class11 psychology unit07 ncert textbook englishedition

Chapter7 Human MemoryHuman MemoryHuman MemoryHuman MemoryHuman MemoryHuman MemoryHuman MemoryHuman MemoryHuman MemoryHuman Memory

IntroductionNature of MemoryInformation Processing Approach : The Stage ModelMemory Systems : Sensory, Short-term and Long-term Memories

Working Memory (Box 7.1)Levels of ProcessingTypes of Long-term Memory

Declarative and Procedural; Episodic and SemanticLong-term Memory Classification (Box 7.2)Methods of Memory Measurement (Box 7.3)

Knowledge Representation and Organisation in MemoryMemory Making: Eyewitness and False Memories (Box 7.4)

Memory as a Constructive ProcessNature and Causes of Forgetting

Forgetting due to Trace Decay, Interference and Retrieval FailureRepressed Memories (Box 7.5)

Enhancing MemoryMnemonics using Images and Organisation

Key TermsSummaryReview QuestionsProject Ideas

Contents

• understand the nature of memory,• distinguish between different types of memory,• explain how the contents of long-term memory are represented and

organised,• appreciate the constructive and reconstructive processes in memory,• understand the nature and causes of forgetting, and• learn the strategies for improving memory.

After reading this chapter, you would be able to

The advantage of badmemory is that one

enjoys several times,the same good things

for the first time.

– Friedrich Nietzsche

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you perhaps learned during your earlyschooling. Memory is conceptualised as aprocess consisting of three independent,though interrelated stages. These areencoding, storage, and retrieval. Anyinformation received by us necessarily goesthrough these stages.(a) Encoding is the first stage which refers toa process by which information is recordedand registered for the first time so that itbecomes usable by our memory system.Whenever an external stimulus impinges on

NATURE OF MEMORY

Memory refers to retaining and recallinginformation over a period of time, dependingupon the nature of cognitive task you arerequired to perform. It might be necessary tohold an information for a few seconds. Forexample, you use your memory to retain anunfamiliar telephone number till you havereached the telephone instrument to dial, orfor many years you still remember thetechniques of addition and subtraction which

All of us are aware of the tricks that memory plays on us throughout our lives. Haveyou ever felt embarrassed because you could not remember the name of a knownperson you were talking to? Or anxious and helpless because everything youmemorised well the previous day before taking your examination has suddenlybecome unavailable? Or felt excited because you can now flawlessly recite lines ofa famous poem you had learnt as a child? Memory indeed is a very fascinating yetintriguing human faculty. It functions to preserve our sense of who we are, maintainsour interpersonal relationships and helps us in solving problems and takingdecisions. Since memory is central to almost all cognitive processes such asperception, thinking and problem solving, psychologists have attempted tounderstand the manner in which any information is committed to memory, themechanisms through which it is retained over a period of time, the reasons why itis lost from memory, and the techniques which can lead to memory improvement.In this chapter, we shall examine all these aspects of memory and understandvarious theories which explain the mechanisms of memory.

The history of psychological research on memory spans over hundred years.The first systematic exploration of memory is credited to Hermann Ebbinghaus, aGerman psychologist of late nineteenth century (1885). He carried out manyexperiments on himself and found that we do not forget the learned material at aneven pace or completely. Initially the rate of forgetting is faster but eventually itstabilises. Another view on memory was suggested by Frederick Bartlett (1932)who contended that memory is not passive but an active process. With the help ofmeaningful verbal materials such as stories and texts, he demonstrated that memoryis a constructive process. That is, what we memorise and store undergoes manychanges and modifications over time. So there is a qualitative difference in whatwas initially memorised by us and what we retrieve or recall later. There are otherpsychologists who have influenced memory research in a major way. We shallreview their contributions in this chapter at appropriate places.

Introduction

Chapter 7 • Human Memory 133

our sensory organs, it generates neuralimpulses. These are received in different areasof our brain for further processing. Inencoding, incoming information is receivedand some meaning is derived. It is thenrepresented in a way so that it can beprocessed further.(b) Storage is the second stage of memory.Information which was encoded must also bestored so that it can be put to use later.Storage, therefore, refers to the processthrough which information is retained andheld over a period of time.(c) Retrieval is the third stage of memory.Information can be used only when one is ableto recover it from her/his memory. Retrievalrefers to bringing the stored information toher/his awareness so that it can be used forperforming various cognitive tasks such asproblem solving or decision-making. It maybe interesting to note that memory failure canoccur at any of these stages. You may fail torecall an information because you did notencode it properly, or the storage was weakso you could not access or retrieve it whenrequired.

INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH :THE STAGE MODEL

Initially, it was thought that memory is thecapacity to store all information that weacquire through learning and experience. Itwas seen as a vast storehouse where allinformation that we knew was kept so thatwe could retrieve and use it as and whenneeded. But with the advent of the computer,

human memory came to be seen as a systemthat processes information in the same wayas a computer does. Both register, store, andmanipulate large amount of information andact on the basis of the outcome of suchmanipulations. If you have worked on acomputer then you would know that it has atemporary memory (random access memoryor RAM) and a permanent memory (e.g., a harddisk). Based on the programme commands,the computer manipulates the contents of itsmemories and displays the output on thescreen. In the same way human beings tooregister information, store and manipulate thestored information depending on the task thatthey need to perform. For example, when youare required to solve a mathematical problem,the memory relating to mathematicaloperations, such as division or subtraction arecarried out, activated and put to use, andreceive the output (the problem solution). Thisanalogy led to the development of the firstmodel of memory, which was proposed byAtkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. It is known asStage Model.

MEMORY SYSTEMS : SENSORY, SHORT-TERM

AND LONG-TERM MEMORIES

According to the Stage Model, there are threememory systems : the Sensory Memory, theShort-term Memory and the Long-termMemory. Each of these systems has differentfeatures and performs different functions withrespect to the sensory inputs (see Fig.7.1). Letus examine what these systems are:

Fig.7.1 : The Stage Model of Memory

Information

Sensory MemoryIconic (Sight)Echoic (Sound)and other sensesStore Capacity -largeDuration - lessthan one second

Attention

Short-termMemoryStore Capacity -smallDuration - lessthan 30 seconds

ElaborativeRehearsals

Long-termMemoryPermanentStore Capacity -unlimitedDuration - uptoa life time

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Sensory Memory

The incoming information first enters thesensory memory. Sensory memory has a largecapacity. However, it is of very short duration,i.e. less than a second. It is a memory systemthat registers information from each of thesenses with reasonable accuracy. Often thissystem is referred to as sensory memories orsensory registers because informations fromall the senses are registered here as exactreplica of the stimulus. If you have experiencedvisual after-images (the trail of light that staysafter the bulb is switched off) or when youhear reverberations of a sound when the soundhas ceased, then you are familiar with iconic(visual) or echoic (auditory) sensory registers.

Short-term Memory

You will perhaps agree that we do not attendto all the informations that impinge on oursenses. Information that is attended to entersthe second memory store called the short-termmemory (abbreviated as STM), which holdssmall amount of information for a brief periodof time (usually for 30 seconds or less).Atkinson and Shiffrin propose thatinformation in STM is primarily encodedacoustically, i.e. in terms of sound and unlessrehearsed continuously, it may get lost fromthe STM in less than 30 seconds. Note thatthe STM is fragile but not as fragile as sensory

registers where information decaysautomatically in less than a second.

Long-term Memory

Materials that survive the capacity andduration limitations of the STM finally enterthe long-term memory (abbreviated as LTM)which has a vast capacity. It is a permanentstorehouse of all informations that may be asrecent as what you ate for breakfast yesterdayto as distant as how you celebrated your sixthbirthday. It has been shown that once anyinformation enters the long-term memorystore it is never forgotten because it getsencoded semantically, i.e. in terms of themeaning that any information carries. Whatyou experience as forgetting is in fact retrievalfailure; for various reasons you cannot retrievethe stored information. You will read aboutretrieval related forgetting later in this chapter.

So far we have only discussed the structuralfeatures of the stage model. Questions whichstill remain to be addressed are how doesinformation travel from one store to anotherand by what mechanisms it continues to stayin any particular memory store. Let us examinethe answers to these questions.

How does information travel from one storeto another? As an answer to this question,Atkinson and Shiffrin propose the notion ofcontrol processes which function to monitorthe flow of information through various

In recent years, psychologists have suggested thatthe short-term memory is not unitary, rather it mayconsist of many components. This multi-component view of short-term memory was firstproposed by Baddeley (1986) who suggested thatthe short-term memory is not a passive storehousebut rather a work bench that holds a wide varietyof memory materials that are constantly handled,manipulated and transformed as people performvarious cognitive tasks. This work bench is calledthe working memory. The first component of theworking memory is the phonological loop which

BoxBoxBoxBoxBox 7.1 WWWWWorking Memoryorking Memoryorking Memoryorking Memoryorking Memory

holds a limited number of sounds and unlessrehearsed they decay within 2 seconds. The secondcomponent visuospatial sketchpad stores visual andspatial information and like phonological loop thecapacity of the sketchpad too is limited. The thirdcomponent, which Baddeley calls the CentralExecutive, organises information from phonologicalloop, visuospatial sketchpad as well as from the long-term memory. Like a true executive, it allocatesattentional resources to be distributed to variousinformations needed to perform a given cognitiveoperation and monitors, plans, and controls behaviour.


memory stores. As suggested earlier, allinformations which our senses receive are notregistered; if that be the case, imagine the kindof pressure that our memory system will haveto cope with. Only that information which isattended to enters the STM from sensoryregisters and in that sense, selective attention,as you have already read in Chapter 5, is thefirst control process that decides what willtravel from sensory registers to STM. Senseimpressions, which do not receive attention,fade away quickly. The STM then sets intomotion another control process ofmaintenance rehearsal to retain theinformation for as much time as required. Asthe name suggests, these kinds of rehearsalssimply maintain information throughrepetition and when such repetitionsdiscontinue the information is lost. Anothercontrol process, which operates in STM toexpand its capacity, is Chunking. Throughchunking it is possible to expand the capacityof STM which is otherwise 7+2. For example,if you are told to remember a string of digitssuch as 194719492004 (note that the numberexceeds the capacity of STM), you may createthe chunks as 1947, 1949, and 2004 andremember them as the year when India becameindependent, the year when the IndianConstitution was adopted, and the year whenthe tsunami hit the coastal regions of India andSouth East Asian countries.

From the STM information enters the long-term memory through elaborative rehearsals.As against maintenance rehearsals, which arecarried through silent or vocal repetition, thisrehearsal attempts to connect the ‘to beretained information’ to the already existinginformation in long-term memory. Forexample, the task of remembering the meaningof the word ‘humanity’ will be easier if themeanings of concepts such as ‘compassion’,‘truth’ and ‘benevolence’ are already in place.The number of associations you can createaround the new information will determine itspermanence. In elaborative rehearsals oneattempts to analyse the information in termsof various associations it arouses. It involvesorganisation of the incoming information in

as many ways as possible. You can expandthe information in some kind of logicalframework, link it to similar memories or elsecan create a mental image. Figure 7.1, thatpresents the stage model of memory, alsodepicts the arrows to show the manner inwhich information travels from one stage toanother.

Experiments, which were carried out totest the stage model of memory, have producedmixed results. While some experimentsunequivocally show that the STM and LTMare indeed two separate memory stores, otherevidences have questioned theirdistinctiveness. For example, earlier it wasshown that in the STM information is encodedacoustically, while in LTM it is encodedsemantically, but later experimental evidencesshow that information can also be encodedsemantically in STM and acoustically in LTM.

I. Try to remember the following list of digits(individual digits)

1 9 2 5 4 9 8 1 1 2 1Now try to memorise them in the followinggroups:

1 9 25 49 81 121

Finally memorise them in the followingmanner:

12 32 52 72 92 112

What difference do you observe?

II. Read out the lists given below in a row at thespeed of one digit per second to your friendand ask her/him to repeat all the digits inthe same order:

List Digits

1 (6 digits) 2-6-3-8-3-42 (7 digits) 7-4-8-2-4-1-23 (8 digits) 4-3-7-2-9-0-3-64 (10 digits) 9-2-4-1-7-8-2-6-5-35 (12 digits) 8-2-5-4-7-4-7-7-3-9-1-6

Remember that your friend will recall thedigits as soon as you finish the list. Note howmany digits are recalled. The memory scoreof your friend will be the number of digitscorrectly recalled by her/him. Discuss yourfindings with your classmates and teacher.

Activity Activity Activity Activity Activity 7.1

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Shallice and Warrington in the year 1970had cited the case of a man known as KF whomet with an accident and damaged a portionof the left side of his cerebral hemisphere.Subsequently, it was found that his long-termmemory was intact but the short-term memorywas seriously affected. The stage modelsuggests that informations are committed tothe long-term memory via STM and if KF’sSTM was affected, how can his long-termmemory be normal? Several other studies havealso shown that memory processes are similarirrespective of whether any information isretained for a few seconds or for many yearsand that memory can be adequatelyunderstood without positing separate memorystores. All these evidences led to thedevelopment of another conceptualisationabout memory which is discussed below asthe second model of memory.

LEVELS OF PROCESSING

The levels of processing view was proposedby Craik and Lockhart in 1972. This viewsuggests that the processing of any newinformation relates to the manner in which itis perceived, analysed, and understood whichin turn determines the extent to which it willeventually be retained. Although this view hasundergone many revisions since then, yet itsbasic idea remains the same. Let us examinethis view in greater detail.

Craik and Lockhart proposed that it ispossible to analyse the incoming informationat more than one level. One may analyse it interms of its physical or structural features.For example, one might attend only to theshape of letters in a word say cat - inspite ofwhether the word is written in capital or smallletters or the colour of the ink in which it iswritten. This is the first and the shallowestlevel of processing. At an intermediate levelone might consider and attend to the phoneticsounds that are attached to the letters andtherefore the structural features aretransformed into at least one meaningful wordsay, a word cat that has three specific letters.Analysing information at these two levels

produces memory that is fragile and is likelyto decay rather quickly. However, there is athird and the deepest level at whichinformation can be processed. In order toensure that the information is retained for alonger period, it is important that it getsanalysed and understood in terms of itsmeaning. For instance, you may think of catas an animal that has furs, has four legs, atail, and is a mammal. You can also invoke animage of a cat and connect that image withyour experiences. To sum up, analysinginformation in terms of its structural andphonetic features amounts to shallowerprocessing while encoding it in terms of themeaning it carries (the semantic encoding) isthe deepest processing level that leads tomemory that resists forgetting considerably.

Understanding memory as an outcome ofthe manner in which information is encodedinitially has an important implication forlearning. This view of memory will help yourealise that while you are learning a newlesson, you must focus on elaborating themeaning of its contents in as much detail aspossible and must not depend on rotememorisation. Attempt this and you will soonrealise that understanding the meaning ofinformation and reflecting on how it relatesto other facts, concepts, and your lifeexperiences is a sure way to long-termretention.

TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY

As you have read in Box 7.1, the short-termmemory is now seen as consisting of more thanone component (working memory). In the sameway it is suggested that long-term memory toois not unitary because it contains a widevariety of information. In view of this,contemporary formulations envisage long-term memory as consisting of various types.For instance, one major classification withinthe LTM is that of Declarative and Procedural(sometimes called nondeclarative) memories.All information pertaining to facts, names,dates, such as a rickshaw has three wheels orthat India became independent on August 15


1947 or a frog is an amphibian or you andyour friend share the same name, are part ofdeclarative memory. Procedural memory, onthe other hand, refers to memories relating toprocedures for accomplishing various tasksand skills such as how to ride a bicycle, howto make tea or play basketball. Facts retainedin the declarative memory are amenable toverbal descriptions while contents ofprocedural memory cannot be describedeasily. For example, when asked you candescribe how the game of cricket is played butif someone asks you how do you ride a bicycle,you may find it difficult to narrate.

Tulving has proposed yet anotherclassification and has suggested that thedeclarative memory can either be Episodic orSemantic.

Episodic memory contains biographicaldetails of our lives. Memories relating to ourpersonal life experiences constitute theepisodic memory and it is for this reason thatits contents are generally emotional in nature.How did you feel when you stood first in yourclass? Or how angry was your friend and whatdid s/he say when you did not fulfil a promise?If such incidents did actually happen in yourlife, you perhaps will be able to answer thesequestions with reasonable accuracy. Althoughsuch experiences are hard to forget, yet it isequally true that many events take placecontinuously in our lives and that we do notremember all of them. Besides, there arepainful and unpleasant experiences which arenot remembered in as much detail as pleasantlife experiences.

The study of memory is a fascinating field andresearchers have reported many new phenomena.The following phenomena show the complex anddynamic nature of human memory.

Flashbulb Memories : These are memories ofevents that are very arousing or surprising. Suchmemories are very detailed. They are like a phototaken with an advanced model camera. You canpush the button, and after one minute you have arecreation of the scene. You can look at thephotograph whenever you want. Flashbulbmemories are like images frozen in memory andtied to particular places, dates, and times.Perhaps, people put in greater effort in theformation of these memories, and highlightingdetails might lead to deeper levels of processingas well as offer more cues for retrieval.

Autobiographical Memory : These are personalmemories. They are not distributed evenlythroughout our lives. Some periods in our livesproduce more memories than others. For instance,no memories are reported pertaining to earlychildhood particularly during the first 4 to 5 years.This is called childhood amnesia. There is adramatic increase in the frequency of memoriesjust after early adulthood, i.e. in the twenties.Perhaps emotionality, novelty, and importance of

BoxBoxBoxBoxBox 7.2 Long-term Memory ClassificationLong-term Memory ClassificationLong-term Memory ClassificationLong-term Memory ClassificationLong-term Memory Classification

events contribute to it. During old age, the most recentyears of life are likely to be well remembered. However,before this, around 30 years’ of age, decline in certainkinds of memory starts.

Implicit Memory : Recent studies have indicatedthat many of the memories remain outside theconscious awareness of a person. Implicit memory isa kind of memory that a person is not aware of. It isa memory that is retrieved automatically. Oneinteresting example of implicit memory comes fromthe experience of typing. If someone knows typingthat means s/he also knows the particular letterson the keyboard. But many typists cannot correctlylabel blank keys in a drawing of a keyboard. Implicitmemories lie outside the boundaries of awareness.In other words, we are not conscious of the fact thata memory or record of a given experience exists.Nevertheless, implicit memories do influence ourbehaviour. This kind of memory was found in patientssuffering from brain injuries. They were presented alist of common words. A few minutes later the patientwas asked to recall words from the list. No memorywas shown for the words. However, if s/he wasprompted to say a word that begins with these lettersand two letters are given, the patient was able torecall words. Implicit memories are also observed inpeople with normal memories.

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for various other classifications of long-termmemory.

1. Think about your early school days. Writedown two separate events that occurred duringthose days, and which you remember vividly.Use separate sheets for writing about eachevent.

2. Think of the first month in Class XI. Write downtwo separate events that occurred during themonth, and which you remember vividly. Useseparate sheets for each event.

Compare these in terms of length, felt emotions,and coherence.


Write the sentences given below on separate cards. Invite some junior students to play thisgame with you. Seat her/him across a table in front of you. Tell her/him “In this game you willbe shown some cards one by one at a steady pace, you have to read the question written oneach card and answer it in yes or no”.

Note down the answers.1. Is the word written in capital letters? BELT2. Does the word rhyme with the word crew? grew3. Does the word fit in the following sentence?

“____________ study in school”. Students4. Does the word rhyme with the word gold? mood5. Is the word written in capital letters? bread6. Does the word fit in the following sentence?

“The son of my uncle is my ____________.” cousin7. Does the word fit in the following sentence?

My _________ is a vegetable. home8. Does the word fit in the following sentence?

“__________ is a piece of furniture”. Potato9. Is the word written in capital letters? TABLE10. Does the word rhyme with the word wears? bears11. Is the word written in capital letters? marks12. Does the word rhyme with the word clear? five13. Does the word fit in the following sentence?

“Children like to play __________ .” games14. Does the word fit in the following sentence?

“People usually meet __________ in the bucket.” friends15. Does the word fit in the following sentence?

“My class room is filled with ________.” shirts16. Does the word fit in the following sentence?

“My mother gives me enough pocket __________.” money

After completing the task of reading the cards, ask the students to recall the words about whichthe questions were asked. Note down the words recalled. Count the number of words recalled inthe structural, phonological, and semantic types of processing required by the question.

Discuss results with your teacher.


Semantic memory, on the other hand, isthe memory of general awareness andknowledge. All concepts, ideas and rules oflogic are stored in semantic memory. Forinstance, it is because of semantic memorythat we remember the meaning of say ‘non-violence’ or remember that 2+6=8 or the STDcode of New Delhi is 011 or that the word‘elaphant’ is misspelt. Unlike episodic memorythis kind of memory is not dated; you perhapswill not be able to tell when you learnt themeaning of non-violence or on which date youcame to know that Bangalore is the capital ofKarnataka. Since the contents of semanticmemory relate to facts and ideas of generalawareness and knowledge, it is affect-neutraland not susceptible to forgetting. See Box 7.2


KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION AND

ORGANISATION IN MEMORY

In this section we will take a look at theorganisational structure that the contents oflong-term memory acquire over a period oftime. Since long-term memory holds a verylarge amount of information which is put touse with amazing efficiency, it would be veryuseful to know how our memory systemorganises its contents so that the rightinformation is available at the right moment.It is important to note at this point that manyideas relating to organisation of the contentof long-term memory have resulted fromexperiments that have employed semanticretrieval tasks. You will perhaps agree thatthere cannot be any error in recalling thecontents of semantic memory. For anyone whoknows that birds fly will not make a mistakein answering a question — Do birds fly? Theanswer will be in affirmative. But people may

take variable lengths of time in answeringquestions, which require semantic judgments.While responding to question ‘Do birds fly?’ aperson will take not more than a second butanswering a question ‘Are birds animals’? maytake longer. Depending upon how much timepeople take in responding to questions suchas these, the nature of organisation in long-term memory has been inferred.

The most important unit of representationof knowledge in long-term memory is aconcept. Concepts are mental categories forobjects and events, which are similar to eachother in one or in more than one way.

Concepts once formed get organised incategories — a category itself is a concept butit also functions to organise similarities amongother concepts based on common features. Forexample, the word mango is a categorybecause different varieties of mangoes can besubsumed within it and it is also a conceptwithin the category of fruit. Concepts may also

There are many ways in which memory ismeasured experimentally. Since there are manykinds of memories, any method appropriate forstudying one type of memory may not be suitedfor studying another. The major methods whichare used for memory measurement are beingpresented here :a) Free Recall and Recognition (for measuring

facts/episodes related memory) : In free recallmethod, participants are presented withsome words which they are asked tomemorise and after some time they are askedto recall them in any order. The more theyare able to recall, the better their memory is.In recognition, instead of being asked togenerate items, participants see the itemsthat they had memorised along withdistracter items (those that they had not seen)and their task is to recognise which one ofthose they had learnt. The greater thenumber of recognition of ‘old items’, better isthe memory.

b) Sentence Verification Task (for measuringsemantic memory) : As you have already read,

BoxBoxBoxBoxBox 7.3 Methods of Memory MMethods of Memory MMethods of Memory MMethods of Memory MMethods of Memory Measurementeasurementeasurementeasurementeasurement

semantic memory is not amenable to anyforgetting because it embodies general knowledgethat we all possess. In sentence verification task,the participants are asked to indicate whether thegiven sentences are true or false. Faster theparticipants respond, better retained is theinformation needed to verify those sentences (seeActivity 7.3 for use of this task in measurement ofsemantic knowledge).

c) Priming (for measuring information we cannotreport verbally) : We store many kinds ofinformation that we can’t report verbally - forinstance, information necessary to ride a bicycleor play a sitar. Besides, we also store informationthat we are not aware of, which is described asimplicit memory. In priming method, participantsare shown a list of words, such as garden,playground, house, etc. and then they are shownparts of these words like gar, pla, ho, along withparts of other words they had not seen.Participants complete parts of seen words morequickly than parts of words they had not seen.When asked, they are often unaware of this andreport that they have only guessed.

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get organised in schema. They are mentalframeworks which represent our knowledgeand assumptions about the world. Forexample, think of a schema of a drawing room.It will have different objects/things, like a sofaset, center table, paintings, etc., which arefound in a drawing room and where they arefound in the drawing room.

So far we have examined the concept asthe basic level at which knowledge isrepresented in the long-term memory and thenotions of category and schema as the firstlevel at which concepts are organised. Letus now look at a higher level of organisationthat concepts acquire in the long-termmemory.

In the year 1969, Allan Collins and RossQuillian published a landmark research paperin which they suggested that knowledge inlong-term memory is organised hierarchicallyand assumes a network structure. Elementsof this structure are called nodes. Nodes areconcepts while connections between nodes arelabelled relationships, which indicate categorymembership or concept attributes.

In order to verify the proposed networkstructure of long-term knowledge, participants

of experiments were asked to verify the truthof the statements such as ‘canary is a bird’ or‘a canary is an animal’ (answer was in Yes/No). These were generally class-inclusionstatements in which the subject was word‘canary’ (perhaps, you know, it is a bird) andthe predicate took the form ‘is a’. A criticalfinding of such experiments was that as thepredicate became hierarchically more remotefrom the subject in a sentence, participantstook longer time to verify that it is true or false.Thus, people took longer to verify that a‘canary is an animal’ compared to that whichsaid ‘canary is a bird’ because bird is animmediate superordinate category in whichcanary is subsumed while animal is asuperordinate category which is more distantand remote from the concept canary.According to this view, we can store allknowledge at a certain level that ‘applies toall the members of a category without havingto repeat that information at the lower levelsin the hierarchy’. This ensures a high degreeof cognitive economy, which meansmaximum and efficient use of the capacity oflong-term memory with minimumredundancy.

Fig.7.2 : The Hierarchical Network Model

Is dangerousCan bite

Animal

Has skin

Can move aroundEats food

Breathes

Has wings

Has feathersCan fly

Can sing Is yellow

Canary

OstrichHas long thin legs

Can’t flyIs tall

Swims upstreamto lay eggs

Is pinkIs edible

Shark

BirdFish Can swim

Has fins

Has gills

Salmon


So far we have discussed concept as unitof representation of knowledge in the long-term memory and looked at various ways inwhich concepts get organised. Does this meanthat knowledge is encoded only in word-likeformat or can there be other ways of encoding?It has been shown that information can becoded in a perceptual format or in terms ofimages. An image is a concrete form ofrepresentation which directly conveys theperceptual attributes of an object. If you wereto come across the word ‘school’, an image ofyour own school will get generated. In fact,almost all concrete objects (and concepts)generate images and the knowledge related tothem is encoded both verbally as well as

visually. This is known as dual codinghypothesis, originally proposed by Paivio.According to this hypothesis, concrete nounsand information related to concrete objects areencoded and stored in the form of images whileinformation related to abstract conceptsassume a verbal and a descriptive code. Forexample, if you are asked to describe a bird,the first thing that happens is that an imageof a bird is generated and based on this image,you describe a bird. But, on the other hand,the meanings of concepts like ‘truth’ or‘honesty’ will not have such accompanyingimages. So, any information which has beenencoded verbally as well as in the form ofimages is recalled with greater ease.

Eyewitness MemoryCourt procedures followed in criminal trials, usethe testimony given by the eyewitness of theoffense. It is considered to be the most reliableevidence for or against the accused. Someexperiments carried out by Loftus and hercolleagues during the mid-seventies showed thatthe eyewitness’s memory is susceptible to manyflaws.

The experimental procedure followed by Loftuswas very simple. A film clipping of an event (usuallya car accident) was shown to the participants. Thiswas followed by some questions, which interfereswith encoding of the event. One of the questionswas “how fast were the cars going when theysmashed into each other”. In another question theverb smashed was replaced with the verbcontacted. Those who were asked the first question(which included the word ‘smashed’) estimated thespeed of the cars as 40.8 mph. Those who weregiven the second question (i.e. with the word‘contacted’) estimated that the speed of the carswas only 31.8 mph. Clearly, the nature of leadingquestions changed the memory. In fact, theencoding of the event was ‘overwritten’ bymisleading questions. Some of these errors are alsocommitted because of affective nature of the eventitself. For example, events depicting violence or atragedy tend to arouse strong emotions, theeyewitnesses get overwhelmed and do not payattention to details while encoding.

BoxBoxBoxBoxBox 7.4 Memory Making : EMemory Making : EMemory Making : EMemory Making : EMemory Making : Eyewitness and Fyewitness and Fyewitness and Fyewitness and Fyewitness and False Memoriesalse Memoriesalse Memoriesalse Memoriesalse Memories

False MemoryAn interesting phenomenon called false memory canbe induced by powerful imagination of events that didnot take place at all. Surprised? Let us look at onesuch study carried out by Garry, Manning and Loftusin 1996 and understand the features of false memory.

Initially they presented before the participantsof their experiments, a list of events that could haveoccurred in their lives. In the first phase of thisexperiment, they rated the likelihood that each ofthese events actually took place in their lives to thebest of their childhood memories. Two weeks later,they were invited again to the laboratory and wereasked to imagine those events and visualise as ifthey actually happened to them. In particular, eventswhich were rated low in terms of their likelihood ofoccurrence, were chosen for the task of visualisingand imagining. This was the second phase of theexperiment. Finally, in the third phase, theexperimenters pretended that they had misplacedthe event likelihood ratings which they had obtainedduring the first phase and therefore requested theparticipants to respond to the list, once again.Interestingly, events which were rated low onlikelihood in the first phase but were later visualisedand imagined as real were now rated high. Theparticipants reported that those events actually tookplace in their lives. These findings suggest thatmemory can be induced and implanted throughimagination inflation — a finding that provides usefulinsights into memory processes.

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Information which has been encoded andstored in the form of images leads to thedevelopment of mental models. There are manyroutine tasks which require mental models.For example, following a road direction,assembling a bicycle or even preparing to cookan exotic dish from instructions given in acookery book require that spatial mentalmodels are created from verbal descriptions.Mental models, therefore, refer to our beliefabout the manner in which our environmentis structured and such beliefs are formed withthe help of concrete images as well as verbaldescriptions.

MEMORY AS A CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS

If you were to carefully examine the initialexplorations about memory processes, you willperhaps conclude that memory primarilyconsists of reproduction of stored materials.This view was held by Ebbinghaus and hisfollowers who emphasised the quantity ofinformation that can be stored in the memoryand judged its accuracy by matching thecontents of storage and reproduction. If thereproduced version of the stored materialshowed any deviation, it was seen as an errorand a case of memory failure. This storagemetaphor of memory implied that the memorywas a passive occurrence of learnt materialthat has been transported to its long-termstorehouse. This position was challenged byBartlett in the early thirties who contendedthat memory is an active process and all thatwe have stored undergoes continuous changeand modification. What we memorise isinfluenced by the meaning we assign to thestimulus material and once it is committed toour memory system, it cannot remain inisolation from other cognitive processes.

In essence, therefore, Bartlett saw memoryas a constructive and not a reproductiveprocess. Using meaningful materials such astexts, folk tales, fables, etc. Bartlett attemptedto understand the manner in which contentof any specific memory gets affected by aperson’s knowledge, goals, motivation,preferences and various other psychological

processes. He conducted simple experimentsin which reading of such stimulus materialswas followed by fifteen minutes break and thenthe participants of his experiment recalled whatthey had read. Bartlett used the method ofserial reproduction in which the participantsof his experiments recalled the memorymaterials repeatedly at varying time intervals.While engaging in serial reproduction oflearned material his participants committeda wide variety of ‘errors’ which Bartlettconsidered useful in understanding theprocess of memory construction. Hisparticipants altered the texts to make themmore consistent with their knowledge, glossedover the unnecessary details, elaborated themain theme and transformed the material tolook more coherent and rational.

In order to explain such findings, Bartlettinvoked the term schema, which accordingto him ‘was an active organisation of pastreactions and past experiences’. Schemas referto an organisation of past experiences andknowledge, which influence the way in whichincoming information is interpreted, stored,and later retrieved. Memory, therefore,becomes an active process of constructionwhere information is encoded and stored interms of a person’s understanding and withinher/his previous knowledge and expectations.

NATURE AND CAUSES OF FORGETTING

Each one of us has experienced forgetting andits consequences almost routinely. Why do weforget? Is it because the information wecommit to our long-term memory is somehowlost? Is it because we did not memorise it wellenough? Is it because we did not encode theinformation correctly or is it because duringstorage, it got distorted or misplaced? Manytheories have been forwarded to explainforgetting and now you will read about thosethat seem plausible and have receivedconsiderable attention.

The first systematic attempt to understandthe nature of forgetting was made by HermannEbbinghaus, who memorised lists of nonsensesyllables (CVC trigrams such as NOK or SEP


decay due to disuse, then people who go tosleep after memorising should forget morecompared to those who remain awake, simplybecause there is no way in which memorytraces can be put to use during sleep. Results,however, show just the opposite. Those whoremain awake after memorising (wakingcondition) show greater forgetting than thosewho sleep (sleeping condition).

Because trace decay theory did not explainforgetting adequately, it was soon replaced byanother theory of forgetting which suggestedthat new information that enters the long-termmemory interferes with the recall of earliermemories and therefore, interference is themain cause of forgetting.

Forgetting due to Interference

If forgetting is not due to trace decay then whydoes it take place? A theory of forgetting thathas perhaps been the most influential one isthe interference theory which suggests thatforgetting is due to interference betweenvarious informations that the memory storecontains. This theory assumes that learningand memorising involve forming ofassociations between items and once acquired,these associations remain intact in thememory. People keep acquiring numeroussuch associations and each of these restsindependently without any mutual conflict.However, interference comes about at a timeof retrieval when these various sets ofassociations compete with each other forretrieval. This interference process will becomeclearer with a simple exercise. Request yourfriend to learn two separate lists of nonsensesyllables (list A and list B) one after the otherand after a while ask her/him to recall thenonsense syllables of list A. If while trying torecall the items of list A, s/he recalls some ofthe items of list B, it is because of theassociation formed while learning list B areinterfering with the earlier association whichwere formed while learning list A.

There are atleast two kinds of interferencesthat may result in forgetting. Interference canbe proactive (forward moving) which meanswhat you have learnt earlier interferes with

etc.) and then measured the number of trialshe took to relearn the same list at varying timeintervals. He observed that the course offorgetting follows a certain pattern which youcan see in Figure 7.3.

As the figure indicates, the rate offorgetting is maximum in the first nine hours,particularly during the first hour. After thatthe rate slows down and not much is forgotteneven after many days. Although Ebbinghaus’sexperiments constituted initial explorationsand were not very sophisticated yet they haveinfluenced memory research in manyimportant ways. It is now upheld, almostunanimously, that there is always a sharpdrop in memory and thereafter the decline isvery gradual. Let us now examine the maintheories, which have been advanced to explainforgetting.

Forgetting due to Trace Decay

Trace decay (also called disuse theory) is theearliest theory of forgetting. The assumptionhere is that memory leads to modification inthe central nervous system, which is akin tophysical changes in the brain called memorytraces. When these memory traces are notused for a long time, they simply fade awayand become unavailable. This theory has beenproved inadequate on several grounds. Ifforgetting takes place because memory traces

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 30 31 100

Fig.7.3 : Ebbinghaus’s Curve of Forgetting

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the recall of your subsequent learning orretroactive (backward moving) which refers todifficulty in recalling what you have learntearlier because of learning a new material. Inother words, in proactive interference, pastlearning interferes with the recall of laterlearning while in retroactive interference thelater learning interferes with the recall of pastlearning. For example, if you know Englishand you find it difficult to learn French, it isbecause of proactive interference and if, onthe other hand, you cannot recall Englishequivalents of French words that you arecurrently memorising, then it is an exampleof retroactive interference. A typicalexperimental design that is used todemonstrate proactive and retroactiveinterference has been presented in Table 7.1.

Forgetting due to Retrieval Failure

Forgetting can occur not only because thememory traces have decayed over time (assuggested by the disuse theory) or becauseindependent sets of stored associationscompete at the time of recall (as suggested bythe interference theory) but also because atthe time of recall, either the retrieval cues areabsent or they are inappropriate. Retrievalcues are aids which help us in recoveringinformation stored in the memory. Thisview was advanced by Tulving and hisassociates who carried out severalexperiments to show that contents of memorymay become inaccessible either due toabsence or inappropriateness of retrieval cuesthat are available/employed at the time ofrecall.

Retroactive Interference Phase 1 Phase 2 Testing Phase

Experimental participant/group Learns A Learns B Recalls A

Control participant/group Learns A Rests Recalls A

Proactive Interference

Experimental participant/group Learns A Learns B Recalls B

Control participant/group Rests Learns B Recalls B

TTTTTable able able able able 7.1 Experimental Designs fExperimental Designs fExperimental Designs fExperimental Designs fExperimental Designs for Retroactive and Por Retroactive and Por Retroactive and Por Retroactive and Por Retroactive and Proactive Interfroactive Interfroactive Interfroactive Interfroactive Interferenceerenceerenceerenceerence

Some individuals undergo experiences that aretraumatic. A traumatic experience emotionallyhurts a person. Sigmund Freud posited that suchexperiences are repressed into the unconsciousand are not available for retrieval from memory.It is a kind of repression — painful, threatening,and embarrassing memories are held out ofconsciousness.

In some persons, traumatic experiences maygive rise to psychological amnesia. Someindividuals experience crisis, and are utterlyincapable of coping with such events. They closetheir eyes, ears and mind to such harsh realitiesof life, and take mental flight from them. It results

BoxBoxBoxBoxBox 7.5 Repressed MemoriesRepressed MemoriesRepressed MemoriesRepressed MemoriesRepressed Memories

in highly generalised amnesia. One of the results ofsuch flights is the emergence of a disorder known as‘fugue state’. Persons who become victims of such astate assume a new identity, name, address, etc.They have two personalities and one knows nothingabout the other.

Forgetfulness or loss of memory under stressand high anxiety is not uncommon. Many hardworking and ambitious students aspire for highscores in final examinations and to achieve suchends they put in long hours in studies. But whenthey receive the question paper, they becomeextremely nervous and forget everything they hadprepared well.


Let us understand this with the help of anexample. Suppose you have memorised a listof meaningful words like hut, wasp, cottage,gold, bronze, ant, etc. in which words belongedto six categories (like places of living, namesof insects, types of metal, etc.). If after a whileyou are asked to recall those you may recall acouple of them but if during the second recallattempt, you are also provided with categorynames, then you may find that your recall isnear total. Category names in this exampleact as retrieval cues. Besides category names,the physical context in which you learn alsoprovides effective retrieval cues.

ENHANCING MEMORY

All of us desire to possess an excellent memorysystem that is robust and dependable. Who,after all, likes to face situations of memoryfailures that lead to so much of anxiety andembarrassment? After learning about variousmemory related processes, you certainly wouldlike to know how your memory can be

improved. There are a number of strategiesfor improving memory called mnemonics(pronounced ni-mo-nicks) to help you improveyour memory. Some of these mnemonicsinvolve use of images whereas othersemphasise self-induced organisation oflearned information. You will now read aboutmnemonics and some suggestions given formemory improvement.

Mnemonics using Images

Mnemonics using images require that youcreate vivid and interacting images of andaround the material you wish to remember.The two prominent mnemonic devices, whichmake interesting use of images, are thekeyword method and the method of loci.

(a) The Keyword Method : Suppose you wantto learn words of any foreign language. Inkeyword method, an English word (theassumption here is that you know Englishlanguage) that sounds similar to the word ofa foreign language is identified. This English

Given below are two lists of words. First memorise the list in such a way that you are able torecall the words without any error. Now you take up the second list and memorise it to thecriterion of correct recall error. Forget about the list and read something else for an hour. Nowrecall the words in the first list and write them down. Note the total number of words correctlyrecalled and the number of words incorrectly recalled.

List 1Goat Sheep LeopardJackal Monkey CamelMule Deer SquirrelHorse Cheetah WolfSnake Rabbit Parrot

List 2Pig Elephant DonkeyPigeon Cobra TigerMynah Lion CalfBears Fox CrowBuffalo Mouse

Get the cooperation of one of your friends and request her/him to memorise the words of List 1to the criterion as stated above. Request her/him to sing a song and have a cup of tea with you.Keep her/him engaged in some conversation for an hour or so. Then request her/him to writedown the words s/he had memorised earlier.

Compare your recall with the one made by your friend.


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word will function as the keyword. For example,if you want to remember the Spanish word forduck which is ‘Pato’, you may choose ‘pot’ asthe keyword and then evoke images of keywordand the target word (the Spanish word you wantto remember) and imagine them as interacting.You might, in this case, imagine a duck in apot full of water. This method of learning wordsof a foreign language is much superiorcompared to any kind of rote memorisation.

(b) The Method of Loci : In order to use themethod of loci, items you want to rememberare placed as objects arranged in a physicalspace in the form of visual images. Thismethod is particularly helpful in rememberingitems in a serial order. It requires that youfirst visualise objects/places that you knowwell in a specific sequence, imagine the objectsyou want to remember and associate them oneby one to the physical locations. For example,suppose you want to remember bread, eggs,tomatoes, and soap on your way to the market,you may visualise a loaf of bread and eggsplaced in your kitchen, tomatoes kept on atable and soap in the bathroom. When youenter the market all you need to do is to takea mental walk along the route from yourkitchen to the bathroom recalling all the itemsof your shopping list in a sequence.

Mnemonics using Organisation

Organisation refers to imposing certain orderon the material you want to remember.Mnemonics of this kind are helpful becausethe framework you create while organisationmakes the retrieval task fairly easy.

(a) Chunking : While describing the featuresof short-term memory, we noted how chunkingcan increase the capacity of short-termmemory. In chunking, several smaller unitsare combined to form large chunks. Forcreating chunks, it is important to discoversome organisation principles, which can linksmaller units. Therefore, apart from being acontrol mechanism to increase the capacityof short-term memory, chunking can be usedto improve memory as well.

(b) First Letter Technique : In order to employthe first letter technique, you need to pick upthe first letter of each word you want toremember and arrange them to form anotherword or a sentence. For example, colours of arainbow are remembered in this way(VIBGYOR- that stands for Violet, Indigo, Blue,Green, Yellow, Orange and Red).

Mnemonic strategies for memoryenhancement are too simplistic and perhapsunderestimate complexities of memory tasksand difficulties people experience whilememorising. In place of mnemonics, a morecomprehensive approach to memoryimprovement has been suggested by manypsychologists. In such an approach, emphasisis laid on applying knowledge about memoryprocesses to the task of memory improvement.Let us examine some of these suggestions.

It is suggested that one must :(a) Engage in Deep Level Processing : If youwant to memorise any information well,engage in deep level processing. Craik andLockhart have demonstrated that processinginformation in terms of meaning that theyconvey leads to better memory as comparedto attending to their surface features. Deepprocessing would involve asking as manyquestions related to the information aspossible, considering its meaning andexamining its relationships to the facts youalready know. In this way, the new informationwill become a part of your existing knowledgeframework and the chances that it will beremembered are increased.

(b) Minimise Interference : Interference, as wehave read, is a major cause of forgetting andtherefore you should try to avoid it as muchas possible. You know that maximuminterference is caused when very similarmaterials are learned in a sequence. Avoid this.Arrange your study in such a way that you donot learn similar subjects one after the other.Instead, pick up some other subject unrelatedto the previous one. If that is not possible,distribute your learning/practice. This meansgiving yourself intermittent rest periods whilestudying to minimise interference.


Key TermsKey Terms

Chunking, Cognitive economy, Concepts,Control process, Dual coding, Echoic memory,Encoding, Episodic memory, Elaborativerehearsals, Fugue state, Informationprocessing approach, Maintenancerehearsals, Memory making, Mnemonics,Schema, Semantic memory, Serialreproduction, Working memory

Summary• Memory is seen as consisting of three interrelated processes of encoding, storage and retrieval.• While encoding is registering the incoming information in a way that it becomes compatible

to the memory system, storage and retrieval refers to holding the information over a periodof time and bringing the information back to one’s awareness, respectively.

• The Stage Model of Memory compares memory processes with the working of a computerand suggests that incoming information is processed through three distinct stages of sensorymemory, short-term memory and long-term memory.

• Levels of processing view of memory contends that the information can be encoded at anyof the three levels, namely, the structural, the phonetic and the semantic. If an informationis analysed and encoded semantically, which is the deepest level of processing, then itleads to better retention.

• Long-term memory has been classified in many ways. One major classification is that ofdeclarative and procedural memory and another is that of episodic and semantic memory.

• Contents of long-term memory get represented in terms of concepts, categories and imagesand are organised hierarchically.

• Forgetting refers to loss of stored information over a period of time. After a material is learnt,there is a sharp drop in its memory and then the decline is very gradual.

• Forgetting has been explained as resulting from trace decay and interference. It may alsobe caused due to absence of appropriate cues at the time of retrieval.

• Memory is not only a reproductive but also a constructive process. What we store undergoeschange and modification within one’s past knowledge and schema.

• Mnemonics are strategies for improving memory. While some mnemonics use images, otheremphasise organisation of the learnt material.

(c) Give Yourself enough Retrieval Cues : Whileyou learn something, think of retrieval cuesinherent in your study material. Identify themand link parts of the study material to thesecues. Cues will be easier to remembercompared to the entire content and the linksyou have created between cues and thecontent will facilitate the retrieval process.

Thomas and Robinson have developedanother strategy to help students inremembering more which they called themethods of PQRST. This acronym stands forPreview, Question, Read, Self-recitation, andTest. Preview refers to giving a cursory look atthe chapter and familiarising oneself with itscontents. Question means raising questionsand seeking answers from the lesson. Nowstart reading and look for answers of questionsyou had raised. After reading try to rewritewhat you have read and at the end test howmuch you have been able to understand.

At the end, a note of caution must besounded. There is no one method that can

solve all problems related to retention andbring about an overnight memoryimprovement. In order to improve yourmemory, you need to attend to a wide varietyof factors which affect your memory such asyour health status, your interest andmotivation, your familiarity with the subjectmatter and so on. In addition, you must learnto use strategies for memory improvementdepending upon the nature of memory tasksyou are required to accomplish.

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1. What is the meaning of the terms ‘encoding’, ‘storage’ and ‘retrieval’?

2. How is information processed through sensory, short-term and long-term memory systems?

3. How are maintenance rehearsals different from elaborative rehearsals?

4. Differenciate between declarative and procedural memories?

5. Describe the hierarchical organisation in long-term memory?

6. Why does forgetting take place?

7. How is retrieval related forgetting different from forgetting due to interference?

8. What evidence do we have to say that ‘memory is a constructive process’?

9. Define mnemonics? Suggest a plan to improve your own memory.

Review QuestionsReview QuestionsReview QuestionsReview QuestionsReview Questions

1. Recall and write down an event of your life that you remember very clearly. Also requestothers (those who were participants of that event such as your brother/sister, parents orother relatives/friends) to do the same. Compare the two recalled versions and look fordiscrepancies and similarities. Try to reason why there are similarities and discrepancies.

2. Narrate a story to your friend and ask her/him to write it down after an hour. Also requesther/him to narrate what s/he had written to another person. Continue this process tillyou have at least 5 versions of the original story. Compare the various versions andidentify constructive processes in memory.

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