consequences of tillage technology: the sustainability

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Keywords: consequences, Iran, no-till(NL) technology, sustainability

Received: 24 April 2017,Accepted: 17 June 2018 Activities to reduce soil erosion and to improve soil fertility,

agricultural production and finally, crop income havebeen considered to be fundamental for the implementation ofsustainable agriculture in Iran. This research investigates theeffects of no-till (NL) technology on reducing soil erosionand increasing agricultural income and eventually achievingsustainability. Data were collected with a questionnaire. Theresearch sample including 165 NL adopter farmers was selectedusing multi-stage stratified random sampling method in FarsProvince, Iran. The findings revealed that this technology im-proves performance and reduces water, energy and input con-sumption. The findings contribute to understanding the effectsof no-till technology on agricultural systems. Also, informationis provided to help the necessary planning for more effectiveimplementation of no-till technology. According to the resultsof regression, wheat yields, increased use of pesticides,awareness of the benefits, and satisfaction with NL technologyare the factors underpinning farmers` willingness to keepusing NL technology.

Abstract

International Journal of Agricultural Management and Development (IJAMAD)Available online on: www.ijamad.iaurasht.ac.irISSN: 2159-5852 (Print)ISSN:2159-5860 (Online)

1 Former M.Sc. Student, Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, School of Agriculture, Shiraz University,Shiraz, Iran2 Associate Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, School of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran* Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]

Consequences of Tillage Technology: The SustainabilityPerspective (Case of Fars Province, Iran)

Sedigheh Samiee 1 and Kurosh Rezaei-Moghaddam 2*

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INTRODUCTIONOver the past few years, increased agricultural

production resulting from the adoption of GreenRevolution technologies has met the needs ofgrowing community. However, today it is rec-ognized that modern technology has led toerosion due to the indiscriminate use of naturalresources (Jewitt & Baker, 2007). Demolitionand conversion of forest lands into arable land,soil erosion, and water pollution caused by ex-cessive use of chemicals and agricultural wasteand sewage have taken on very serious dimen-sions. However, the conventional farming hasignored not only the environment but alsofarmers’ perception of resource conservation.Given rapidly growing population, especiallyin third world countries, and resource degradation,the social system will face problems in foodproduction and famine in near future (Dinpanah& Foruzesh, 2009). Soil is the most importantinput for agricultural production that providesthe background to influence other inputs. Soilerosion is one of the key indicators of change inenvironmental quality and is one of the mostimportant economic and environmental problemsin many developing countries. Soil erosionthreatens food security and can severely affectsustainable development. Thus, it is necessaryto develop appropriate policies and programsfor soil protection (Ghorbani et al., 2008).

Agricultural technologies along with lowercosts, increased productivity and soil and waterconservation that are causing environmentalsustainability are very valuable. Internationalresearch organizations have developed agriculturaltechnologies that improve productivity, preservenatural resources, and alleviate negative envi-ronmental ramifications. The resource conser-vation technologies are the basis for conservationagriculture. Conservation agriculture is the termthat refers to a set of production managementactivities including minimum movement of soil,leaving plant residues on the soil surface, andthe use of crop rotation. No-tillage (NL) is oneof the most successful conservation tillage prac-tices in which the use of a new planter allowssowing seeds and applying fertilizers simulta-neously in the unplowed land covered with crop

residue (Erenstein et al., 2008).Field and laboratory studies show that the

crop residue remaining from the previous cropon the soil surface is very effective in alleviatingsoil erosion through reducing the soil carriedby the drops of rain, runoff, and wind. In thismethod, the remaining crop residue on the soilsurface and the minimized soil degraded duringtillage and planting operations reduce evapo-transpiration from the soil surface, so soilmoisture is increased which contributes to im-proving soil structure. Thus, crop residue man-agement is very important (Swan et al., 1996).

Soil erosion is the one of the main environ-mental threats of Iran. It is caused by desertifi-cation and deforestation (FAO, 2013). Poor soilin terms of low organic matter is an importantagricultural challenge. Arable lands of Iran havebeen destroyed at a rate 20 times faster than itsregenerative rate. For instance, in Fars province,which is the bread basket of the country, organicmatter is less than 1.5 percent in more than 95percent of the lands, while the critical thresholdof 2 percent is needed for soil organic carbonin order to maintain soil texture sustainability(Nemat-Pour & Rezaei-Moghaddam, 2014).High consumption rate of chemical agriculturalinputs, i.e., chemical fertilizers, is another reasonfor soil degradation. Agricultural crop productionhas been doubled by the increased use ofchemical fertilizers, such as nitrogen (increasedby 600 times) and phosphate (205 times) in thelast 35 years (FAO, 2013). NL systems canreduce production costs, increase soil organicmatter, improve soil structure, and play an im-portant role in eliminating adverse environmentaleffects. NL cultivation system requires carefulcrop management and, in some cases, requiresthe use of expensive machinery. In many cases,spring temperature of plowed land is lower thanthat of unplowed land. This low temperature af-fects the germination and reduces its rate. Also,there are reports about the problems caused byrodents and insect pests. Instead, this system hasbenefits, such as better control of soil erosion andless damage to soils by heavy or repeated agri-cultural machinery passes (Anonymous, 2003).

A study in Mexico showed that NL with

The Consequences of Tillage Technology: ... / Samiee and Rezaei-Moghaddam

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residue management and crop rotation improvedthe physical and chemical soil quality. So, thesustainable production was increased when com-pared to conventional tillage or NL without theresidue. This study reported that conservedresidue was effective in increasing the populationof soil microflora, resulting in higher plantgrowth and the suppression of the diseases. NLcultivation can produce equal or greater com-munity of the beneficial microflora in comparisonto conventional tillage when the residue is main-tained. However, NL farming alone will notimprove soil quality and it is necessary tomaintain the residue in order to improve soilquality (Govaerts et al., 2008).

Fuentes et al. (2009) compared conventionaltillage and NL practice in terms of soil quality.They reported that over 14 years of the practiceof NL cultivation resulted in better quality ofsoil, producing more corn and wheat than con-ventional tillage and NL planting without residue.The most appropriate tillage practices in NorthChina, among the recent techniques of conser-vation agriculture, was the four years of NLcultivation (with residue) plus a year of deeptillage to reduce compaction from machinerytraffic. Compared to traditional methods oftillage, the farmers' income from corn productionincreases by as much as 49% when NL is used(Jin et al., 2007).

Clearly, the studies show that tillage requiresless time, and it usually does not significantlyreduce yield, but the climate shows differentimpact as some advantages of manufacturingmethods or parameters will change to suit local

conditions (Sadegh-Nezhad & Eslami, 2006).One of the major issues within the context ofeach innovation is its discontinuation. Decisionto discontinue means to stop using innovationafter initial adoption. The adoption is reducedwhen innovation is not compatible with theadopter's belief and his experience. Farmersmay stop using NL when they are not satisfiedwith its performance. Inappropriate innovationand its small comparative advantages comparedto the previous situation are the reasons for dis-satisfaction. A review of the literature pertainingto discontinuing use of innovation shows thatmost innovations are suffering from discontin-uation. An appropriate remedy to stop or reducethe growing trend of discontinued innovation isnecessary (Rezaei-Moghaddam et al., 2005). Itis essential to identify the structures affectingfarmers’ tendency to use innovation. The presentstudy addressed the use of NL and its conse-quences in Fars province, Iran to determine theappropriateness of this innovation for farmersand farm conditions. Also, constructs affectingfarmers’ tendency to continue to use this tech-nology are discussed.

METHODOLOGYThe present study was conducted using survey

research methodology on NL technology adoptersin Fars Province, Iran (Figure 1). Multi-stagerandom sampling technique was used to determinethe sample of the study. Fars Province wasdivided into three major climatic categories:cold, temperate and hot climates. The citieswere, then, classified into these three categories:


Variables Cronbach’s alpha

Place attachmentValue attributed to the no-till technologyAwareness of benefitsKnowledge of no-till technologyPerceived ease of useAvailability of resourcesConservational technology experiencePerceived task-technology fitTechnology propertyTask property

0.710.700.710.750.660.700.740.730.760.65

Table 1Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficients for the Research Variables

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two cities were placed in the category of coldclimate (Eqlid, Sepidan), four cities in the tem-perate climate (Shiraz, Marvdasht, Farashband,Firouz-Abad), and four cities in the hot climate(Darab, Kazeroun, Khonj, Neyriz). Accordingto the community of adopters in any climatecategory, the regions were randomly sampled.In total, 165 no-till technology adopters wereinterviewed. Data were collected with a ques-tionnaire whose validity was confirmed by thefeedback obtained from faculty members. Tomeasure the reliability of the questionnaire, apilot study was conducted out of the originalsample, and Cronbach's alpha was estimated aspresented in Table 1. Data derived from thecompleted questionnaires were encoded and an-alyzed using the SPSS19 software package.

Research variablesFactors including a)agricultural income of

farmers, b) cultivating time, c) seed sowingtime, d) number of the labor force, e) numberof weeds, f) weed diversity, g) income beforeusing NL technology, h) adopters’ income versusthat of non-adopters, i) useful area of the farm,j) the period of plant growth, k) wheat spikelength, l) germination of wheat, m) tillering ofwheat, n) wheat yield, o) wheat grain, p) pesticideand herbicide consumption, q)fuel consumption,r)s eed price, s) time to market, t) workload,and u)burning residue amount were examined

as the consequences of NL technology. Theamount and direction of the changes in variableswhen NL technology was used were studied.The questionnaire includes different variableswith different scales. Some of the variableswere asked with a direct question in ratio scale,some other were designed in many items withLikert scale and then were computed for statisticalanalysis.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Consequences of NL technology

Results of the investigation on the consequencesof NL cultivation have been shown in Table 2.Based on these findings, most NL technologyadopters (86.07%) reported a reduction in culti-vating time and only 10.75 percent reportedthat cultivators’ working time was increased. Ithas been documented that another consequenceof NL technology adoption is the reduction inplanting time (Laxmi et al., 2007; Samiee &Rezaei-Moghaddam, 2017). Based on the resultsof this study, 82.91% of no-till adopters reportedreduction, 8.22% reported no change and 8.86%reported an increase in seed planting time. Itcan be concluded that in most cases, the use ofNL resulted in shorter seed planting time.

Another item that is expected to change whenno-till technology is used is total labor requirementin wheat cultivation. The results of this studyshowed that 64.80% of adopter farmers have


Figure1. Geographical position of the study site

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reported reductions and 13.54% of them havereported no change in the labor requirement.Since the majority of respondents have reportedreduction in the number of labor requirementsin wheat cultivation, it can be concluded thatthe number of the workforce was reduced insome cases when NL technology was used.Change in weed is another parameter consideredby many researchers in examining the conse-quences of no-till planters. The results indicatedthat 47.40% of adopters have reported a reductionin the number of weeds in their farms, whilethe number of farmers who have not seen anychanges in the number of weeds in their farmwas 41.55 percent. Although a greater numberof farmers reported reductions in the number ofweeds in their fields, 41.83 percent of no-tilladopters were faced with an increased diversityof weeds in their farms after they used thistechnology. Some researchers of the effect ofNL on weed concluded that some weed specieshave been destroyed when this technology wasapplied. As an example, NL reduces weed pop-ulations of P. minor species and increasesbroadleaf weeds such as Rumex maritimus(Laxmi et al., 2007). Researchers in India alsoobserved that reduced soil movement was oneof the most effective methods to control weedsand P. minor species could be controlled moreefficiently (Malik, 2004). Thus, the effect ofNL on weeds varies with farm conditions (e.g.climate) and various types of weeds as farmers'reports differ in different regions.

An increase in farmers' income is expected asthe result of NL because of the reduction incosts and the increased crop yield. This is con-firmed by the results of this study according towhich the income of most farmers (60.38%) hasincreased as compared to that before the appli-cation of this technology, but there were nochanges in the income of 31.81% of farmers.Thus, this technology increases farmers' income.Also, 68.58% of adopters have stated that theirincome was more than non-adopters. Comparisonbetween adopters and non-adopters, especiallyadjacent and neighboring farmers who had thesame requirements, showed that adopters had ahigher income than non-adopters in similar con-

ditions. This reflects the positive impact of NLtechnology on farmers' income. In the pilotstudy, to complete the questionnaire used in thisstudy some of the farmers expressed their concernsabout the loss of the useful area of their farm asthe result of the use of this technology, and theybelieved that one of the problems would be thelack of fitness between some types of plantersand farms. Therefore, the changes in the usefularea of lands were evaluated as another parameterin the investigation of the effect of no-till practice.This variable deals with the area of the land thathas been properly cultivated by this technology.The results showed that 65.94% of farmers havereported an increase in the useful area of theirland. Some of them (29.71%) reported no change,and others (4.34%) reported a reduction in thearea of their land.

The answers of farmers to changes in cropgrowth period – the period between plantingand harvesting of wheat – showed that 42.85%of farmers observed a reduction, 31.57% observedan increase and 25.56% observed no changes inthe growth period when NL was applied. Oneof the assumptions, when using this technology,is changes in performance and product quality.In this study, changes in wheat panicle length,grain weight, and tillering were evaluated andit was concluded that most farmers (59.82%)reported an increase in the cluster, 60.52 percentreported an increase in grain weight, and 85.93percent observed an increase in tillering. However,in some areas, farmers reported no changes oreven a decrease in these traits. Nevertheless,according to the results of the studies, betterresults are expected under standard conditions.To some extent, a decrease or no change inthese indicators can be attributed to the no-tillplanters. Also, how the device is used, farmconditions and proportionality between thedevice and conditions are other factors thatshould be considered in this case.

Farmers have expressed high satisfaction withgermination rates when using NL so that 79.13%reported an increase in the rate of germinationof wheat (Table 2). Most farmers (52.84%) re-ported no change in terms of the impact of thedevice on harvesting operation and crop mar-


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keting, but some also believed that the cropwas harvested and marketed sooner. Workloadrefers to types of farmers’ activities during cul-tivation. This includes the types of activitiesthat are necessary at the time of crop planting(plows, discs, lines, etc.) and was anothervariable examined for the consequences of ap-plying NL. Farmers expressed satisfaction withNL in reducing their workload in cultivationseason, and most (83.17 percent) stated that theworkload could be reduced by using NL.

Since one of the problems of conventionalagriculture is continuous cultivation in poorsoil without rehabilitation, thereby reducingcrop yields and soil fertility, operations such asreturning the crop residue to the soil and soilfertility restoration can be effective in alleviatingthis problem. On the other hand, traditionalmethods of residue management, such as burning,is one of the conventional methods amongfarmers in Fars Province that aggravates envi-ronmental pollution, soil erosion, soil organicmatter loss, waste soil texture, reduced perme-ability (penetrance), and finally crop loss. Con-sidering these problems and their irreversibleeffects, strategies for crop residue managementhave been considered by the agricultural sectorplanners. One of these methods is the conservation

tillage. Reviewing the effects of crop residuemanagement techniques, it was found that mostfarmers reported improved residue managementand stated that the use of this system reducedthe burning and resulted in efficient use ofresidue. Hence, it would bring many improve-ments in soil and their crop yields.

Comparison between consequences beforeand after using no-till technology

Agricultural and technical-Engineering con-sequences of no-till technology

The area under cultivationThe results revealed that there was a significant

difference between cultivation area before andafter using no-till technology (p<0.01, t=-3.03).This means that the area under wheat cultivationhas increased among sample farmers after usingno-till technology. The area under cultivationwas 2.23 hectares before using no-till while whenno-till technology has used, the average areaunder cultivation was increased to 2.33 hectares.Further investigation revealed that the reason ofthis small increase in cultivated area was thelack of water; however, more land area can beplanted using no-till than before because it


Increased

Percent

No change

Percent

Decreased

Percent

Total

PercentCultivator working timeSowing timeThe number of laborThe amount of weedDiversity of weedIncome before no-till technologyIncome of the non-adoptersUseful area of the farmGrowth periodPanicle length of wheatGermination of wheatWheat tilleringGrain weight of wheatTime to marketWorkload

10.758.865.8011.037.18

60.3868.5865.9431.5759.8279.1358.9360.5213.829.34

3.168.22

13.5441.5550.9831.8127.5629.7125.5635.7114.389.37

32.4552.847.47

86.0782.9164.8047.4041.837.793.484.34

42.854.466.474.687.01

33.3383.17

100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100

Table 2Consequences of NL Technology

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increases the planting rate and reduces costs.

Wheat yieldAs previous studies have focused on the effects

of NL technology on the wheat yield (Erenstein& Laxmi, 2007; Laxmi, 2008; Sen et al., 2002),we found a significant difference in wheat yieldsbetween after and before using no-till technology(p<0.01, t=-4.30). Wheat yield has increasedafter using this technology (5.42 t/ha) as comparedto previous years (4.84 t/ha). The increase inwheat yields is extremely important despite in-terests in the problem of drought, lack of no-tillplanters and delays in planting. The increase inyield is significantly higher when some pointsare observed such as timely sowing, increasingthe effectiveness of inputs, and weed control.

Herbicides consumptionIn earlier studies, different results have been

obtained in this regard. For example, Nakamotoet al. (2006) have pointed to its potential toreduce weeds. However, they believe the infes-tation of perennial weed species and the rapidincrease in the supply of weed seeds near thesoil surface are the disadvantage of reducedtillage. Many researchers have suggested thatsome weeds are difficult to control, the problemthat has arisen as the result of using no-till(Chun et al., 2017; Laxmi et al., 2007). However,other researchers have considered no-till as one ofthe most effective ways of fighting certain typesof weeds (Grabowski et al., 2016; Malik, 2004).In general, according to previous research onNL, it is assumed that weeds will be reducedover time when NL technology is used and, as aresult, herbicide consumption will be reduced.This study examined this among farmers. Itmust be noted that a long time has elapsedsince this technology has been adopted, andusers are in the second or third years of utilizingthis technology, but the amount of herbicidehas reduced, and there is a significant differencein terms of the amount of herbicide used beforeand after NL (p<0.01, t=3.98). This findingsuggests that using this technology has signifi-cantly increased weeds because the average rateof herbicide use was about 2.63 L/ha before no-

till practice and it was decreased to 2.18 L/haafter its use. As can be inferred from the farmers’statements, in some areas farmers have reportedno change or a decrease in the weeds. Theyhave stated that weed seeds remain in the depthsof the ground and do not get chance to grow. Infact, reports vary in different locations, and thistechnology has led to an increase in weeds inmany areas; in others, there has been either nochange or a reduction.

Pesticides consumptionThe results of pesticides consumption confirmed

that there was a significant difference betweenpesticide consumption after and before no-till(p<0.01, t=4.16) and no-till has reduced pesticideconsumptions. As we can see, the pesticide con-sumptions have been decreased from 2.14 to 1.79L/ha after the application of no-till technology.

Time and number of irrigationThe studies on no-till impact have revealed

that this system is generally known to save onwater consumption (Buhattchariyya et al., 2008;Erenstein & Laxmi, 2008; Karami et al., 2006).Investigation the effect of no-till technologyadoption in Fars province revealed that the dif-ferences in the time and frequency of irrigationbefore and after the use of no-till technologywere statistically significant. In this method,uniform planting of seeds, even with residue,reduced the time required for irrigation. Thetime of irrigation in conventional tillage (2.40per hectare) is almost twice as great as thatwhen NL is used (1.87 per hectares). This re-duction is also observed in the frequency of ir-rigation (two round cuts per hectare). Irrigationis required to be done 10 times before the useof NL, but then it decreased to 8 times. Therefore,it can be expected that NL will cause a significantdecrease in water consumption. This technologyis more efficient than other technologies indrought conditions. So, it can be considered asan effective measure to cope with drought.

Fertilizer consumptionPhosphate fertilizer is placed just below the

seed by using NL technology. Therefore, the


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depletion of fertilizer is prevented and its con-sumption is reduced significantly in the landsof farmers in the sample study (80 kg per ha).In fact, the average consumption of phosphatefertilizer was 252.33 kg/ha before the NL adop-tion, but it dropped to 172.33 kg/ha after itsadoption. The amount of nitrogen fertilizer wasalso reduced. Average rate of nitrogen fertilizerapplication was about 250.38 kg/ha before thistechnology, but after the use of this technology,it was reduced to 198.61 kg/ha. In other words,the differences between the amount of nitrogenfertilizer (p<0.01, t=5.36) and phosphate fertilizer(p<0.01, t=8.66) before and after no-till adoptionwere significant. So, it can be concluded thatNL technology will generally reduce the amountof chemical fertilizers.

WorkforceNo-till technology has also been efficient with

respect to the number of farm workers. Theresults of this study confirmed that the differencein the number of workers before and after theNL adoption was statistically significant (p<0.01,t=11.18). The number of workforce before theuse of no-till technology was 3, but after no-tilladoption, farmers required only 1 labor for farmwork.

The number of cultivators passesIn conventional tillage to sow the seeds in the

ground, cultivators should dig the field 6 times.The use of NL technology has led to savings,and this has reduced the time required forsowing. In other words, the difference in thenumber of cultivators passes between beforeand after the use of technology is significant(p<0.01, t=18.55). This confirmed the findingsof earlier studies in other places such asLaxmi et al. (2007) and Malik (2004). Reducedload traffic and consequently lower fuel con-sumption will also bring economic benefits.

Fuel consumptionThe results of earlier studies on the effects of

NL have suggested a reduction in the rate offossil fuel consumption Epplin et al., 1982;Laxmi et al., 2007; Sen et al., 2002). This study

also evaluated fossil fuel consumption and founda significant difference before and after theadoption of NL technology (p<0.01, t=7.69).In fact, consumption of fossil fuels before no-till adoption was about 201.63 L/ha, but itdropped to about 117.28 L/ha after no-till adop-tion. So, fuel consumption has declined by56.63 L/ha. This decline can be attributed tothe decrease in the number of cultivator commuteand the reduced number of the required fieldoperations.

The economic consequences of NL technologyNL has many economic benefits including

lower costs, fewer engines and tractors, extendedlongevity of agricultural implements, reductionin the required labor, and comfortable workforcemanagement. Many studies have expressed theeconomic benefits of conservation tillage tech-nology rather than conventional systems (Ekboir,2003; Erenstein et al., 2008; Erenstein & Laxmi,2008). In this regard, this study examined theeconomic impact of the NL adoption as mentionedbelow.

Seeding costsLand preparation costs were too high before

using no-till technology. Conventional farmingoperations require several field operations beforeplanting. Using NL, no land perpetration isneeded, and planting costs is reduced primarilyas the results of this study also confirmed. Theresults showed that the difference in the cost ofsowing before and after the use of this technologywas statistically significant (p<0.01, t=8.64).Planting cost was about 1,169,000 IRR/habefore the NL adoption, but it was decreased toabout 1,093,000 IRR/ha after its adoption. Asignificant reduction is seen in the cost ofplanting on farms of adopters (Table 3).

Impact of NL technologyAgriculture impacts: The results showed that

NL has many positive impacts. According tothe results, this system is largely commensuratewith the circumstances of Iran. Based on theoutcomes of this research, we can point to anincrease in wheat yield. Food and nutrition se-


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curity cannot be confined just to the economic-social aspect. Recently, it has also become apolitical issue, and industrialized countries useit as a political tool. Because of the current eco-nomic conditions and reduced foreign exchangeearnings, it is necessary to make a greater useof facilities to increase production. With moreproduction, we can stop importation and preventthe loss of foreign exchange. Therefore, findingagricultural methods to increase the crop yieldsremains an objective for agriculture plannersand experts. Regarding the positive influenceof adoption of conservation tillage on yield im-provement, it can be considered as a valuablemethod for crops in Iran. Consequently, it seemsnecessary to provide appropriate conditions forfarmers to adopt this method.

Drought is a worldwide phenomenon thatoccurs frequently in nature and decreases agri-cultural production by affecting the plants, re-sulting in aggravated food shortage and peoplehunger. In fact, drought is considered a complexphenomenon, even more sophisticated than othernatural disasters that threaten human life. Atpresent, there is a general warning about the ef-fects of drought on society and the economy.Drought is certainly one of the features of Iran’sclimate which has been intensified in recentyears. This phenomenon will be accompaniedby heavy destruction of the various economic

and social sectors. To mitigate and reduce de-struction, we need efficient technology to copewith drought. The results of the present studyshow that among all effects, NL technology canreduce water consumption by agriculture inFars province, so farmers should be encouragedto adopt NL. This technology can encouragefarmers to apply such strategies to deal with theimpact of the drought.

Environmental impact: Chemical fertilizersand pesticides contaminate water, soil, and air.Toxins in the groundwater aquifers, rivers andseas are one of today's threats which have led tosevere degradation including creating and ex-panding ocean dead zones, destructing animaland plant species, imbalance in the ecosystem,increasing toxic algae in the sea, transferringtoxins through the water and destructing pristinenatural areas and beneficial microorganisms.

Biological damage caused by inappropriateuse of fertilizers and synthetic pesticides andinappropriate methods of conventional farminglead to severe soil erosion, infertile land, de-sertification, and the reduction in the amountand quality of agricultural products. Conse-quently, the agricultural land will eventuallylose its fertility and soil restoration woulddepend entirely on chemical fertilizers. The in-discriminate use of synthetic fertilizers andpesticides makes pests resistant to pesticides


Variables NL t p-valueMean SD Mean SD

The area under cultivation (ha)Wheat yields (t/ha(Herbicide consumption (L/ha)Pesticide consumption (L/ha)Irrigation time (hr/acre)Frequency of irrigationPhosphate fertilizer (kg/ha)Nitrogen fertilizer (kg/ha)Workforce The number of cultivators passes Fuel consumption (L/ha)Seeding costs (IRR)

2.335.422.181.791.878.24

172.33198.61

1.841.96

117.281093000

0.862.571.711.590.965.91

113.14136.90

0.981.26

105.110.66

2.234.842.632.142.409.21

252.33250.38

3.486.76

201.631169000

0.851.971.971.59

16

131.74128.60

1.613.33

151.700.72

-3.03-4.303.984.167.503.468.665.3611.1818.557.698.64

0.0030.0000.0000.0000.0000.0010.0000.0000.0000.0000.0000.000

Table 3Consequences of NL Technology

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and new pests will appear. Hence, the environ-mental specialists have tried to find a solutionto this problem. According to the results, NLtechnology could be introduced as an environ-mentally friendly technology because of thepositive effect on reducing the use of chemicalpesticides and fertilizers.

Effects on energy inputs: Energy, economicand environmental factors are important forthe description of agricultural production sys-tems. In recent years, agriculture has had agreat deal of energy consumption growth. Thisis due to the continuous population growthand the continuous use of new productiontechnologies and tools. Therefore, it is importantto determine the amount of energy inputs inthe crop growth. This is a good reason to findways to increase the energy efficiency of agri-cultural inputs or reduce energy consumptionin agricultural systems. Technologies are valu-able that can produce more with less energy.Based on the results of this study, NL technologycould be useful in reducing energy consumptionin agricultural systems in Iran. Farmers requirefewer inputs by adopting this technology andenergy consumption will be significantly re-duced. Other advantages of the no-till tech-nology can be listed as the reduction in thenumber of workers, the reduction in the numberof farm operations, and the reduced fuel con-sumption.

Economic impacts: One of the factors deter-mining farmers’ willingness to use new tech-nologies in agriculture has always been theireconomic aspect which is particularly importantin the case of environmental technologies. Farm-ers tend to use technologies with higher economicbenefits. The investigation into the effects oftillage technology showed improvement in the

economic situation of farmers in the use of NL.According to the results of this study, NLreduced the cost and increased the income offarmers. In fact, this technology reduced pro-duction costs because of the reduction in thenumber of field operations, workforce, andinputs. Furthermore, it enhanced the income offarmers by increasing the yields.

Farmers` tendency to continue using NLFarmers’ tendency to keep using the NL tech-

nology which implies their satisfaction withthis technology and also represents the futureof this technology has been reviewed as anotheraspect of this technology.

To determine the effects of all variables thataffect farmers' willingness to keep using theNL technology and predict variations in eachvariable, the regression equation between theindependent variables and farmers’ willingnessto keep using the NL technology was analyzedas the dependent variable. Four variables, in-cluding wheat yields, increased use of pesticides,awareness of the benefits and satisfaction withthe technology, were included in the equation(Table 4). In total, these variables captured 66%of the variation in farmers’ willingness to keepusing the no-till technology (F = 31.99, Sig F =0.0001). Beta values show one standard deviationincrease in these variables, increases 0.15, 0.14,0.16, 0.71 in the standard deviation of willingnessto keep using the NL technology. Beta coefficientsindicate that the satisfaction with the NL tech-nology variable is the most important variableaffecting the farmers’ willingness to keep usingthe NL technology. Thus, the regression equationis as follows:

Y = 0.15 x1 + 0.14 x2 + 0.16 x3 + 0.71 x4


Variables b Beta t p-value

Wheat yields (X1) Increased use of pesticides (X2) Awareness of the benefits (X3) Satisfaction with the no-till technology (X4)

0.230.360.090.96

0.150.140.160.71

2.4562.5672.860

10.569

0.010.020.02

0.0001

Table 4Results of Regression Analysis of Variables Influencing the Farmers` Willingness to Continue Using NL Technology

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CONCLUSIONConventional agriculture relies significantly on

inappropriate use of the primary sources (suchas soil and water) as well as inputs derived fromfossil fuels such as fertilizers, pesticides andagricultural machinery with high fuel consumption.In other words, conventional farming systemshave accelerated the environmental degradation.This has led to the erosion of natural resources.Consequently, in recent years interests have beenaroused to the use of agricultural technologiesthat preserve the environment, soil, and waterwith lower costs and improve productivity. Manyemphasized production technologies that contributeto achieving sustainability.

To realize sustainable agriculture, it is crucialto apply appropriate policies and programs toprotect soil as one of the most important andexpensive inputs for agricultural systems. Oneof the most effective methods of soil protectionis conservation tillage such as NL. However,based on various studies, the choice of conven-tional tillage methods and conservation tillagemethod is still in the preliminary phase becausethere is no stable solution for all situations andaccording to the different climates, differentresults are expected from the technology. Basedon our findings, the application of this technologyhas many positive effects on sources such asfuel, resources such as fuel consumption, cultivatorsworking time, fertilizer and pesticide. Thus, theadopter farmers require fewer inputs and alsohave a significant reduction in their energy con-sumption. Despite the increase in crop yield,savings in water consumption is the most importantresult of NL as compared to conventional farmingsystems. Besides, the use of this technology haschanged the weeds. In this regard, although re-ductions have been reported in the number ofweeds in many areas, some farmers have alsonoted an increase in the number of weeds.

Despite the many positive effects of NL technology,one of the major topics in the field of innovation isdiscontinuation of its use. Hence, in this study, wetried to identify factors affecting farmers’ willingnessto keep using NL technology. Among the factorsthat seemed to be effective on continued use of theNL technology, the four factors including crop

yields, increased use of pesticides, the knowledgeof the usefulness of technology, and satisfactionwith NL accounted for a large part of farmers’willingness to keep using the NL technology.

Therefore since satisfaction with NL technologyis the most important factor affecting farmers’willingness to keep using the NL technology, it issuggested to hold gatherings for farmers whohave used this technology and who are satisfiedwith its applications to explain the reasons fortheir satisfaction and explain how to achieve theseresults for others. It is also recommended thatfarmers' awareness of the benefits of this technologybe increased, even after single use of this technology.In this regard, it is necessary to consider the long-term benefits that will be realized.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSWe are thankful for the agricultural extension

experts and farmers of Fars province for an-swering the questionnaires, patiently.

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How to cite this article:Samiee, S., & Rezaei-Moghaddam, K. (2018). The consequences of tillage technology: Thesustainability perspective (the case of Fars Province, Iran). International Journal of AgriculturalManagement and Development, 8(3), 409-420.URL: http://ijamad.iaurasht.ac.ir/article_542564_4d75d5471d55709f9581d589b8f4c53e.pdf

consequences of tillage technology: the sustainability

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