clods: dual hierarchies for multiresolution collision...

Eurographics Symposium on Geometry Processing (2003)L. Kobbelt, P. Schröder, H. Hoppe (Editors)

CLODs: Dual Hierarchies for Multiresolution Collision Detection

Miguel A. Otaduy and Ming C. Lin

Department of Computer Science, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, U.S.A

AbstractWe present “contact levels of detail” (CLOD), a novel concept for multiresolution collision detection. Given apolyhedral model, our algorithm automatically builds a “dual hierarchy”, both a multiresolution representation ofthe original model and its bounding volume hierarchy for accelerating collision queries. We have proposed variouserror metrics, including object-space errors, velocity dependent gap, screen-space errors and their combinations.At runtime, our algorithm uses these error metrics to select the appropriate levels of detail independently at eachpotential contact location. Compared to the existing exact collision detection algorithms, we observe significantperformance improvement using CLODs on some benchmarks, with little degradation in the visual rendering ofsimulations.

Categories and Subject Descriptors (according to ACM CCS): I.3.3 [Computer Graphics]: Hierarchy and GeometricTransformations

1. Introduction

Collision detection is an important problem in physically-based modeling, computer animation, virtual environments,electronic prototyping, robotics and many other engineeringapplications. Collision detection is often one of the compu-tational bottlenecks in achieving interactive simulation forcomplex environments. The running time of any collisionquery algorithm depends on both the input size (the combi-natorial complexity of the models) and the output size (thenumber of contact points). Despite the huge body of litera-ture, the existing techniques cannot offer the desired perfor-mance for many real-time applications, such as haptic ren-dering of large structures, real-time interaction with massiveCAD models, and interactive dynamic simulations of com-plex objects.

In this paper, we investigate the use of multiresolutiontechniques for collision detection. Model simplification hasbeen an active research area for the past decade. Many effi-cient and effective simplification algorithms have been pro-posed to accelerate the visual rendering of highly complexmodels in real time. Applications of mesh simplification al-gorithms to the problem of collision detection can poten-tially accelerate collision queries. However, to date only rel-atively simple algorithms have been proposed for convexpolytopes. A simple approach would be to generate a seriesof simplified representations, also known as levels-of-detail(LOD), and use them directly for collision detection. But,collision queries require auxiliary data structures, such asbounding volume hierarchies (BVH) or spatial partitioning,to achieve good runtime performance. These data structures

often take a substantial amount of memory, while the LODsthemselves can require a large amount of storage as well. Torepresent the auxiliary data structures for each static LODcan quickly increase the memory requirement to the pointwhere the memory access time may dominate the overallruntime performance. On the other hand, constructing BVHsfor on-the-fly simplification can be time consuming.

Main Contribution: We present the notion of “contact lev-els of detail” (CLODs) that is based on a novel data struc-ture and algorithms for multiresolution collision detection.The data structure is a “dual hierarchy” that serves both asa BVH for accelerating collision queries and a multiresolu-tion representation of the original model for computing con-tact information. We have also proposed several error met-rics, including object-space errors, velocity dependent gap,screen-space errors and their combinations. At runtime, thealgorithm uses these error metrics to select adaptive CLODat each potential contact location independently. In addition,CLODs offer the capability to perform time-critical colli-sion queries for real-time applications. We have tested ourapproach on a diverse set of benchmarks with challengingcontact scenarios. We observed noticeable performance im-provement with little degradation in the visual rendering ofsimulation results on some of the benchmarks.

Organization: Section 2 briefly surveys previous work. Wepresent the general data structure and associated proximityquery algorithm for contact levels-of-detail in section 3. Sec-tions 4 and 5 describe a specific implementation of hierarchyconstruction using convex hulls and its use for runtime con-tact queries respectively. We discuss the implementation is-

c© The Eurographics Association 2003.

Otaduy and Lin / CLODs for Multiresolution Collision Detection

sues and demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach insection 6.

2. Related Work

This research is built upon a large collection of knowledge inmesh simplification and collision detection. We briefly sur-vey related work in this section.

2.1. Model Simplification

Many techniques for mesh decimation and model simplifi-cation have been proposed for the last few years. We referreaders to an excellent book on this subject18. There has beensome growing interest in perception-based simplification forinteractive rendering17. However, these techniques are basedon different criteria than those for collision detection. Al-though we precompute the level of detail (LOD) hierarchyoffline, the way we select the appropriate LOD on the fly is“contact dependent” at each potential contact location acrossthe object surfaces. It shares a more common theme withview-dependent simplification18, which uses higher resolu-tion representations on the silhouette of the object and muchcoarser approximations on the rest of the object that is not asnoticeable to the viewpoint.

El-Sana and Varshney4 proposed to construct a continu-ous, multiresolution hierarchy of the model during prepro-cessing. At run time, a high-detail representation is used inthe region of contact, and a coarser representation fartheraway. The proposed approach only applies to haptic render-ing using a point probe to explore a 3D model. It does notextend naturally to collision queries between two interacting3D objects, since multiple disjoint contacts can occur simul-taneously at widely varying locations without much spatialcoherence. The latter problem is the focus of our paper.

2.2. Collision Detection

Data structures based on hierarchical representations havebeen extensively used in the design of efficient algo-rithms for collision detection between geometric models (seesurvey12, 14). Examples of typical bounding volumes includespheres and axis-aligned bounding boxes, due to their sim-plicity in performing overlap tests between two such vol-umes. Other hierarchies include octrees, k-d trees, k-DOPs,OBBTrees, trees based on S-bounds, R-trees and their vari-ants, etc.12, 14. Other spatial representations are BSP’s andtheir extensions to multi-space partitions, space-time boundsor four-dimensional tests (see a brief survey22), and manymore.

O’Sullivan and Dingliana20 investigated LOD techniquesfor collision simulations and studied various factors affect-ing collision perception, including separation, eccentricity,causality, distractors, and accuracy of simulation results.Their work is based on the model of human visual percep-tion and validated by psychophysical experiments. The fea-sibility of using these factors for scheduling interruptible

collision detection among large numbers of visually homo-geneous objects is also demonstrated. Instead of addressingthe scheduling of multiple collision events among many ob-jects, we focus primarily on the problem of contact queriesbetween two highly complex objects.

Recently techniques based on GPU acceleration have alsobeen proposed for collision queries9, 16. However, these ap-proaches are not necessarily faster for rigid bodies whereprecomputation can be effectively carried out off-line, sincethe readback from framebuffer and depth buffer cannot bedone fast enough.

The concept of time-critical collision detection wasfirst introduced by Hubbard11 using sphere-trees. Collisionqueries are performed as far down the sphere-trees as timeallows, without traversing the entire hierarchy. The con-tact information was derived from two colliding boundingspheres and could deviate arbitrarily from the actual con-tact normals and contact locations. This idea can be appliedto any type of bounding volume hierarchies (BVH). An er-ror metric is often desirable for interactive applications toformally and rigorously quantify the amount of error intro-duced. However, no tight error bounds have been providedusing such approaches. This can be problematic, especiallywhen contact normals and contact points are required tocompute a plausible collision response.

Some techniques limited to convex polytopes have beenproposed to exploit hierarchical representations and motioncoherence for fast distance computation 2, 7. The progres-sive hull representation 23 also presents some favorable char-acteristics for collision detection purposes, but to the bestof our knowledge no data structure for collision detectionhas been defined using this representation. In addition, thesetechniques suffer from a surface enlargement problem dueto meeting containment conditions, that can result in no-table surface deviations when being used for multiresolutioncollision detection. Our implementation of CLODs createsa BVH of convex hulls, taking advantage of the work byEhmann and Lin3. Our work differs from theirs in the sensethat we create a new multiresolution representation of theobjects to be used in multiresolution collision detection.

The basic idea of CLODs has been successfully applied tohaptic rendering21. Here we generalize CLODs by definingimplementation-independent data structures and algorithms,present more diverse error metrics, and apply CLODs torigid body dynamic simulation.

3. Contact Levels of Detail

In this section, we present our approach for constructing hi-erarchies of CLODs. First we analyze the advantage of usingCLODs in hierarchical collision detection, then we describethe associated data structures, as well as the process for cre-ating them, and finally we explain how CLODs are used inruntime collision queries.



3.1. Hierarchical Collision Detection

Bounding volume hierarchies (BVHs) are commonly usedfor collision detection between general geometric objects.To perform intersection tests, two models are queried by re-cursively traversing their BVHs in tandem. Each recursivestep tests whether a pair of bounding volumes a and b, onefrom each hierarchy, overlap. If a and b do not overlap, therecursion branch is terminated. Otherwise, if they do over-lap, the algorithm is applied recursively to their children. Ifa and b are both leaf nodes, the primitives within them aretested directly.

The test between the two BVHs can be described by thebounding volume test tree (BVTT)13, a tree structure thatholds in each node the result of the query between twoBVs. When temporal coherence is present, collision tests canbe accelerated by generalized front tracking (GFT)3. GFTcaches the front of the BVTT, where the result of the queriesswitches from "true" to "false", for collision query in the nexttime step. The overall cost of a collision test is proportionalto the number of nodes in the front of the BVTT.

When large areas of the two objects are in a close proxim-ity, a larger portion of the BVTT front is close to the leaves,and it consists of a larger number of nodes. The size of thefront also depends on the resolution at which the objects aremodeled; higher resolution implies a BVTT with a greaterdepth. We can draw the conclusion that the cost of a colli-sion query depends on two key factors:• The size of the contact area• The resolution of the models

Figure 1: a) Large contact area in high resolution; b) Largecontact area in low resolution; c) Small contact area in highresolution

The contact between two real objects typically occursalong a certain contact area. With polygonalized models, thismay result in multiple contact points. The finer the resolu-tion of the objects, the larger the number of contact points,as seen in Fig. 1. However, employing a larger resolutionmay have little effect on the forces computed between theobjects, because these forces are computed as a sum of con-tact forces arising from a net of contact points. We can arguethat intuitively a larger contact area allows the objects to bedescribed at a coarser resolution. This is also supported bystudies on tactual perception21. In this paper we exploit thishypothesis to create multiresolution representations of theobjects, and use them at each contact location independentlyfor selecting the appropriate resolution of each approxima-tion. Using CLODs we can achieve nearly constant cost for

collision queries by exploiting, among other factors, the rela-tion between contact area and the resolution of local contactfeatures.

3.2. Data Structure

In order to perform efficient multiresolution collision detec-tion, we need to achieve two main objectives:1. Create accurate multiresolution representations.2. Embed the multiresolution representations in effective

bounding volume hierarchies.Multiresolution representations are often created by per-

forming mesh decimation on the given polyhedral models.The difficulty arises when trying to embed these represen-tations in BVHs. If we consider each LOD of the object asone whole model, each LOD would require a distinct BVHfor collision detection. This would result in a very inefficientcollision query, because the front of the BVTT would have tobe updated for the BVH of each LOD. Instead, we introducea procedure to create one unique dual hierarchy that servesas both a multiresolution representation and a BVH.

Assuming that the input model is described as a trianglemesh M0, the data structure for CLODs is composed of:• A sequence of LODs {M0,M1, ...,Mn−1}, where Mi+1

is obtained by applying simplification operations and re-moving high resolution geometric detail from Mi.

• For each mesh Mi, a partition of the set of triangles of Miinto disjoint clusters {ci,0,ci,1, ...,ci,m}.

• For each cluster ci, j, a bounding volume Ci, j.• A tree T formed by all the BVs of clusters, where BVs of

clusters in Mi are children of BVs of clusters in Mi+1, andall the BVs except the ones corresponding to M0 have atleast one child.

• For every BV, Ci, j, the maximum directed Hausdorff dis-tance h(Ci, j) from its descendent BVs.The tree T of BVs, together with the Hausdorff distances,

serves as the BVH for culling purposes in collision detection.Directed Hausdorff distances are necessary because in ourdefinition of CLODs the set of BVs associated with one par-ticular LOD may not bound the surface of previous LODs.The Hausdorff distances are used to perform conservativecollision tests, as later explained in Sec. 5.1.

An additional constraint is added to the data structure,such that the coarsest LOD, Mi−1 is partitioned into one sin-gle cluster ci−1,0. Therefore, the root of the BVH will be theBV of the coarsest LOD. Descending to the next level of thehierarchy will yield the children BVs, whose union enclosesthe next LOD. At the end of the hierarchy, the leaf BVs willenclose the original surface M0.

The process of creating the CLODs, depicted in Fig. 2,starts by grouping the triangles of the original surface intoclusters. The size and properties of these clusters depend onthe type of BV that is used for the BVH, and will be suchthat the collision query performance between two BVs is op-timized. The next step is to compute the BV of each cluster.



Figure 2: Constructing Dual Hierarchies: (a) Initial surface; (b) Clusters of triangles; (c) BVs for each cluster (in this case,AABBs); (d) Mesh simplification; (e) BV of the union of clusters after some conditions are met.

After this initialization, we start a mesh decimation processwith a bottom-up construction of the BVH. This is achievedby merging clusters and computing the BV of their union.

The atomic simplification operations need to satisfy thefollowing:

• Constraints imposed by the BVH: The containment ofsurface geometry inside the BVs has to be preserved aftereach simplification operation. This may impose topologi-cal and/or geometric constraints.

• Design requirements to achieve better efficiency: Theunion of clusters is possible when certain conditions aremet. The BVH will be more effective in collision pruning,if these conditions are taken into account when designingthe atomic simplification operations.

In Sec. 4, we present a specific implementation of CLODsthat uses convex hulls as the BVs.

3.3. Runtime Queries with CLOD

Using CLODs, multiresolution collision detection can beimplemented by slightly modifying the typical collision de-tection procedures using BVHs. For each node x of theBVTT, we perform a collision query. If the query returns"false", we do not need to descend to the children. If thequery result is "true", then we perform a test for selective re-finement. This test can embed various perceptual error met-rics, and it determines if the resolution of x is fine enoughto describe the contact information at each query location. Ifthe refinement test returns "true", then we can directly com-pute contact information for x, otherwise we descend to itschildren in the BVTT. Descending to the children involvesdescending to the children BVs, as well as refining the sur-face representation. This approach handles the selective re-finement at each query location independently in a very effi-cient way.

CLODs can also be used to perform time-critical collisiondetection11. We need to store the nodes of the BVTT front,and assign priorities to each node based on the refinementtest.

In Sec. 5 we describe how we implement the collisionqueries using CLODs based on convex hulls, as well as var-ious error metrics that we have designed.

4. Dual Hierarchies of Convex Hulls

In this section we describe a particular implementation ofCLODs using BVHs of convex hulls. We first address thereasons for choosing convex hulls as the BVs, and then de-scribe the details of constructing dual hierarchies.

4.1. Selection of the BVs

Overlap tests between convex hulls can be executed rapidlyin expected constant time with motion coherence7. Further-more, convex hulls provide at least equally good, if not su-perior, fitting to the underlying geometry as OBBs6 or k-DOPs12.

Most importantly the fitting property is related to the per-formance of the query to obtain contact information of a cer-tain CLOD. As explained in Sec. 3.3, when the refinementtest determines that a CLOD does not need to be refined, wemust get contact information at that level. That implies get-ting contact information from the triangles of that specificCLOD. If the BVs at that level are one of AABB, OBB ork-DOPs, the efficiency of getting contact information usingtriangles is related to the number of triangles in each cluster.However, with convex hulls, if we ensure that the clusters arethemselves convex surface patches, the contact informationat the triangle level is obtained for free when performing thequery between BVs3.

The initial clusters will be defined as the surface patchesof a convex surface decomposition1, 3. We follow the defini-tion of convex surface patches by Ehmann and Lin 3, whichimposes two types of convexity constraints on the process ofcreating dual hierarchies:

• Local constraints: the interior edges of convex patcheshave to remain convex after simplification operations areapplied.

• Global constraints: the enclosing convex hulls cannotprotrude the surface of the object.

However, it is important to note that convex hulls posesome limitations on the types of models that can be handled.In our implementation, the convex hulls are formed by con-vex surface decomposition, which requires the input modelsto be described as 2-manifold oriented surfaces.



4.2. Construction of the Dual Hierarchy

As already mentioned, the process is initialized by perform-ing a convex surface decomposition of the object and com-puting the convex hulls of the patches. This is followed by asimplification loop represented schematically in Fig. 3.

We apply atomic simplification operations taking into ac-count convexity constraints. After each operation, we test ifthe union of every pair of neighboring convex patches is avalid convex patch. If so, we merge the patches, constructthe convex hull of the union, and set parent children rela-tionships between the BVs. We have chosen to generate anew LOD every time that the number of convex patches ishalved.

Due to the convexity constraints, we might reach a pointwhere no more simplification operations are possible. Wecomplete the construction of the hierarchy by unconstrainedpairwise merging of patches3. The levels of the hierarchycreated in this manner cannot be used as CLODs in collisionqueries, but are necessary to complete the BVH.

Figure 3: Generation of CLODsThere are various aspects of the simplification process

central to our construction of CLODs that need to be de-fined:• The type of simplification operation• The assignment of priorities for simplification• The local retriangulation after the simplification

We select edge collapse as the atomic simplification op-eration. There are many options for prioritizing edges andselecting the position of the resulting vertices: minimizationof energy functions10, optimization approaches15, quadricerror metrics for measuring surface deviation5, and more.However, none of these approaches meets the convexityconstraints or takes into account the factors that maximizethe efficiency of CLODs. Another possibility is to employ

the progressive hulls representation23, which presents theinteresting property of containment for collision detectionpurposes. However, in this representation successive LODsare not simply multiresolution representations of the initialmesh, because they also undergo an enlargement processwhich can result in noticeable visual artifacts. Our local sim-plification operations are inspired by multiresolution analy-sis and signal processing of meshes.

4.2.1. Multiresolution Analysis of MeshesAn LOD M j of a mesh M0 at resolution r j is defined as anapproximation of M0 that stores all the surface detail at res-olutions lower than r j. Following this definition, we havedecided to prioritize the edges to be collapsed based on theirresolution. We use the same definition of edge resolution asin 21, which is inspired by the definition of resolution forfunctions in the 1D setting. By the same definition of LODs,the collapse of an edge at resolution r j involves removingthe geometric detail at resolutions higher than r j. We imple-ment this by incorporating a filtering step in the placementof vertices resulting from edge collapse operations.

We have compared this approach to other techniques forplacing the vertices resulting from edge collapses, and it hasproved to accelerate the process of merging convex patches.This is probably because the filtering step tends to removeconcavities at high resolution, while other techniques fail toremove these concavities in favor of preserving other prop-erties. Note that a more efficient merging of convex patcheshas beneficial consequences in the performance of CLODsat runtime.

4.2.2. Filtered Edge CollapseWe employ a local simplification operation filtered edgecollapse 21 subject to local and global convexity constraints.This operation is composed of the following steps:1. A topological edge collapse.2. An initialization process that sets the position of the re-

sulting vertex using quadric error metrics 5.3. Unconstrained filtering of the position of the vertex

using Guskov’s minimization of second order divideddifferences8.

4. Solving an optimization problem to minimize the dis-tance of the vertex to its unconstrained position whiletaking into account the local convexity constraints.

5. A bisection search between the initial position of the ver-tex and the one that meets the local constraints, to find alocation where the global convexity constraints are alsomet.The filtered edge collapse operation is described in further

detail in 21.

In Fig. 5 (see color plate) we show an example of a dualhierarchy of CLODs. The process is applied to the model of awrinkled torus. Fig. 5-b shows a detailed view of the convexdecomposition of the original surface. In the next CLODs,the filtering smoothens the concave areas, and the convex



patches grow forming triangle strips on the hyperbolic re-gions. Likewise, the simplification operations coarsen thetriangulation. Also notice that initially the simplification op-erations are concentrated in the region where the wrinklesmerge and is also the area with the finest detail.

5. Runtime Queries

In this section we discuss our implementation of collisionqueries using CLODs of convex hulls, present various errormetrics for selecting the appropriate CLODs, and demon-strate the application to rigid body dynamic simulation.

5.1. Collision Queries between CLODs of Convex Hulls

A typical collision query between two BVs a and b deter-mines if a and b are closer than a distance δ. The collisiondetection algorithms based on BVHs must ensure that if aleaf node x of the BVTT returns "true" to the collision query,then all its ancestors must return "true" too. This is usuallyachieved by containing the surface of each object inside theunion of the BVs at every level of its BVH. In our implemen-tation of CLODs this containment property does not hold,but we can ensure the correctness of the collision detectionby modifying the collision distance δab between two convexhulls a and b:

δab = δ+h(a)+h(b) (1)

where h(a) and h(b) are maximum directed Hausdorff dis-tances from the descendant BVs of a and b to a and b re-spectively.

5.2. Error Metrics

We have designed a functional φ to evaluate the resultingerror, when we stop a collision query at a node ab of theBVTT. φa =

sar2a

(2)

where sa is the surface deviation of the convex hull a withrespect to the original surface and ra is its resolution. Bothvalues are precomputed. The functional φ can be regardedas a measure of the volume of the fictitious features that arefiltered out when using a as the CLOD.

As introduced in Sec. 3.1, larger contact areas allow themodels to be described at coarser resolution. We take intoaccount this observation by averaging the functional φ overan estimated contact area D. Thus, we compute a weightedsurface deviation s∗ as:

s∗ab =max(φa,φb)

D(3)

s∗ can been considered as the surface deviation errorsweighted by a constant that depends on both the contact areaand the resolutions of local surface features. The contact areaD is estimated based on precomputed per-vertex support ar-eas (see 21 for more details).

The node of the BVTT ab is refined if s∗ab is larger than athreshold value, s0. This threshold can be determined basedupon different perceptual metrics.

Size Dependant Metric

s0 will be determined as a fixed percentage of the radii ofthe objects involved in the contact queries.

Velocity Dependant Metric

Set s0 as a value proportional to the relative velocity ofthe colliding objects at the contact location. This is basedon the observation that the gap between the objects is lessnoticeable as the objects move faster.

View Dependant Metric

Determine s0 based on screen-space errors. Given N pix-els of error, a distance l from the camera to the contact lo-cation, a distance n to the near plane of the view frustum, asize f of the frustum in world coordinates, and a size i of theimage plane in pixels:

s0 =N · l · f

n · i(4)

Selective refinement using CLODs can be implementedcombining any of these error metrics. It can also supportother types of perceptual error metrics20.

Constant Frame-rate: Another important feature is the factthat CLODs can be used for time-critical collision detection.The factor s

∗

s0 , computed at every potential contact location,can be used to prioritize the refinement. To achieve a guar-anteed framerate for real-time applications, the algorithmwill perform as many collision queries as possible, within afixed time interval. The query event queue will be prioritizedbased on s

∗

s0 .

5.3. Application to Rigid Body Dynamic SimulationIn rigid body dynamic simulations, many of the factors in-volved in the selection of CLODs, such as the velocity ofthe objects, the contact area and the distance to the camera,will vary dynamically. This results in transitions in the re-finement tests and thus switching between selected CLODs.Rigid body dynamic simulations often require the executionof time-stepping algorithms to search for the time instantsprior to collision events. With CLODs the result of the colli-sion queries may vary depending on the selected resolution,therefore special treatment is necessary so that switchingCLODs do not generate inconsistencies or deadlock situa-tions in the time-stepping algorithms. (The analogy in visualrendering is the “popping” effects often seen during LODswitching.)

Given a node xi of the BVTT, with collision query “false”at times ti and ti+1 of the simulation, and a node x j, childof xi, with collision query “true” at both time instants, ifthe refinement test of xi switches from “false” to “true” att ∈ [ti, ti+1], the time stepping method will encounter an in-consistency. It will try to search for a non-existent collisionevent in the interval [ti, ti+1]. We solve this problem by es-timating a collision time tc interpolating the separation dis-tance of the node xi at ti and the penetration depth of the nodex j at ti+1. We apply the contact response and restart the nu-merical integration from tc with xi as the active CLOD.



6. Implementation and Performance

In this section we describe the implementation issues and thebenchmarks used to analyze the performance and effective-ness of CLODs.

6.1. Benchmark ModelsFig. 6 in color plate shows the set of benchmark models.They are:

• A wrinkled torus falling along a spiral peg• A spoon sliding inside a cup• A soup of numbers settling in a bowl

In Table 1 we present the statistics of the dual hierarchiescreated to represent the benchmark models. Note that in allcases the models are simplified to a coarsest CLOD with acomplexity in the order of 1000 triangles and 100 convexpieces. This limitation is imposed by the topology of the ob-jects and the localized influence of the simplification opera-tions. The statistics of the numbers represent an average ofall the models from number 0 to number 9.

Models Cup Spoon Spiral Torus Bowl Numbers

Trisorig 64000 86016 32160 32000 12288 1080

BVsorig 15490 16125 6448 5919 4336 161

Trissimp 1532 1074 716 644 634 306

BVssimp 241 61 100 92 63 37

CLODs 7 9 7 7 8 3

LODs 14 14 13 13 13 9

Table 1: Models and Associated Hierarchies. The numberof triangles (Trisorig) and convex patches (BVsorig) of theinitial mesh of the models; the number of triangles (Trissimp)and convex patches (BVssimp) of the coarsest valid CLOD;and CLODs and total number of LODs in the hierarchies.

6.2. Runtime Performance

The rigid body simulations captured in the snapshots inFig. 6 on the color plate were computed using impulsivemethods19. These simulations were performed on a Pentium-4 2.4Ghz processor PC with 2.0GB of memory, a NVidiaGeForce-FX graphics card and Windows2000 OS.

The timing profile of Fig. 4 shows query times and thenumber of nodes in the BVTT front for a simulation of thespoon sliding inside the cup. We have compared results ob-tained with an exact collision detection algorithm3 againstthe results of our CLOD technique using the size dependanterror metric. In particular, we have used values of s0 of 3.5%,0.35%, and 0.035% of the radius of the cup. As the timingsshow, CLODs with s0 = 3.5% perform at least as good as theexact algorithm for most of the simulation duration. Duringseveral time intervals, we observe a performance gain of al-most one order of magnitude. In the other two benchmarks,

we have not observed as significant performance gains usingCLODs. Thus, their timing profiles are omitted here, giventhe page limit.

We have also evaluated CLODs with velocity and viewdependant error metrics. In Fig. 7 (see color plate) coarseCLODs are selected when the spoon hits the bottom of thecup, and fine resolution CLODs are selected when the spoonslides along the side of the cup. In the first case the polygoncount of the representations is roughly 10 times larger thanin the second case.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 400

10

20

30

40

50exact0.035%0.35%3.5%

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 400

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

QUERY TIME (ms)

BVTT FRONT (num. nodes)

Figure 4: Comparison of query time and size of the BVTTfront for exact full res. collision detection and CLODs

6.3. Limitations and AnalysisWe have chosen a diverse set of benchmarks with varyingmodel complexity and observed the performance of CLODson different simulation scenarios. As a result of the modifi-cation to the collision tolerance introduced in Sec. 5.1, themultiresolution collision detection algorithm using CLODscannot prune as efficiently as the exact algorithm3, whenthe objects are separated by a distance notably larger thanδ. However, when they come close to contact, the tempo-ral coherence in the front of the BVTT is much higher withCLODs than with the exact algorithm. This can be verified inFig. 4, where the number of nodes does not vary much withCLODs. This also explains the spikes present in the timingsfor the exact algorithm. These spikes take place at the in-stants when the objects are about to interpenetrate. Even ifthe number of nodes in the front of the BVTT is smallerfor the exact algorithm than for CLODs with s0 = 0.035%,the coherence is lower, because suddenly many nodes in theBVTT come closer than δ, thus yielding longer query times.

We believe that the insignificant performance gain in thesimulation of the torus falling along the spiral is due to sim-ilar reasons. Because of the high traveling speed and the im-pacts of the falling torus, the simulated objects are rarely inclose proximity or have low spatial coherence. As for thesimulation of the numbers settling in a bowl, the polygonalcomplexity of the models of the numbers is not high enoughto benefit from CLODs.



To summarize, we can conclude that CLODs perform re-markably better than exact collision detection algorithms (upto one order of magnitude) for situations of sliding or restingcontacts between complex models. These are in fact some ofthe most challenging contact scenarios, because large areasof the objects are in parallel close proximity6.7. Summary and Future Work

We have introduced the concept of “contact levels of de-tail” (CLOD) for multiresolution collision queries. CLODsare based on a dual hierarchy that serves as both a multires-olution representation of the input model and its boundingvolume hierarchy for collision queries. The runtime algo-rithm dynamically selects adaptive CLODs at each potentialcontact independently using various error metrics. This ap-proach considerably speeds up the overall performance ofcollision queries in complex environments with challengingcontact scenarios.

This research may be extended in several directions:• A further investigation of the problem of switching

CLODs and its implications on the contact response mod-els of various simulation methods;

• Optimization of the simplification process to obtain moreeffective hierarchies, perhaps incorporating an operationwith a more global support than the current ones;

• The implementation of CLODs with other types of BVHs.

Acknowledgments

This research is supported in part by a fellowship of theGovernment of the Basque Country, National Science Foun-dation, Office of Naval Research, U.S. Army Research Of-fice, and Intel Corporation. We would like to thank StephenEhmann and Young Kim for their help on integratingSWIFT++ and DEEP with our collision detection. We arealso grateful to Dinesh Manocha, Jack Snoeyink, Mark Fos-key, and the anonymous reviewers for their feedback on theearlier drafts of this paper.

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Figure 5: From left to right, original mesh and detail view of CLOD0, CLOD1, CLOD2, CLOD4 and CLOD6. Mesh simplifica-tion is combined with the construction of the BVH. Different colors correspond to different convex patches.

Figure 6: Snapshots of our benchmark simulations. From left to right: torus falling along a spiral peg, a spoon in a cup, and asoup of numbers in a bowl.

Figure 7: Velocity dependent adaptive selection of CLODs used in detecting contact between a cup and a spoon. In blue andgreen, the vicinity of the contact locations shown at the resolution of the adaptively selected CLODs. In the right, coarseresolution is selected when the spoon falls inside the cup. In the left, fine resolution is selected when the spoon slides slowlyalong the side of the cup.


clods: dual hierarchies for multiresolution collision...

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