cooperation in marine research between russia and norway ... reports/marine...haddock...

ICES Marine Science Symposia, 215: 73-86. 2002

Cooperation in marine research between Russia and Norway at the dawn of the 20th century

Per Solemdal and Valeri Serebryakov

Solemdal, P., and Serebryakov, V 2002. Cooperation in marine research between Russia and Norway at the dawn o f the 20th century. - ICES Marine Science Symposia, 215: 73-86.

Russia and Norway exploit, to a large extent, the same living marine resources in the Barents and Norwegian Seas. At the end o f the 19th century, Russian and Norwegian traditional fisheries were still confined to coastal areas and were subjected to natural disasters and fluctuations in abundance o f fish stocks. It was realized in both countries that marine and fisheries-related research had to be extended seawards. A real breakthrough in marine research development was the construction of the first research vessels especially designed for marine and fisheries studies, the RV "Andrei Pervozwarmy" in Russia in 1899 and the RV "Michael Sars" in Norway in 1900. There were two great scientists who succeeded in building the research vessels for high-seas fisheries research - Nikolai Knipowitseh in Russia and Johan Hjort in Norway. They were good friends and had a common understanding of the necessity o f cooperation between the two countries in marine and fisheries investigations in the Barents and Norwegian Seas. Coordination o f efforts and standardization o f methods and equipment used on board the research vessels were achieved as a result o f fruitful discussions between the two leading scientists. The RV "Michael Sars" performed regular oceanographic and fisheries observations in the Norwegian Sea, and the RV "Andrei Pervozwanny" did the same in the Barents Sea at the dawn of the 20th century. The surveys by these two vessels helped to reveal the basic structure o f the circulation pattern and migration o f cod, herring, and other food fish in the Barents and Norwegian Seas, and demonstrated the great potential for fisheries in the open ocean. The coordinated studies also illustrated the necessity for conducting accurate scientific investigations before any practical recommendations for the fishing industry could be produced.

Keywords: Barents Sea, cooperation, fisheries, Norway, Norwegian Sea, oceanography, research vessel, Russia.

Per Solemdal: Institute o f Marine Research, PO Box 1870 Nordnes, 5817 Bergen, Norway; tel: +47 55 23 85 00: fa x: +47 55 23 85 84: e-mail: per.solemdal@ imr.no. Valeri Serebryakov: form erly o f Russian Institute o f Fisheries and Oceanography (VNIRO), Moscow, Russia: currently at 3/14 First Street, Black Rock, Victoria 3193, Australia: e-mail: vserebryakov@ yahoo.com.au.

Introduction

As neighbouring coastal states in the North, Russia and Norway have a long tradition of sharing a common fate, especially in fish harvesting. Periods of good harvests are often followed by periods with negligible catches, resulting in famine for the populations of both countries.

Modern marine research began simultaneously in the two countries at the end of the 19th century. Since other countries with large trawl fleets in the overfished North Sea were looking northwards, it was natural that the two neighbours tried to get a lead in investigating "their" waters. It was realized in both countries that under

standing of the annual variations in coastal waters should be acquired on the high seas. It was also appreciated that the two traditionally coastal-fishing countries must develop their own high-seas fishing fleets and urgently seek new fishing grounds. Cooperative research between Russia and Norway had been established before the ICES planning meetings took place in Stockholm and Kristiania (Oslo) in 1899 and 1901, respectively. This cooperation was based on a personal friendship between Nikolai Knipowitseh and Johan Hjort, both of whom succeeded in obtaining governmental funds and approval for building modern, high- seas research vessels.

74 P. Solemdal and V. Serebryakov

A brief historical account o f marine research in Russia and Norway prior to and at the beginning of the 20th century

Marine and fisheries-related investigations were initiated in Russia during the reign of Peter the Great when the Russian Academy of Sciences was founded in 1725. That was the era of great geographical discoveries and prominent explorations of natural resources in Russia, which encouraged a number of expeditions to different parts of the country including Siberia, the Lower Volga area, and the Caspian Sea. There were two expeditions to the northern parts of Russia, one of which (1725-1730), organized by Peter the Great himself, took in the Bering Sea, Bering Strait, and Chukotka and Kamchatka Peninsulas. The second one was conducted in 1732-1742 and aimed at describing the entire northern coast of Russia from Arkhangelsk to the Pacific Ocean. Vitus Bering, a famous Danish explorer, led both expeditions (Borisov, 1960).

The exact onset of fisheries research dates back to 1851 when the Russian Society of Geographers initiated expeditions aimed at studying the fishery resources of Russia under the leadership of Karl M. von Baer, a prominent Russian biologist. Fish catches underwent a dramatic decline in several large, northwestern lakes at that time, and the expedition worked in the Chuda and Pskov lakes and in the Baltic Sea. Later, similar investigations were continued in the White and Caspian Seas and off the Kola Peninsula (Suvorov, 1948). The results of the expeditions were summarized by von Baer (1860) in the book entitled Studies o f the State o f the Fisheries in Russia published in St. Petersburg in 1860.

In Norway, clerics (priests and bishops) conducted the first systematic studies in botany and zoology, including the marine habitat. That group comprised the majority of intellectuals at that time. A similar interest in the natural sciences did not exist among Greek Orthodox clerics in Russia. After the reformation in 1536, the clerical class in Norway had a more outgoing, practical view of existence. Priests like Peder Claussøn Friis (1545-1614) and bishops like J. E. Gunnerus (1718-1773) were especially interested in the fluctuations in the fisheries. They were convinced that the bad periods were a punishment from God for the sins of the people. Bishop Gunnerus was also a taxonomist who described and named the most numerous animal in our coastal waters, the red crustacean Calanus finmarchicus.

In Norway, there was an interesting transition period from the priest to the modem scientist, illustrated by Michael Sars who had been a priest for 24 years and then was appointed Professor of Zoology in Kristiania (Oslo) in 1854, to be followed, in 1864, by his son Georg Ossian, the first full-time marine zoologist. In 1859, during this "transition" period, Darwin’s (1859) work On the Origin o f Species ... appeared. The former priest, now Professor of Zoology Michael Sars, had

problems with the main message from Darwin, but since he had worked all his life with the development of lower marine animals, and in many ways thus supported Darwin’s work, he soon accepted the new idea of "evolution". His son Ossian "digested" Darwin’s ideas immediately. During his university lectures on this theme, Ossian Sars used stories from the Old Testament to explain Darwin’s ideas. He became so enthusiastic that the leader of King Frederiks University in Kristiania stopped his lectures for a while.

Michael Sars was the pioneer in a new field of marine biology - the development of lower invertebrates, and he soon became internationally known. Georg Ossian started his career in Lofoten in 1864 studying the reproduction and first year of the "winter torsk" (i.e., Northeast Arctic cod) and observed the pelagic eggs of cod for the first time (Sars, 1879). His discovery led to the practical idea of hatching cod eggs and releasing the larvae to reduce the fluctuations in the fisheries, periodically a very heavy burden for the people in the northernmost counties. This idea developed into a classical example of the practical-scientific tradition, which was typical of Norway. Backed by G. O. Sars, Captain Dannevig built the first functional cod hatchery in the world in 1884 in Flødevigen, close to the city of Arendal. Since that year, yolk-sac larvae have been released annually into small fjords in southern Norway (Schwach, 1999).

To test the effect of releasing cod larvae on the cod population in these Ijords, juveniles were caught with a beach seine. No positive effect was found during the short time-series 1903-1905. But the very important spin-off was that it showed large annual variations in the numbers of juveniles of cod, which were especially numerous in 1904 (Dannevig and Dahl, 1906; Dahl, 1909). Similar trends were found in North Sea cod and haddock (Helland-Hansen, 1909) and the early stages of these species over a larger geographical area (Damas, 1909). The cooperative work during this golden age of Norwegian marine science is dramatized by Solemdal (1997).

Knowing the very intimate working style of this scientists’ group in Bergen, it is correct to conclude that the mentioned results led into the large-scale age study of the Norwegian spring-spawning herring, illustrating the dominating effect of the 1904 year class for many years. The results were published in the famous "Fluctuations in the great fisheries of northern Europe viewed in the light of biological research" (Hjort, 1914). This was the start of modern population dynamics.

An important factor in the internationalization of the Bergen group of scientists were the international courses in marine research that started in 1903. The idea was collectively born during a supper in Kristiansund on the return of the RV "Michael Sars" from a cruise in 1902. The main purpose was the teaching of a different type of information than that usually given at other biological stations. In addition, Hjort used the opportunity to get

Cooperation in marine research between Russia and Norway at the dawn o f the 20th centurv 75

the latest news about what was happening in the laboratories around the world since he realized that Bergen was not the centre of the world!

As a large scientific contractor, Hjort practised his skill of "head hunting" from early in his career, and many distinguished foreign scientists, and some Norwegians too, were invited to work in Bergen for varying periods of time. The courses in Bergen represented the foremost theoretical and practical education both for scientists and technicians. Well-established scientists were the most frequent participants. Altogether, the courses were given for about 175 participants during the period 1903-1913. During the first course (1 January - 10 April 1903), the 27 participants included, among others, seven Norwegian, five Russian, five German, and four British scientists. At most, nine different nations were represented. Many Russians who attended the courses developed the spirit necessary for joint scientific work.

Some anecdotes from these courses were collected by Hjalmar Broch and Einar Koefod, both "head hunted" by Hjort. Some participants had strange opinions of life in Norway. An Austrian scientist, on arrival, jumped from the coastal steamer with a pistol looking for polar bears in the streets of Bergen (he was a botanist!). Then again on Saturday nights, teachers, students, and officials from the fishery administration and Bergen Museum gathered in the local café "Boulevard". On one such occasion, a famous Russian scientist and Cossack brigadier, A. Lebedinzev, said he was very surprised by the age of the teachers in Bergen. He thought they would be distinguished, white-bearded, gentlemen, but instead found them to be around 30 years old. Lebedinzev was so happy in Bergen that his permission to stay was prolonged for a few weeks on Hjort’s recommendation. When Lebedinzev tried to prolong it even further, a telegram arrived from Russia to Hjort which said, "Send my beer barrel back (Grimm)." (Broch and Koefod, 1962).

The first Russian fisheries and oceanographic research vessel and Nikolai M. Knipowitseh

The history of the building and operation of this vessel is closely related to Nikolai M. Knipowitseh ( 1862— 1939), an outstanding Russian scientist who was born in Finland in the family of a military medical doctor (Figure 1 ). Nikolai learned Scandinavian languages during his childhood, which helped him considerably when, later in his life, he had to deal with literature on the biology and oceanography of northern seas. Studying old Norwegian reports from the 16th and 17th centuries, Knipowitseh realized that a significant fishery in Norwegian areas was in the hands of the pomors (local Russian population). It was stopped during the period

Figure 1. Nikolai Knipowitseh on board the Russian research vessel "Andrei Pervozwanny", 1899.

when the Norwegians colonized the Finnmark coast (Stepanjants et al., 1998). Knipowitseh became a university student in the Department of Physics and Mathematics at St. Petersburg University in 1880. In 1886, the Czarist police arrested him for his open support of the revolutionary ideas which were popular among the intelligentsia in Russia at that time. He was put under police surveillance in 1889 and was finally expelled from the University. While there, he became a friend of Vladimir Lenin.

Knipowitseh conducted hydrographic and marine biological studies in the Barents Sea and off the Kola Peninsula in 1893-1895. There was a savage storm in the Barents Sea in the autumn of 1894 which resulted in the wreck of 25 pomor vessels with no survivors. The catastrophe touched the whole country, and a special "Pomor Aid Committee" was established to raise funds to help the victims’ families (Soldatov, 1927). By the end of 1895, a total of 50 000 rubles had been collected, which was a huge sum of money for the time. Knipowitseh was one of the most active members of the Committee and developed a specific research pro


Figure 2. The first Russian research vessel, "Andrei Pervozwanny". especially built and equipped for oceanographic and fisheries investigations. The vessel was built in Germany in 1899.

gramme and management patterns for fishing operations off the Kola Peninsula and in the White Sea. The programme he led addressed the following issues: 1 ) the possibility of developing offshore fishery operations in the Murman area rather than waiting for the fish to come closer to the coast; and 2) the development of fisheries-relatcd investigations in the Barents Sea that might lead to the establishment of a new fishery.

Knipowitseh visited Norway, where he spent several days visiting Johan Hjort, and Denmark, Sweden, Scotland, and Germany in 1897 aiming to establish business contacts and exchange views with colleagues (Alekseev, 1981). A year later, Hjort undertook a similar trip with the same intent, visiting Denmark, Sweden, Scotland, and Germany.

The "Pomor Aid Committee", of which Knipowitseh was a key person, concluded that a research vessel was needed to facilitate the development of fisheries in the Barents Sea. As the catastrophe-related donations were continuing, the fund amounted to 150 000 rubles in early 1898. In addition to this, the Committee received significant governmental support. This money was used to build a research vessel and to finance the Murman fishery research expedition ("Murmansk" is rendered into Norwegian as n&rdmenns land, which means, "land

of Norwegians"). The Committee determined the aims of the expedition to be as follows: 1) to study the physical and topographical conditions of the Barents Sea off the Murmansk coast where the people have been totally dependent on the annually varying fish harvest; and 2) to assess the state of the rich fishery resources in the Murmansk area and to outline ways for their further development and rational utilization.

The building of the research vessel started at the Bremen Vulkan shipyard in Germany and was to be completed in 1898. However, a great fire delayed the launching of the vessel by one year. Knipowitseh did not want to postpone the research and decided to purchase the Norwegian fishing boat "Havblomsten" (Seaflower), which was later named "Pomor". The boat was 18 m long, 5 m wide, and had two masts. It was early in the morning of 10 May 1898 when the "Pomor" left Kola Bay to start hydrographic, hydrobiological, and ichthyological investigations in the Barents Sea. The data collected by the "Pomor" in the winter of 1898-1899 were of exceptional importance and later formed the basis for the programme of Russian fisheries research in the Barents Sea.

In April 1899, the world’s first (oceanographic) research vessel, specially equipped for fishery investiga

Cooperation in marine research between Russia and Norway at the dawn o f the 20th century 77

tions, "Andrei Pervozwanny", was launched in Bremen (Figure 2). The event took place a year before the first Norwegian research vessel "Michael Sars" began its operations.

The first Russian research vessel was named in honour of St. Andrew who is known as a Scottish saint as well as the patron of the Russian Navy. The ship displaced 336 tonnes, the length was 52 m, and the speed varied between 10 and 14 knots. She was equipped with a powerful (for that time) 1000-m wire trawl winch and a 42-m long trawl with headrope and groundrope lengths of 26 and 42 m, respectively. There was another winch to take water samples and to operate the dredge and the bottom sampler. The main deck had a well- equipped laboratory with quite modern hydrological and biological instrumentation.

"Andrei Pervozwanny" first visited Libau (Liepaja) in Latvia where she was handed over to the Russian crew and some equipment was taken on board. She then continued her maiden cruise and visited Copenhagen, Kristiania (Oslo), Bergen, Trondheim, Hammerfest, and Vardø, and reached Ekaterina Cove in Kola Bay. While in Kristiania, the ship was visited by Johan Hjort, who had many questions to ask as "Michael Sars" was under construction in Fredrikstad at that time. Fridtjof Nansen was also among the visitors. Konstantin Yagodoski, who participated in the first voyage of the "Andrei Pervozwanny", described the visit of the two famous Norwegian scientists (Yagodovski, 1914):

Nansen was a famous scientist by that time and, naturally, he was quite popular among the cruise members and everyone was eager to get his autograph or just exchange a couple of words with a distinguished polar explorer. Nansen and Hjort spent a lot of time aboard the ship discussing issues of mutual professional interest and Knipowitseh was invited by Hjort to visit the biological station in Drøbak near Oslo. On the next morning the ship left for Drøbak where the scientists of the two "fishing" countries continued their discussions in a beautiful building on a picturesque granite-locked shore where the biological station was built.

Knipowitseh corresponded with many of his foreign colleagues including Nansen, Hjort , and the Swedish oceanographer Otto Pettersson. His correspondence with Hjort was devoted to pure scientific problems as well as to a variety of practical issues. It is of interest to note that the form of address as "Distinguished colleague" (Sehr geerbter herr Collegue) in 1901 was replaced by "Dear friend" (Lieber Freund) in 1903. A section of one of his letters to Hjort read:

Let me ask you about one thing which is of interest to me. As far as I know, each Norwegian fishing vessel has a special number while at sea. Since we are going to introduce similar numbers for the vessels operating off the Murman coast, it would be very interesting to get familiar with the rules and regulations currently in force in Norway. Pitifully, our research vessel is to

stay in Arkhangelsk for a month to get repaired, etc.Regretfully, there will be a significant gap betweenthe summer and autumn cruises. Sincerely yours. N.Knipowitseh.

Knipowitsch’s letter to Nansen of 1 July 1901 is of particular interest. First, it was written on a special form which read "Murman Fisheries Research Expedition", showing that the expedition was an independent organization at that time. Second, Knipowitseh gave Søren Meyer’s address in Vardø as "the sender" because the latter contributed considerably to provisions for the Russian ships and also assisted in the purchasing and delivery of equipment for the RV "Andrei Pervozwanny". Besides, regular marine communication between Vardø and Murmansk was faster than via Moscow.

On her way to Ekaterina Cove, the ship called at Bergen, Trondheim, Bodø, and on 4 May passed Cape Nord and visited Vardø where Rasmus Holmby, the Russian Vice-Counsellor, assisted in the delivery of some provisions and equipment on board. Two days later, the ship left Vardø and reached her destination point in Kola Bay on 17 May. On 26 May 1899, after a short stop in Ekaterina Cove, "Andrei Pervozwanny" started her first research cruise in the Barents Sea.

The first Norwegian fisheries and oceanographic research vessel and Johan Hjort

In Norway, another type of catastrophe provided the background for building its first specially equipped fishery research vessel, the "Michael Sars", launched in 1900. Very low catches of cod at the end of the 19th century had led to famine for people in the north who were completely dependent on the fisheries. The fishermen were convinced that the whaling industry along the Finnmark coast, initiated by the pioneer Svend Føyn, disturbed the natural influence of whales "herding" the cod (loddetorsk) towards the coast and generally reduced the whale population. This view had already been put forward in the 1870s, but G. O. Sars, in a report, concluded that no such effect existed. Hjort came to the same conclusion. However, the situation at the end of the century became very critical, and in 1903, an uproar resulted in the burning down of a whale factory in Mehamn in Finnmark, and military forces were used to stop the riot. Because these events were caused by the reduction in the whale population, the government introduced a 10-year moratorium in 1903.

In 1899, Hjort had submitted a comprehensive application and description of a specially equipped vessel for high-seas investigations, specially suited for fishery work (Hjort, 1899). He chose an English trawler type, in contrast to the more luxurious yacht-like Russian "Andrei Pervozwanny". "Michael Sars" was about 43 m in length and had a 300-hp steam engine giving a speed


Figure 3. Johan Hjort (1869-1948), the leader o f Norwegian marine research at the dawn o f the 20th century.

of 10 knots (Figure 4). The vessel was equipped with a variety of gear for both biological and oceanographic studies. "Michael Sars" could work nine horizontal nets and small trawls at the same time. Trawling with small trawls was possible down to 3000 m, which is far deeper than trawling from present research vessels. The larger trawl with a headrope of about 40 m was used on special occasions. Smaller trawls with openings of 18-20 m were used routinely.

Johan Hjort (1869-1948) (Figure 3), who had obtained his doctoral degree from Munich studying the larval development of Ascidians, was the leader of the fishery investigations beginning in 1893, when he succeeded G. O. Sars. In 1900, his institution moved to Bergen and was renamed the Institute of Marine Research. In addition to the acute problems in the northern cod fisheries, the government also asked Hjort to explain why the fisheries fluctuated. The answer to this question was given in the report of 1914 (Hjort, 1914) that summarized the findings of what seems like the golden age of Norwegian marine research.

One of Hjort’s favourite ideas, the development of high-seas fisheries, was also included as an argument for building the new vessel. However, this argument was not politically expedient. The coastal fishermen were a strong group at that time and were not interested in

large-scale, high-seas fisheries. This controversy still exists, but now the number of coastal fishermen is smaller and their political power diminished. It is interesting to cite some of Hjort’s arguments in his application for the new research vessel (Hjort, 1899):

The old fishing grounds (the North Sea) start to be too small for this enormously increasing enterprise and several signals show up that the fleet is looking for new fishing banks. Along the Norwegian coast partly practical, partly scientific investigations were carried out in Northern Norway last year both by English, German and Russians. Concerning the Russians it must be mentioned that the leader of their investigations (Knipowitseh) stayed at my laboratory for 14 days in 1897. Soon this year they will set up a large investigation, including a biological station, sailing vessel and a large scientific staff.

Hjort also mentioned the launching of "Andrei Pervozwanny" a month later. In this way, Hjort applied some pressure on the Norwegian government to build a similar kind of research vessel. The last quotation from Hjort’s application confirmed the discussions from the Stockholm meeting in 1899 and also demonstrated his primary interest in the new research vessel:

...the investigations with modern equipment will solve the problems connected with the high-seas fishery quite soon. An important reason for finishing our work soon will mean that it will be possible to take part in the cooperative work with the other countries from the start in an honourable way... In the north cooperation with the Russian investigations will take place in such a way that the Norwegian Sea is studied by us at the same period as the Russians investigate the Murman coast and the White Sea (Hjort, 1899).

The formal organization of the cooperative work between Russia and Norway

The two research vessels "Andrei Pervozwanny" and "Michael Sars" initiated investigations in marine biology and physical oceanography for the benefit of both countries (Serebryakov and Solemdal, 1993; Solemdal and Serebryakov, 1993). Earlier expeditions had not been coordinated and were of a more restricted nature and for practical applications in the fisheries. Some of these expeditions were: the Norwegian "Nordhavsexpe- dition" in 1876-1878 with S/S "Vøringen", the Dutch expedition using the "Willhelm Barents" in 1878-1884, the Russian expedition with the "Ermsk" in 1899, and the Norwegian "Fram" expedition in 1893-1896 (Stepanjants et al., 1998).

However, the 1899 planning meeting for ICES in Stockholm managed to persuade the involved nations both to study areas and to adopt the principle of synoptic sampling (Anon., 1899). The frequency of sampling was to be four times per year. Though Knipowitseh did not attend the meeting, Russia being represented by O.


Figure 4. The first Norwegian research vessel "Michael Sars" especially equipped for oceanographic and fisheries investigations. The vessel was built in Norway in 1900.

von Grimm, an agreement was made to divide the areas to be surveyed between the two countries (Figure 5). The map in Figure 5 clearly shows the square to be covered by Norway in the Norwegian Sea, which was reflected in the first cruise of the RV "Michael Sars" in 1900 (Figure 6).

It is interesting to note that the Russian triangle included the famous "Kola" section and that this was the start of a century-long time series used today not only by Russian and Norwegian scientists, but also by scientists from other countries. The lines drawn on the map (Figure 5) are the directions of the oceanographic sections. In addition, the map shows the division of investigations by the letters N (Norway) and R (Russia). Less closely defined areas for the two countries were agreed at a meeting in Kristiania in 1901 (Anon., 1901). According to the decisions at that meeting, Russia and Norway would together cover "Atlantischer Ocean nördlich 62° und Eismeer - Norwegen und Russland. " What was the result of the different statements of the two meetings? From the map of the stations occupied by "Michael Sars" during the years 1900-1904 (Figure 7), it can easily be seen that the Norwegian area of investigations closely followed the agreement made at the Stockholm meeting and no stations were taken in the Barents Sea.

The cooperative investigations continued more or less intensively until 1920, were discontinued for nearly 40 years, and then were resumed in 1958, during the Cold War between NATO countries and the Soviet Union, when the RV "Johan Hjort" visited Murmansk. Norway realized that the proper management of the rich Barents Sea fish populations was of greater importance than taking sides in the political struggle.

First cruises of the RV "Andrei Pervozwanny"

The RV "Andrei Pervozwanny" carried out the first survey along the "triangle", the route and the area suggested at the 1899 Stockholm Conference. Yagodovski (1914) noted that Knipowitseh did not take part in the Stockholm Conference, as he was completely absorbed in the preparation and conduct of the first cruises of "Andrei Pervozwanny", and later wrote:

Conversation 1. Prospects of International Cooperation and Standard Sections.N. M. Knipowitseh, K. P. Yagodovski, and captain of Andrei Pervozwanny’ are discussing the pattern of the Kola Section.Captain: ‘Where are we going to make the first station?’Knipowitseh: A s usual, in front of the entrance to Motovsk Bay.’

Figure 5. The map from the Stockholm meeting in 1899 showing principal oceanographic sections and geographical areas designated for different countries.


($(/tr/rM i/tuy fan/tm ifnrOijrfj/rr///i //SM/

— /iirh ü tl Sars * Houfc Station 8— /emperatur/far-ver

i m , s b i . ST % . 3 .5 'x . W z - jj*%

Figure 6. The route o f the first voyage o f the RV "Michael Sars" in 1900 and surface temperature and salinity distribution.

Captain: ‘Shall we then go straight to the north making stops every 30 miles?’Knipowitseh: ‘Yes, weather permitting, we’ll follow the triangle outlined at the Stockholm Conference. We’ll go along the Kola Bay meridian up to 75°N, turn to the southeast to Novaya Zemlya and then back to the harbor. It’s difficult to precisely define the stations at the moment since the results of our work will possibly dictate more stops in certain areas.’ Yagodovski: ‘Which conference are you actually talking about?’Knipowitseh: ‘Well, the point is that at present all the countries are interested in fisheries research and the results of these studies will acquire far greater value if they could be compared with those obtained in adjacent waters. Let’s take cod for example, which make migrations from the neighbouring seas and, undoubtedly, reach our coasts. We can trace these movements only if we compare results of our studies with observations made off the coasts of Norway, Denmark and Britain where they also fish for cod. The International Conference of scientists from Russia, Finland, England, Germany, Sweden, Norway and Belgium was held in Stockholm in 1899. According to the plan

approved by the Conference our expedition is supposed to make several cruises per year similar to the one we have started today. Imagine how well we could know the life of our northern seas, after years of hard work, of course, if we are able to compare our results with those obtained in all those countries!’The signal coming to the engine compartment accompanied by the slowing down of the speed indicated our arrival at the designated point.Me (Yagodovski): ‘What kind of observations are we going to perform at this station?’Knipowitseh: ‘We’ll take a series of temperature measurements, otter-trawl hauls and plankton samples.’As usual, first of all, the depth and the type of the ground were determined. The trawling took half an hour only. The catch was composed by cod, haddock, Greenland halibut, redfish and wolffish.The night came though the daylight was still there. We have been working in the lab for 40 hours already with no sleep at all.‘That won’t do’, said Knipowitseh at last while we were identifying the material at one of the distant stations. ‘We all need some sleep. Let’s work in two shifts...’


Figure 7. Stations occupied by the RV "Michael Sars" in 1900-1904.

During the first cruise of "Andrei Pervozwanny", the crew was deeply impressed with the size of the ring trawls constructed by Hjort which were intended for young fish sampling. The largest was 6.4 m in diameter and another was about 4.5 m in diameter. Other fishing gear included Pettersson and Sigsby trawls as well as dredges. The catches often consisted of Limacina ptero- pods. Once, a big catch of prawns was taken on board with the Petterson trawl, and Knipowitseh surprised the team by suggesting that the prawns be cooked for dinner. Most of the crew had never heard that they were edible. Knipowitseh then explained that prawns, a luxury dish, were being brought to St. Petersburg from France, and if a railway were built between Murmansk and St. Petersburg, the prawn fishery in the Barents Sea would hold great potential.

Knipowitseh represented Russia at the next conference of marine and fisheries scientists which took place in Kristiania in 1901 and at which Hjort represented Norway. At this conference, Knipowitseh underlined the importance of combined fisheries and oceanographic research along the standard sections. He concluded that the investigations in the Barents Sea were of paramount practical importance as he had demonstrated the feasibility of trawl fishing over the entire sea. In the areas north of the Murmansk coast, scientific data had already been obtained which provided the basis for the development of a high-seas trawl fishery. He was very farsighted in realizing the gigantic scale that this development could reach.

An hour o f triumph in the life of "Andrei Pervozwanny" and the fate of the ship

During the period 1899-1902, Knipowitseh and his colleagues conducted complex hydrographic and oceanographic studies along the sections which crossed all the branches of the North Atlantic Current in the Barents Sea. The first preliminary chart of the currents, plotted by Knipowitseh, showed the four branches of the warm Atlantic Current entering the Barents Sea from the west and penetrating far to the east and northeast following the bottom depressions. In 1906, a more advanced circulation map appeared, signed by Dr L. Breitfuss, showing these branches of the Atlantic Current entering the Barents Sea (Figure 8).

The results of the Murmansk expedition showed that warm-water fauna were brought eastwards and northwards with warm currents, and food fishes, such as cod, haddock, and redfish, stayed in the warmer water during their migrations. It was revealed that in winter, the fish could be found at greater depths in the offshore areas in the proximity of warm-water currents and that they could be caught by trawls long before their shoreward migration began. As a consequence, the areas of the prospective trawl fishery were distinctly indicated. The results of these studies formed the basis of the book by Knipowitseh (1906), Principles o f Hydrology o f the European Part o f the Arctic Ocean.

Figure 8. The Breitfuss map of surface currents in the Barents Sea based on the data obtained in 1902 and on the earlier cruises of the RV "Andrei Pervozwanny".

Hydrologische Karte des Barents-Meeros


The practical results of the investigations were used by only a limited number of Russian businessmen engaged in the trawl fishery in the Barents Sea, while the British fishing industry, in contrast, made good use of the findings. At that time, about 1000 steam trawlers were operating in the North Sea, and there had already been some evidence of overfishing on those traditional fishing grounds. British and German fishermen were in need of new fishing areas and, in 1904, they initiated trawl fishery operations in the Barents Sea. The total catch of the British trawlers amounted to 2248 t in 1906 and reached 18 528 t in 1911. The bulk of the catch comprised plaice.

Based on the results of the Murmansk expedition, several attempts were made to organize a Russian trawl fishery in the Barents Sea. The first one by Captain Kopytov fished for cod from the Norwegian vessel "Erling" in the southeast part of the Barents Sea in 1906. Kopytov was highly enthusiastic about the development of the trawl fishery and, thanks to his effort, the first Russian trawl manufacturing workshop was established in 1910. Kopytov Bank (known in Norway as Tromsø- flakef) was named in his honour. K. L. Spade, a Russian sailor and businessman, purchased two British steam trawlers, ST "North" and ST "East", in 1910, and that same year, each one brought in a catch of 5001. In 1911, only the ST "East" was in operation and caught 515 t. Some time later, Spade purchased two more STs, the "South" and the "West" which also operated in the Barents Sea. The fish were transported to Arkhangelsk, and in winter the vessels were brought to Riga for maintenance. All four trawlers continued fishing in the Barents Sea until World War I broke out and stopped the development of the trawl fishery. The Norwegian trawl fishery in the Barents Sea in this early period was very limited.

Unfortunately, the Russian Department for Agriculture demanded immediate benefits for the fishermen from the Murmansk expedition. The resulting tension led to the removal of Knipowitseh after five years of successful work. A strange situation emerged, as the well-equipped, expensive expedition began building bath houses and schools for fishermen. During the first Russian Revolution (1905-1906), the philanthropic committee (Pomor Aid Committee) lost its governmental support and was soon closed (Lajus, 1999).

The RV "Andrei Pervozwanny" served as a research vessel for the Murmansk expedition for 10 years. In 1909, when the financing of the expedition ceased, the ship was purchased by the Russian Navy to perform hydrological investigations under the new name of "Murman" from 1910. During World War I, the ship was armed and used as an auxiliary vessel of the Arctic Ocean fleet. After the end of the Russian Civil War, it was used as a hydrographic vessel for a number of expeditions conducted in the north and was given yet another name "Mgla" (Haze) in 1932. During World War II, the ship was armed and became part of the northern

fleet. In 1954, the ship was converted into a device to produce hot water for houses and was finally scrapped in 1959.

Soon after the Russian October Revolution, the fisheries studies were continued under the leadership of Professor S. V Averintsev, and the "Dolphin" trawler was used as a research vessel. On 10 March 1921, Vladimir Lenin signed a decree establishing "PlavMorNin" (Floating Marine Research Institute), which later developed into the Polar Research Institute for Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO) in Murmansk.

The first cruise o f RV "Michael Sars

The RV "Michael Sars" left Ålesund on 22 July 1900 bound for Langanes, Iceland. The cruise plan shown in Figure 6 demonstrates the area of interest for Norwegian fisheries in that period, which coincides with the agreement between Russia and Norway, shown in Figure 5. The cruise ended in Lofoten on 9 September of the same year. A large amount of oceanographic and biological material was collected. The scientific staff included Hjort (cruise leader and head of the fishery investigations), Helland-Hansen and Nansen (physical oceanography), Gran (phytoplankton), and Wollebæk (fishery investigations). A German newspaper suggested that Nansen was the cruise leader. This was probably the start of a somewhat complicated relationship between the two famous Norwegian marine scientists.

Hjort wrote the 30-page cruise report in Norwegian in a form easily understood by laymen (Hjort, 1901). In addition, the simplified, coloured figures are good examples of popular science writing. By using this approach, Hjort was able to demonstrate the importance of high-seas studies to the coastal fishermen who had quite critical opinions of scientists. The common point of view was that the research vessel was always out of sight, was doing nothing, but having a good time. Hjort’s approach, also suggested earlier by G. O. Sars, emphasized the necessity of studying the situation in the high seas to understand the dynamics near the coast. However, he wrote little about his idea of developing a high-seas fishery and the prospect of finding new fishing grounds in this first cruise report.

The cooperation between Nansen and Helland- Hansen during the first cruise of "Michael Sars" developed further. In 1909, The Norwegian Sea appeared with Helland-Hansen as the first author. The former biologist Nansen had changed to become a physical oceanographer. Thanks to Hjort and Nansen, the name of the sea being investigated had been changed by Hjort from the "Nordic Sea" to the "Norwegian North Sea" and by Nansen to the final name "Norwegian Sea" in moves related to the drive for independence from Sweden.

Oceanographic investigations were one of the main elements of the research on board the ship. Water


bottles constructed by Nansen and the Swedish oceanographer Otto Pettersson were used on the cruise. The oceanographic map (Figure 6) shows that distances between stations were large. Helland-Hansen emphasized: "Those areas on the map between the sections of course are drawn more or less free and probably must be changed after a thorough analysis.”

In spite of the few measurements, the map shows many of the characteristic oceanographic features of the Norwegian Sea:

1) By section II, the salt Atlantic water turns westward.

2) Following the most saline part of the Atlantic Current northwards, it thereafter turns eastwards.

3) At 71°-72°N, the Current divides into two branches.

4) The most saline water flows west of Bear Island.5) The less saline part of the Current turns eastward

between Bear Island and Norway. Here, the surface water meets the Arctic water and the salinity is reduced to less than 35.

Fishing experiments were very important since one of the goals of the first cruise of "Michael Sars" was the search for oceanic gadoid juveniles in the Norwegian Sea. There were strong indications that the juveniles drifted northwards from the spawning areas off northern Norway into the Barents Sea. Hjort had the idea that some of the juveniles were drifting into unfavourable areas, and he wanted to investigate this problem. He used a vertical net with a 7-m diameter and managed to collect large samples of gadoid juveniles. Nansen, in his book Outdoor Life (1916), described this moment in the following way:

What catch will the large vertical net bring? Tense expectation. When the net comes up full of jellyfish and a multitude of Gadoid juveniles in between, the joy on-board got wild. Gran went singing and dancing around. The Captain came out from his cabin in his shirt only and did not believe it before a plate full of lively juveniles was presented to him... The delight was contagious to all the men on board... A new step forward to the understanding of the animal life of the Sea.

Hjort asked himself some questions about the fate of these juveniles: 1) Will they grow to adults in the open sea? 2) Is there a migration to the coast? 3) Will the pelagic juveniles perish?

Later, Hjort (1914) expressed his belief in the possibility of an oceanic herring fishery in the Norwegian Sea which was not yet developed at that time. Experimental fishing during the cruise demonstrated concentrations of herring, and Hjort also obtained information from Ålesund about the herring fishery in the Norwegian Sea. In the cruise report, he concluded that, in July-August 1900, herring were distributed from the Norwegian coast to Iceland.

Some results from Russian and Norwegian investigations and a joint publication of Hjort and Knipowitseh

Physical oceanography provides, perhaps, the best example of cooperative investigations between Norway and Russia. In Figures 6 and 8, surface temperature and currents are shown from the Norwegian and Barents Seas. There is an interesting difference in the way the Atlantic Current enters the Barents Sea. The Russians assume three branches of the Current, the Norwegians only two. The results of the Norwegian-Russian investigations demonstrated the necessity of complex physical-biological studies and revealed a number of interrelated phenomena in the Barents and Norwegian Seas. For example, the Gulf Stream passes through the Norwegian Sea to enter the Barents Sea, and the resulting annual temperature variations were best monitored along the Russian Kola section. Cod migrate from the Barents Sea to the Norwegian Sea following the migration of herring, their major food source. Since that time, Russian-Norwegian studies have been recording both upward and downward trends in the abundance of these species.

Another achievement of the international studies was the detection of the herring migration routes outside the spawning grounds, which led to the development of a herring fishery in the open sea areas. Knipowitseh and Hjort shared the opinion that offshore fishing would significantly diminish the negative effect of catch fluctuations on the population of the Norwegian and Barents Sea coasts. In the minds of the two distinguished fishery biologists, overfishing in the area would hardly be possible. With this in view, the authorities and individual businessmen of both countries should have employed the research results in the active development of fishery-related enterprises before the initiative would be taken by other countries. The research conducted by the two men was very comprehensive and the methods applied were sufficiently modem to make it possible to use the results today.

Knipowitseh and Hjort were great friends until their last days, and one would expect them to have had many joint publications, especially concerning cod. However, there exists only one joint article under the title "The description of life cycle of and fishery for northern seals" (Hjort and Knipowitseh, 1907) which was an attempt to assess the effect of seals on fisheries. This report appeared in 1907 and described heavy invasions of seals on the Murmansk and Finmarken coasts during 1901-1903. The ICES resolution of 25 February 1903 stimulated the realization of a joint Russian-Norwegian analysis of the event. The report was written in German, with an extensive summary in English. Observations from both Russian and Norwegian sealers, official statistics, and studies done by scientists in both countries were the basic data used in the report. The biology of all


Eisverhältnisse und Fangplätze

ln Barentsmeer und Grönlandsee, 1002

NB. Vtrjl»leh Jo

KOLGUEV

Figure 9. lee conditions and hunting areas in the Barents and Greenland Seas in 1902.

seal species in the Arctic region was described with a special emphasis on their migratory patterns.

The Greenland seal migrates annually from the White Sea to the Finmarken coast, feeding on the spawning schools of capelin. The invasion usually turns northward in East Finmarken. Seals from the western area and the White Sea components of the stock were involved in the invasions in 1901-1903 (Figure 9). The authors mentioned that this phenomenon took place frequently in the past, e.g., 1763-1765. In late May 1901, seals from the White Sea invaded the Finmarken coast, and the cod fishery was immediately terminated. In December 1902, the seals appeared again, and the fishery was strongly reduced as far south as the Lofoten Islands. At the end of February 1903, the number of seals diminished and the fishery revived.

Knipowitseh discovered that weather conditions, bait problems, and difficulties in recruiting staff for this tough job were among the causes for the reduction in the fishery along the Murmansk coast. He considered the problem to be more complicated than just the mere effect of seal invasions.

"But it is unjust to say that the seals alone are the causes of this decline and it is also quite absurd to maintain that the seals have caused the cod to approach the coast later now than it did before and to have disappeared from certain parts of the coast" (Hjort and Knipowitseh, 1907). Knipowitseh clearly remembered

that good fishing conditions accompanied by a heavy seal invasion were observed during the Murmansk expedition in 1899; he did not rely only on the fishermen’s opinion. It would appear there was some disagreement between Hjort and Knipowitseh on how to handle the seal problem, based on the different interests in the two countries. The Norwegians put forward the idea of exterminating the seals, while the Russians stressed the fact that seal hunting is of no less importance to the population of northern Russia than fishing. Knipowitseh proposed increasing seal hunting instead of putting efforts into exterminating the seals.

Both Hjort and Knipowitseh were criticized by fishing industry authorities in both countries for putting too much effort into scientific rather than practical matters.

Epilogue

Complex oceanographic and fisheries investigations were begun on board both the pioneer research vessels at almost the same time. Long before the two ships were built and began their operations, the whole complex of oceanographic and fisheries investigations had been carefully planned, brilliantly organized, and successfully managed. Many of the objectives formulated by the scientists who conducted the investigations onboard these vessels as well as the discoveries they made dur-


ing the first expeditions have formed the basis for subsequent fisheries oceanography and fundamental biological studies in the Barents and Norwegian Seas. Along with bilateral studies, a programme of extensive fisheries investigations in the North Atlantic was suggested at the international conference preceding the establishment of ICES.

The names of two pioneers of marine fisheries research, N. Knipowitseh and J. Hjort, are intimately connected to the history of the two research vessels "Andrei Pervozwanny" and "Michael Sars". It was the firm conviction of these outstanding scientists that international cooperation was a vital prerequisite for beginning to understand the multiple and often complicated issues involved in the exploration of the Barents and Norwegian Seas. They both strongly believed that investigations in the northern seas would lead to the discovery of new and abundant fishery resources. The Norwegian and Russian marine fisheries research programmes were well coordinated both from the geographical and methodological points of view and resulted in the development of a trawl fishery for cod in the Barents Sea.

In both Norway and Russia, it was the practice to combine theoretical research with fishing investigations. Knipowitseh constantly advocated the necessity and importance of regular surveys along standard sections, which was never an easy task since he was criticized for placing too much emphasis on purely scientific rather than practical fisheries investigations during the cruises of the RV "Andrei Pervozwanny". Hjort, too, was criticized for his tendency to conduct fisheries studies in the offshore areas rather than in coastal regions. It is very easy to imagine the volume of criticism in Norway, considering the length of the coastline and the role of the coastal population in the economic and social life of the country. It is perhaps in response to that criticism that Hjort and Knipowitseh (1907) wrote in the introduction to their article:

We would like to emphasize that the present report does not contain practical recommendations since it is our opinion that before making any recommendations an objective account of actual data should be presented.

The "Pomor Aid Committee" was founded after the catastrophe in 1894, when 25 pomor fishing vessels were wrecked, to help the pomors in northern Russia. A large sum was collected, and the Russian government also contributed to the building of "Andrei Pervozwanny". The question arises: Did the widows and the orphans get the proposed aid? The Murmansk expeditions established their headquarters in Ekaterina Cove. A lodge for orphans was built there, and the children were educated by the members of the expedition (Stepanjants et al., 1998). The full extent of that help remains unknown.

In Norway, the catastrophe was famine in the coastal population due to very low catches, especially of cod. Instead of subsidizing the people in this acute situation,

Hjort was given the task by the government of revealing the mechanism behind the fluctuations in the fisheries. As a tool in his investigations, he obtained the RV "Michael Sars". The development of a high-seas fishery was a hidden argument. It has become a catch phrase among Norwegian fishery scientists in recent years that "it is good to be a fishery researcher when catches are low." (Solemdal, 1997, p. 558).

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to extend their deep gratitude to the historian Vera Schwach from the Norwegian Institute for Studies in Research and Higher Education (NIFU) for her tremendous help with the archives, which enabled us to gain access to unique files, and also for her invaluable advice concerning the contents of this paper. Thanks also go to Tanya Smolyanova for her highly valuable linguistic assistance to the authors.

References

Alekseev, A. P. 1981. Nauchno-promyslovye issledovania na Murmane do 1917 (Fisheries studies in the Murman area prior to 1917). In Pod semizvezdnym sinim flagom (Under the Seven Star Blue Flag), pp. 6-13. Ed. by V P. Ponama- renko. Murmanskoe Knizhnoe Izdatelstvo (Murmansk Publishing Flouse), Murmansk. 136 pp. (In Russian).

Anonymous. 1899. Conférence Internationale pour l’Exploration de la Mer Réunie à Stockholm, 1899. Stockholm. 28 pp.

Anonymous. 1901. Conférence Internationale pour l ’Exploration de la Mer Réunie à Kristiania. Kristiania, pp. 229- 268.

Baer, K. M. von. 1860. Issledovaniya o sostoyanii rybolovstva v Rossii (Studies o f the State o f the Fisheries in Russia). CPb, St. Petersburg. Volume 1. 96 pp. Volume 2. 213 pp. (In Russian).

Borisov, P. G. 1960. lz istorii nauchno-promyslovykh ikhtio- logicheskikh issledovanij na morskikh i presnovodnykh vodoemakh SSSR (From the History o f Fisheries-Related Ichthyological Studies in the Marine and Freshwater Bodies of the USSR). Vysshaya Shkola Publishers, Moscow. 198 pp. (In Russian).

Broch, H., and Koefod E. 1962. Mennene i den gamle garde (The men in the old guard). In Havet og våre fisker, bind 2 (The ocean and the fishes, Volume 2), pp. 21-29. Ed. by Gunnar Rollefsen. J. W. Eides Forlag, Bergen. 429 pp. (In Norwegian).

Dahl, K. 1909. The problem of sea hatching. Rapports et Procès-Verbaux des Réunions du Conseil International pour l’Exploration de la Mer, 10(3): 1-39.

Dannevig, G. M.. and Dahl, K. 1906. Undersøgelser over nytten a f torskeudklækning i østlandske fjorde (Studies o f the effects o f releasing cod larvae in the East-Norwegian fjords). Aarsberetning vedkommende Norges Fiskerier, 1: 1-115. (In Norwegian).

Damas, D. 1909. Contribution à la biologie des Gadidae. Rapports et Procès-Verbaux des Réunions du Conseil International pour l'Exploration de la Mer, 10(3): 1-277.

Darwin, C. R. 1859. On the Origin o f Species by Means of Natural Selection. John Murray. London. 502 pp.


Helland-Hansen, B. 1909, Statistical research into the biology o f the haddock and cod in the North Sea. Rapports et Procès-Verbaux des Réunions du Conseil International pour l’Exploration de la Mer, 10: 3-62.

Hjort, J. 1899. Forslag til byggning av damper for norske fiskeriundersøkelser (Proposal to build a steamer for Norwegian fishery investigations). A. W. Brøggers bogtrykkeri, Kristiania. Manuscript. 18 pp. (In Norwegian).

Hjort, J. 1901. "Michael Sars" første togt i Nordhavet aar 1900 (The first cruise o f "Michael Sars" in the Northern Sea in the year 1900). Aarsberetning vedkommende Norges Fiskerier, 4: 231-238. (In Norwegian).

Hjort, J. 1914. Fluctuations in the great fisheries o f northern Europe viewed in the light o f biological research. Rapports et Procès-Verbaux des Réunions du Conseil International pour l ’Exploration de la Mer, 20: 1-228.

Hjort, J., and Knipowitseh, N. M. 1907. Bericht über die Lebensverhaltnisse und den Fang der Nordischen Seehunde (The description o f life cycle o f and fishery for northern seals). Rapports et Procès-Verbaux des Réunions du Conseil International pour l’Exploration de la Mer, 8: 1-125. (In German).

Knipowitseh, N. M. 1906. Osnovy gidrologii Evropeyskogo Ledovitogo okeana (Principles o f hydrology o f the European part o f the Arctic Ocean). Zapiski Russkogo Geografis- cheskogo Obshchestva (Proceedings o f the Russian Society of Geographers), 42. 183 pp. (In Russian).

Lajus, J. A. 1999. Science, politics and practice in the fishery: scientists, industrialists and fishermen in the Russian North, 1898-1940. In Technological Change in the North Atlantic Fisheries. Ed. by P. Holm and D. J. Starkey. Fiskeri- og Søfartmuseets Studieserie, Esbjerg. Denmark, 13: Studia Atlantica, 3: 49-59.

Nansen, F. 1916. Friluftsliv. Blade av dagboken (Outdoor life. Pages from the diary). Kristiania, Kjøbenhavn. 231 pp. (In Norwegian).

Sars, G. O. 1879. Indberetninger til Departementet for det Indre om de a f ham i aarene 1864-1869 anstillede praktiskvidenskabelige undersøgelser angaande torskefiskeriet i Lofoten (Report o f practical and scientific investigations of the cod fisheries near Lofoten Islands, made during the years 1864-1869). In Report o f the United States Commis

sion o f Fisheries, 1877, 4: 565-705. (Translated from Norwegian to English by H. Jacobsen).

Schwach, V 1999. The impact o f artificial hatching o f cod on marine research. Historisch-Meereskundliches Jahrbuch (Yearbook o f the history o f marine knowledge). National German Marine Museum, Stralsund Germany, 5: 21-41.

Serebryakov, V, and Solemdal, P. 1993. Russland og Norge i samarbeid om utforskningen av nordområdene. Del 1: Katastrofer, pionérer og pionérskip (The cooperation between Russia and Norway concerning the exploration of the Arctic regions. Part 1 : Catastrophes, pioneers, and pioneer vessels). Fiskets Gang, 7/8: 39—44. (In Norwegian).

Soldatov, V K. 1927. Nikolai Mikhajlovich Knipowitseh in 1885-1925. In A Collection o f Papers Dedicated to Professor N. M. Knipowitseh, pp. 1-13. Ed. by V. K. Soldatov. NARKOMZEM Publishers, Moscow. 191 pp. (In Russian).

Solemdal, P. 1997. Epilogue. The three cavaliers: a discussion from the golden age o f Norwegian marine research. In Early Life History and Recruitment in Fish Populations, pp. 551-565. Ed. by R. Christopher Chambers and Edward A. Trippel. Chapman & Hall, London. 596 pp.

Solemdal, P., and Serebryakov, V 1993. Russland og Norge i samarbeid om utforskningen av nordområdene. Del II: Til havs med internasjonale ambisjoner og feiles interesser (The cooperation between Russia and Norway concerning the exploration o f the Arctic region. Part II: To the sea with international ambitions and common interests). Fiskets Gang. 9: 27-33. (In Norwegian).

Stepanjants. S. D., Bjørklund, K. R., Chernova, N. V, Smirnov, I. S., and Lajus, J. A. 1998. Damperen "Andrei Pervo- swanny", et 100 års jubileum (The steamship "Andrei Pervozwanny", a 100-year memory). Årbok for Bergens Museum 1998: 69-75. (In Norwegian).

Suvorov, E. K. 1948. Osnovy ikhtiologii (Principles o f Ichthyology). Sovetskay Nauka Publishers, Moscow. 580 pp. (In Russian).

Yagodovski, K. P. 1914. V strane polunochnogo solntsa (In the Country o f the Midnight Sun). SPb Prosveschchenie Publishers, St. Petersburg. 317 pp. (In Russian).

cooperation in marine research between russia and norway ... reports/marine...haddock...

Documents