they overreact to it because of their basic

difficulty modulating responses and activity levels. They

are more highly aroused by all environmental stimuli (Glass,

1977; Rosenman & Freidman, 1961, 1963). As a result, even

if they cope with the initial distressing event effectively

they expended more energy than was necessary and are

unlikely to allow themselves time to recuperate and regroup

25

following the event. Therefore, when the next stressor

occurs the Type A individual must meet the challenge with

fewer resources than the individual who allowed himself or

herself time to replenish his or her energy resources.

Next, the participants were presented with a list of

stress symptoms. Many high functioning individuals have

difficulty recognizing when they are experiencing stress.

Researchers have attributed a plethora of symptoms to stress

(Catalano & Dooley, 1986; Derogatis, et al., 1971; Gove &

Tudor, 1973; Kelvin & Jarrett, 1985; Pearlin, 1975;

Seligman, 1977). Some of these symptoms include changes in

sleep patterns, eating patterns, physical wellness, sexual

activities, energy level, emotional balance, marital or

family problems, and alcohol or drug consumption. This list

is not exhaustive, but the forty-five items cover some broad

areas in which stress responses are likely to show up. This

exercise is intended to aid participants in recognizing

their own unique stress triggers (Roskies, 1987).

The next theoretical model presented to the

participants was Bridges' (1980) Transitional Model. He

suggests that individuals are continually moving through and

dealing with change. He suggests that normally people are

not aware of the changes going on around them. Individuals

classify events in their life as expected predictable

developments. It is only when those events are not expected

or their impact is detrimental to one's well-being that it

26

is classified as a stressor. He takes a long-term

perspective of an individual's life in which one is

continually moving from one change event to the next.

Bridges (1980) believes there are some consistent

phases and experiences one goes through during any change,

either positive or negative. He labels these phases as: the

Ending, the Neutral Zone, and the New Beginning. The Ending

is a period of letting go, loss, and sadness. The

unemployed individual can easily relate to this phase,

especially because most of the outplacement clients are

actively in this phase. The Neutral Zone, by Bridges own

admission, is a misnomer. He describes this as a period of

confusion, hope, despair, anxiety, and excitement. During

this period the individual is well on his or her way to

saying goodbye and letting go of the emotional burdens

attached to the Ending, however they also have a futureful

perspective in anticipating their next step. This is the

stage which outplacement clients spend most their time.

Excitement about their possible futures is sometimes

diminished by anxiety or anger about their present or past.

As a result, individuals during this period may feel out of

control of their emotions.

The last stage in this model is called the New

Beginning. This period is marked by a sense of renewal and

revitalization. The individual is now committed to the next

step and the actions necessary to being successful within

27

it. Bridges notes that none of these stages are discreet,

each stage flows into and overlaps one another at different

periods. He suggests that if one can put all life's

transitions, both good and bad, into this perspective the

way in which one chooses to deal with them can be less

damaging and painful. He also posits that these changes can

bring about inner growth rather than a destruction or demise

of one's self beliefs.

The final model is Burns' Cognitive Behavioral Model

(1980). He proposes that the way one thinks about a

situation or about himself or herself will directly impact

their affective and behavioral responses. He suggests that

people have great difficulty modifying their emotional

responses to a situation and that thoughts are more easily

reshaped than are emotions. Therefore, rather than allowing

patterns of emotions to lead to thoughts and on to

behaviors, alter the cycle so that thoughts lead to

behaviors which lead to a change in emotional responses. In

essence, he recommends removing emotions from the early

stages of the process, allowing them to exist, but focusing

on shaping one's thoughts so that they are motivating rather

than deflating.

Burns (1980) and Bridges (1980) propose that the

stressor or environmental stimulus is not inherently good or

bad. It is the individual's historical perspective, current

situation and cognitive appraisal that deems an event as

28

positive or negative. Neither of these theorists propose a

naive, "don't worry, be happy" perspective. They do suggest

that it is in an individual's best interest to evaluate each

situation based on reality and control rather than

distortion and helplessness. These proactive approaches

parallel the cognitive perspectives of individuals high in

hardiness and effective coping skills (Kobasa, 1979; Kobasa

and Puccetti, 1983; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).

Part II: Managing Stress by Managing your Thinking

The second section focused on identifying, challenging

and replacing cognitive distortions with more effective and

realistic self talk. The first step in removing irrational

thoughts is to begin recognizing them as irrational. The

aim of this module was to make participants aware of how

their own expectations and judgements contribute to the

intensity and duration of stress experienced and to

demonstrate that modification of these habitual thought

patterns can lead to reduced stress.

Ellis (1962), Ellis and Harper (1975), and others

(Beck, 1976; Meichenbaum, 1977, 1985) have focused

extensively on the nature and treatment of irrational

beliefs. Some typical distorted beliefs are: "I can't change

myself.", "I must be perfect and absolutely competent.", and

" I have no control over my unhappiness.". Because these

beliefs reflect a pattern of deep seated values and beliefs

individuals may resist intervention (Lazarus & Folkman,

29

1984) . Therefore, treatment began with increasing

participants' awareness of when, how and why irrational

thoughts occur so as to build up their commitment to the

purpose of this intervention. Participants were provided

with a list of ten typical cognitive distortions (McKay,

Davis & Fanning, 1981). These are slight derivations from

those suggested by Ellis (1962). Participants were asked to

look through the list and their descriptions and select

those patterns or beliefs that most closely resemble

themselves. The rationale for this activity was to provide

examples of beliefs that lead to increased tension and

discomfort, such as unrealistic expectations for themselves

or others, catastrophizing, and constantly focusing on the

uncontrollable rather than the controllable elements of

their life (Roskies, 1987).

After introducing the idea of irrational or distorted

beliefs participants were provided an exercise entitled

Recognizing and challenging distortions. A scenario was set

up in which a character was faced with a stressful

situation. The character's internal dialogue was written

out. The participants were asked to label the emotions the

character might be experiencing, the distortions being used,

and healthier, more productive thoughts that could replace

them. After going through two examples, participants were

asked to apply the same technique to a personal situation

that they perceived as stressful. This stage of the

30

exercise tied into the application step in the intervention

(Meichenbaum, 1985; Meichenbaum & Jaremko, 1983).

The scenarios addressed two categories of stressful

situations. They reflected what Roskies (1987) refers to as

predictable versus unpredictable stressors. The two

situations require different types of preparation and

adaptive skills. In the predictable situation one is able

to prepare for the likely responses to the stimulus. By

evaluating the situation from a temporal distance, one can

select the coping skill that is most useful when the

situation actually occurs. Mental rehearsal increases an

individual's experience of control over the situation.

The second scenario reflected the unpredictable type of

stress encountered daily such as long lines at a grocery

store, traffic jams, and cancelled appointments. It is

impossible to eliminate these types of daily hassles

(Lazarus & Cohen, 1977) from life, however the reactions to

these situations can be altered drastically. The first step

in dealing with unpredictable stressors is recognizing the

signs of increasing tension. Once the tension is recognized

the individual can interrupt the process by braking

(Meichenbaum, 1977; Roskies, 1987). This braking process is

not intended to deny the existence of the stressor, it

allows the individual to regain control so they are better

able to deal with the situation.

31

The facilitator was faced with the challenge of

overcoming participants' perception that modifying and

replacing negative self talk was merely a game of semantics

that was an artificial externally imposed pattern of

thoughts and actions. It was the facilitator's

responsibility to point out that all patterns of thought are

learned and can be unlearned or relearned. It is only

natural that a new activity or approach will feel

artificial, but as with all new skills, it becomes more

natural with the passage of time and with continued use

(Roskies, 1987).

Part III: Managing Stress by Strengthening Yourself

The third module of the workshop focused on behavioral

changes that can reduce the experience of stress. During

this module participants were trained in relaxation

exercises that were individualized and focused on the

particular stress triggers they experienced. Relaxation and

visualization have proven to be effective in combating the

experience of stress (Hillenberg & Collins, 1982; Holmes,

1984; Lehrer, Woolfolk, Rooney, McCann & Carrington, 1983).

Goldfried (1977) pointed out that although individuals find

different forms of relaxation more effective than others,

not all are practical for situations that arise during the

day. For instance, although jogging may be an ideal way to

relieve tension, it is not appropriate in the middle of an

anxiety provoking interview.

32

The methods discussed during the workshop focused on

the individual's stress inducing internal dialogue and the

behavioral consequences of this type of thought pattern. In

these exercises, the individual replaces the negative

internal dialogue with more effective statements and

visualizes the behavioral outcome of that exchange. By

visualizing the desired behavior and desired outcome, the

individual increases their sense of control and lowers their

autonomic responses to the stressor.

The second component of the relaxation module trained

participants in deep muscle relaxation. Researchers have

found that using a slow, well-modulated tone which guides

the listeners through the various muscle groups, instructing

them on how to relax their muscles is very effective in

reducing physical tension and anxiety (Bernstein & Barkovec,

1973; Heide & Barkovec, 1984). After guiding the

participants through the exercise they evaluated their

current tension level versus that prior to the exercise.

The participants were taught that relaxation in its

various forms (visualization, deep breathing, muscle

relaxation) can be used in several ways. Roskies (1987)

suggests three main ways in which relaxation can be used as

a coping skill: to modulate physical tension throughout the

day; to prepare for potentially stressful situations; and as

the first step in regaining control when in a high state of

33

tension. Participants shared their stress "triggers" and

applied these techniques to diminish their negative effects.

Part IV: Managing Stress bv Taking Control.

The fourth module of the workshop provided participants

with three approaches to evaluating and coping with

stressors. The ideas of evaluating, increasing and

accepting control over situations has been researched by

several professionals (Archer, 1979; Dooley & Catalano,

1988; Folkman, 1984; Rotter, 1975). Their findings suggest

that control expectancies or beliefs about control greatly

impact how one appraises and responds to situations. The

more controllable a situation seems, the less stressful for

the individual. The first step in establishing control

expectancies involves an evaluation or appraisal of the

situation. Averill (1973) and Thompson (1981) found that

control expectancies at times increased the experience of

stress. This occurred when individuals perceived themselves

as able to control uncontrollable events, typical of Type A

individuals. As a result, their efforts to establish

control were unsuccessful and increased their distress.

This module focused on helping participants realistically

evaluate situations by looking at the amount of control they

have over it, the importance of the situation to them, and

to develop action plans for taking and relinquishing control

when appropriate.

34

The first exercise in this module was called assessing

control. The aim of this exercise was to guide participants

through the process of assigning degrees of control to an

upsetting event. Keeping in mind the work of Freidman

(1969), Rosenman and Freidman (1963), and Glass (1977) in

which they found that Type A individuals typically were

struggling to achieve an unlimited number of poorly defined

goals as well as maintain control over uncontrollable

factors, helping these individuals to clarify what their

primary objectives are and how attainable they are can

increase their effectiveness in coping. The second

exercise, decision clarification, helped participants set

priorities and make their goals tangible. By doing so they

were better able to generate realistic and appropriate steps

to achieve them. The decision clarification process

required that participants write out all areas of current

concern, selecting the three most important areas, and

drawing up a list of pros and cons for dealing with the

situation in the current fashion or developing novel

alternatives. This is a practical technique used in

decision making processes (McKay, Davis & Fanning, 1981),

but is frequently forgotten when an individual is in a state

of distress.

The final exercise in this module focused participants'

attention on areas that are controllable within their lives.

During the job-search process there are many areas which for

35

all practical purposes are outside the individual's control,

such as waiting for a returned phone call, speed of

negotiating a job offer, or the economic slump of certain

industries. When an individual is faced with significant

uncontrollable areas of their life it has been found that

successfully attending to areas that are more controllable

can aid the individual to generalize these control

expectancies to other areas of their life (Rotter, 1975;

Folkman, 1984). Participants selected an area of their life

that they have not attended to, which was important to them

(commitment), and that was under their control. They then

developed an action plan for taking steps to affect that

area of their life and markers for measuring their success.

The goal of the exercise was two-fold: encouraging a

positive change within the individual's life; and expanding

their perceptions and expectations for control in other

areas of their life.

Part V: Action Planning to Improve Stress Management.

The fifth module was a summation of the previous

sections. The discussion focused on stress management as a

lifelong process rather than a gimmick used within

circumscribed parameters. This is a philosophy recommended

by Marlatt (1985) and Marlatt and Gordon (1985) who point

out that before any behavioral change becomes permanent, the

individual must go through a learning process that includes

slipping or making poor choices at times. The counselor's

36

role is to predict that this will happen, but as the new

behaviors become more engrained these slips will become more

infrequent. It is important that the counselor frame these

slips not as failures, but as guideposts for the individual

to measure their progress.

Highlighting previous modules included recognizing

somatic indicators of stress, ineffective belief systems,

and control expectancies that exacerbate stress, as well as

discussing relaxation techniques which counteract the

effects of physical distress. The various techniques were

presented in visual form as a grid connecting the most

appropriate techniques or interventions with different

symptoms of stress. Participants developed an

individualized stress management plan that outlined their

particular stress triggers, techniques that worked most

effectively for them, and developed a strategy for dealing

with an isolated stressor.

In concluding the workshop, participants were provided

with a list of reading materials and audio tapes used to

facilitate relaxation. Participants were encouraged to use

these materials as they deemed necessary. They continued to

have access to trained staff to discuss concerns or pitfalls

they experienced following treatment.

Measures

The Occupational Stress Inventory [OSI] (Osipow &

Spokane, 1987) was given to participants to test for

37

treatment effects. This instrument was developed by Osipow

(Osipow & Davis, 1988; Osipow & Spokane, 1984) whose

research linked an individual's perception of stress and

strain with their ability to use appropriate coping

resources, such as those taught in Drake Beam Morin's

training program. The researchers reported that as an

individual's coping resources increased his or her

experience of stress and strain diminished.

The Occupational Stress Inventory (Osipow & Spokane,

1987) consists of three major scales which assess stress

related to the work environment, the individual's perception

of stress and strain, and the coping skills used by the

individual. Since this study was directed at unemployed

individuals, the first scale used to assess the work

environment was deemed inappropriate and not filled out by

the participants.

Two scales were deemed appropriate, the Personal Strain

Questionnaire [PSQ] and the Personal Resources Questionnaire

[PRQ]. The PSQ was divided into four factors: vocational,

physical, interpersonal, and psychological strain. The

vocational strain scale assesses the extent to which the

respondent is having problems in the quality or output of

work. The psychological strain measures the extent of

psychological adjustment or mood problems the respondent

reports. The interpersonal strain scale measures

disruptions to interpersonal relationships and the physical

38

strain scale measures complaints about physical illness.

Cronbach's alpha coefficients are .71 for vocational strain,

.89 for psychological strain, .81 for interpersonal, and .87

for physical strain (Osipow & Spokane, 1984).

The Personal Resources Questionnaire (PRQ) measures the

coping skills and their effective use by an individual. The

greater the use of coping mechanisms the higher the subscale

scores. The PRQ is divided into four subscales: Recreation,

Self Care, Social Support, and Rational Cognitive Coping.

The Recreation subscale measures the extent to which

respondents make use of and derive pleasure from

recreational activities. The Self Care subscale measures

the degree to which an individual takes part in personal

activities for health purposes such as controlling their

diet and exercise. The Social Support subscale measures the

extent to which an individual feels support and help from

others as well as whether they use the help of friends and

family. The final subscale assesses Rational/Cognitive

coping skills and whether one uses them when appropriate.

Some of those coping skills include prioritizing,

problem-solving, and delegating. The internal consistency

of these subscales was evaluated by Osipow and Spokane

(1984) using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. They measured

.71 for recreation; .73 for self care; .83 for social

support; and .78 for rational/cognitive coping. Osipow and

Davis (1986) found that all coping resources were effective

39

in reducing global strain and use of high and low levels of

the resources made a significant difference in the direction

of the stress and strain relationship.

Procedure

The treatment consisted of attending and participating

as a group in the "Managing Career and Lifestyle Stress"

Workshops conducted by either Stefanie Spera or Miya

Maysent, both mental health professionals working for Drake

Beam Morin. All workshops were conducted at the offices of

Drake Beam Morin in Dallas, Texas and were offered as needed

to Drake Beam Morin clients. The treatment results were

gathered over a two year time frame in order to have a

sufficient number of participants for this study.

The 76 subjects in the treatment group were self-

selected. They volunteered to attend the "Managing Career

and Lifestyle Stress" workshops during their tenure with

Drake Beam Morin. The subjects were able to attend the

workshop at any time while they were receiving outplacement

services. The control group, which consisted of 37

individuals, was selected from individuals who had decided

not to attend the "Managing Career and Lifestyle Stress"

workshop and were active clients of Drake Beam Morin between

the dates of September 1 and 15, 1992. These individuals

were asked to complete the Occupational Stress Inventory.

Of the 50 that were asked to participate in the control

group, 3 7 returned the completed guestionnaire.

40

The workshops were conducted as two 3 hour classes

spread out over a one week period. During the first three

hour session the facilitator covered Sections I, II, and

III. Between the two sessions participants were asked to

practice some of the techniques taught. The second session

began with participants sharing related experiences from

that week while applying some of the stress management

techniques. The remainder of the second session was devoted

to Sections IV, V and wrapping up. At the conclusion of the

workshop participants filled out program evaluations and the

Personal Strain and Personal Resources Questionnaires from

the Occupational Stress Inventory.

All Drake Beam Morin clients were given a vocational

assessment when they began their tenure with Drake Beam

Morin and included in the assessment was the OSI. The

results from this initial assessment served as the baseline

measure for both Treatment and Control groups. Individuals

in the control group were asked to fill out the same two

questionnaires, the Personal Strain Questionnaire and

Personal Resources Questionnaire, from the Occupational

Stress Inventory between September 1 and 15, 1992.

Statistical Analysis

To analyze the results, a One-Way Repeated Multivariate

Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA) was conducted. The

variances on each of the eight scales within the Personal

Strain and Personal Resources Questionnaires were analyzed

41

(see Tables 1 and 2). The time which elapsed between pre-

testing, done at the start of DBM's services, and post-

testing, done following treatment, varied from individual to

individual. To reduce the risk that this type of variance

might confound the data, the elapsed time between pre- and

post-testing was entered as a covariate in the analysis

resulting in both observed and adjusted means and standard

deviations.

CHAPTER III

RESULTS

The repeated measures MANCOVA between treatment and

control groups yielded several significant results. Of the

eight scales that were evaluated, seven resulted in

significant findings. The four scales found in the Personal

Strain Questionnaire (PSQ) measuring the individuals'

perceptions of stress or strain indicated that initially

both the treatment and control groups were experiencing

relatively similar levels of strain. However, as time

passed, the treatment groups remained at that same level of

strain, while the control group significantly increased

their perception of strain. All four scales in the Personal

Strain Questionnaire resulted in significant Fs as can be

seen in Table 2. The interaction effects for each of these

variables are illustrated in Figures 1-4.

The perceived coping resources of both the control and

treatment groups were then evaluated using the Personal

Resources Questionnaire (PRQ) and an inverse relationship was

found. On three of the four scales measured by the PRQ, the

treatment group maintained their utilization of effective

coping resources to challenge their perceived stress and

42

43

Table 1

Observed and Adjusted Means of the Personal Strain

Questionnaire

Treatment Group Control Group Strain Variables Obs.M Adj.M SD Obs.M Adj.M SD

Voc pre 19. 513 19. 550 4. 203 17. 135 17. 098 4. 423

Voc post 19. 645 20. 326 5. 401 21. 081 20. 399 4. 633

Psych pre 25. 316 25. 402 6. 761 21. 676 21. 589 7. 401

Psyc post 24. 000 24. 371 6. 790 23. 784 23. 411 6. 929

Interp pre 21. 408 21. 761 4. 828 19. 135 18. 781 5. 855

Interp post 21. 329 21. 476 5. 563 22. 405 22. 258 5. 439

Phys pre 19. 921 20. 123 5. 430 17. 837 17. 635 5. 263

Phys post 19. 395 19. 458 6. 212 20. 243 20. 179 5. 320

Note. Voc = Vocational Strain, Psyc = Psychological Strain,

Interp = Interpersonal Strain, Phys = Physical Strain.

Figure 1. Vocational Strain Effects Group by Occasion

Vocational Strain Pre Adi M Post Adi M

B (20.399)

A (20.327) Treatment (A) A (19.550)

Control (B) B (17.098)

44

Figure 2. Psychological Strain Effects Group by Occasion

Psychological Strain

Treatment (A)

Pre Adi M

A (25.402)

Post Adi M

A (24.372)

B (23.412)

Control (B) B (21.589)

Figure 3. Interpersonal Strain Effects Group by Occasion

Interpersonal Strain Pre Adi M Post Adi M

Treatment (A)

Control (B)

A (21.762)

B (18.781)

B (22.258)

A (21.476)

Figure 4. Physical Strain Effects Group by Occasion

Physical Strain

Treatment (A)

Control (B)

Pre Adi M

A (20.123)

B (17.636)

Post Adi M

B (20.179)

A (19.458)

45

Table 2

Personal Strain Questionnaire Univariate F Test Results with

(1.111) DF Group bv Occasion

Variable Error Ms F Signif. of F

Voc. Strain 13.66926 13. 24362 .000

Psych. Strain 25.63959 5. 68902 . 019

Interp. Strain 13.21092 10. 56478 .002

Phys. Strain 18.54895 5. 76545 . 018

Note. Voc. Strain = Vocational Strain, Psych. Strain =

Psychological Strain, Interp. Strain = Interpersonal Strain,

Phys. Strain = Physical Strain.

strain. In comparison, the control group decreased their

utilization of effective resources over time. The scales

which differed significantly between the two groups included

Self Care, Social Support, and Rational/Cognitive coping

resources as can be seen in Table 4. The differences between

the control and treatment groups in their use of appropriate

coping resources is clearly illustrated in Figures 5-7.

There were not significant findings indicating that stress

management training led to an increase in use of appropriate

coping skills. However, there was clear support that those

who did not receive stress management training did decrease

their use of appropriate coping strategies over time.

46

Table 3

Observed and Adjusted Means of the Personal Resources

Questionnaire

Treatment Group Control Group Resource Vars. Obs.M Adj.M SD Obs.M Adj.M SD

Recreat. pre 26. 592 26. 356 6. 169 28. 919 29. 154 5. 428

Recreat. post 26. 684 26. 683 6. 473 27. 810 27. 811 6. 724

Self care pre 27. 947 27. 493 6. 136 29. 351 29. 805 6. 901

Self care post 28. 868 28. 606 6. 791 27. 946 28. 207 7. 627

Soc. supp pre 40. 250 40. 099 7. 412 42. 216 42. 366 7. 087

Soc. supp post 40. 934 40. 767 8. 057 40. 108 40. 274 7. 430

Rational pre 36. 395 35. 927 5. 104 38. 973 39. 440 6. 216

Rational post 36. 947 36. 721 5. 151 36. 892 37. 118 6. 458

Note. Recreat. = Recreation, Self-care = Self care, Soc. Supp = Social Support, Rational = Rational/Cognitive Resources.

Table 4

Personal Resources Questionnaire Univariate F Test Results

with (l.lll) DF Group bv Occasion

Variable Error Ms F Signif. of F

Self Care Resources 11.40741 5.90351 .017

Social Support

Resources 17.43238 5.56519 .020

Rational/Cognitive Resources 12.65561 6.81962 .010

47

Figure 5. Self Care Utilization Effects Group by Occasion

Self Care Pre Adi M Post Adi M

Control (B) B (29.806)

Treatment (A) A (28.607)

B (28.207)

A (27.493)

Figure 6. Social Support Utilization Effects Group by Occasion

Social Support Pre Adi M Post Adi M

Control (B) B (42.367)

Treatment (A) A (40.767)

B (40.274)

A (40.099)

Figure 7. Rational/Cognitive Coping Effects Group by Occasion

Rational/Cognitive

Coping Pre Adi M Post Adi M

Control (B) B (39.440) B (37.117)

Treatment (A) A (36.722)

A (35.927)

CHAPTER IV

DISCUSSION

The Multivariate Analysis of Covariance yielded results

which support the hypothesis that stress management

interventions can be beneficial to an unemployed population.

These results suggest that some form of education or

training for individuals going through a job loss and job

search situation might be helpful in containing some of the

negative emotional effects that often are associated with

these events. This program was specifically developed for

individuals conducting a job search, so the generalizability

of these effects may be limited to those programs geared to

the populations they are meant to serve.

The greatest benefit of the program appeared to be in

its ability to assist individuals in maintaining their

effective coping resources while minimizing elevations of

their perceived stress and strain. It should be noted that

following the treatment the participants did not evidence

significant reductions in their pre-treatment levels of

functioning. This effect is not interesting until compared

to the outcomes for the control group who on seven out of

eight scales either increased their experience of strain or

decreased their use of coping skills.

48

49

In evaluating the effects of the stress management

program, it appears to have supported the appropriate and

helpful activities that participants were already

undertaking to deal with their stressful situations.

Perhaps through discussions focused on their stressful

experiences and recommendations of appropriate coping

activities, participants were simply reminded of strategies

that had worked for them in the past and reinforced their

continued use.

Through the informal information gathering technique of

program evaluations, it became apparent that one of the

informal benefits of this program was providing the

participants with a forum in which they shared their own

personal frustrations and concerns as they went through the

job search process. So many individuals who conduct job

search campaigns are doubly burdened with the belief that

they must go it alone. By providing a safe and accepting

environment in which to vent and seek feedback, some of this

sense of isolation may have been diminished.

Improvements to this study include more rigorous

controls on elapsed testing times and reducing the overall

length of time it took to conduct this study. This study

would also be strengthened by adding another post test

several months following treatment to examine the long term

benefits and to measure for continued use of the treatment

techniques.

50

This study emphasized the importance of developing

consistent, reliable techniques to assist job seekers in

dealing with the increased stressors associated with job

hunting. It is obvious that there will always be

individuals looking for employment. Therefore, it is in the

best interests of the outplacement industry, the

psychological community, and society in general to find

methods for assisting these individuals so they can

contribute to society as members of the workforce again.

This study focused on individuals fortunate enough to

receive outplacement services and support to assist them in

their job search. Of greatest concern are those individuals

who are unemployed, but who lack the guidance or support

from either professional consultants or colleagues to seek

out stress management techniques. Some efforts are being

made to reach these individuals who constitute the majority

of the unemployed populace. Several state employment

commissions have begun to offer outplacement seminars for

those individuals whose employers do not provide this type

of support as part of their severance program. This is a

positive first step in assisting those individuals, however,

long term assistance and monitoring needs to accompany this

first step to assure that unemployed individuals are given

the tools and knowledge to successfully seek out their next

job.

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