Chapter 8 – Motivation Chapter 8 – Motivation and Empowermentand Empowerment

Chapter 8 – Motivation Chapter 8 – Motivation and Empowermentand Empowerment

Damon BurtonDamon BurtonUniversity of IdahoUniversity of Idaho

What is motivation?

MOTIVATION

•Motivation – is the internal and external forces that arouse enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action.

•Motivational Consequences –• focus,

• effort/intensity,

• persistence in face of failure or adversity.

MOTIVATION

•Early motivation theories focused on need fulfillment

•Today’s motivation models focus on goal attainment, so helping people reach their goals results in high motivation.

•A Gallup Survey found that when employee motivation was high and performing well, customers are 70% more loyal, turnover drops by 70% and profits jump 40%.

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NEED-BASED MODEL OF MOTIVATION

Need Creates desire to fulfill needs (money, friendship, recognition, & achievement

Behavior Results in actions to fulfill needs

Rewards Satisfy needs: intrinsic or extrinsic rewards

Feedback Reward informs person whether behavior was appropriate and should be used

again

What is intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?

INTRINSIC VS EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION• Intrinsic motivation – is the internal enjoyment and

satisfaction a person receives from performing for its own sake.

•Oprah’s intrinsic motivation (IM) comes from serving others by uplifting, enlightening, encouraging and transforming how people see themselves.

•Extrinsic motivation – is externally driven and results from a desire to get rewards such as recognition, fame, money, power or prestige.

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INTRINSIC MOTIVATION DEFINED

•Intrinsic motivation – engaging in an activity for its own sake, particularly the pleasure and satisfaction derived from playing.

•For example, a girl who skis because of the fun she has doing what she wants, challenging herself by trying new things and being with her friends skiing new powder on the mountain.

COMPONENTS OF INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

• Competence – feeling talented and skilled,

• Autonomy – in control, self-determining, & doing what you want, and

• Relatedness – feeling connected and enjoying relationships with others.

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION DEFINED

•Extrinsic motivation – engaging in behaviors in order to attain contingent outcomes beyond of the activity itself (i.e., rewards, fame, prestige, etc)

•For example,,a boy plays basketball to be recognized, get their names in the paper and win a college scholarship.

EXTRINSIC REWARDS

•Systemwide Rewards – apply the same to all people within an organization or within a specific category or department.

•Individual Rewards – differ among people within the same organization or department.

•Extrinsic motivation is effective over the short-term, but intrinsic motivation promotes better long-term motivation.

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EXAMPLES OF INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC REWARDS

Extrinsic Intrinsic

Individual

Systemwide

Large merit increase

Insurance benefits

Feeling of self-fulfillment

Pride in being part of a

“winning” organization

SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY (SDT)

•SDT describes the social factors that will promote intrinsic motivation and internalized forms of extrinsic motivation.

•Autonomy is necessary to attain true competence and relatedness.

•SDT determines how extrinsic rewards will influence

intrinsic motivation.

SELF DETERMINATION CONTINUUM

AmotivationIntrinsic

MotivationExtrinsic

Motivation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Amotivation

2. External Regulation

3. Introjected Regulation

4. Identified Regulation

5. Intrinsic Motivation to Experience Stimulation

6. Intrinsic Motivation to Accomplish

7. Intrinsic Motivation to Know

Low High

What social factors influence intrinsic motivation?

SOCIAL FACTORS REDUCING INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

•Social factors reducing intrinsic motivation include: competition, evaluation/feedback and rewards.

•Competition reduces IM

•Winning and playing well enhances IM whereas losing and playing poorly lowers IM.

•Positive feedback increases IM while negative feedback reduces IM.

•Rewards can both raise and lower IM in different situations.

How do rewards influence intrinsic motivation?

LEPPER & GREENE (1968) REWARD STUDY

•Baseline 1 – monitored amount of time preschoolers played with markers during free-play time

•Expected Reward Group – promised reward & received one

•Unexpected Reward Group – not promised reward but received one

•Control Group – not promised reward and didn’t receive one.

•Baseline 2 – monitored time played with markers during free-play time.

PERCEPTIONS KEY TO HOW MESSAGE INTERPRETED

•How athletes perceive the reason rewards are given is the key to IM.

•Autonomy is necessary to develop strong competence and relatedness.

•If rewards are view as controlling, it lowers feelings of competence and relatedness too, reducing IM.

•If rewards are viewed as informational about competence, autonomy and IM must be high as well.

HOW DO REWARDS IMPACT INTRINSIC

MOTIVATION

•Reward impact not determined by number or size of rewards.

•Impact determined by “message” behind the reward.

•How well does the reward enhance perceptions of

competence, autonomy and relatedness?

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTRINSIC

& EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

• EM + IM = TOTAL MOTIVATION (TM)

IM = TM• EM IM = TM 1.If EM lowers perceived competence,

autonomy and/or relatedness, IM and TM decline.

2.If EM increases perceived competence, autonomy and/or

relatedness, IM and TM improve.

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REWARDS PROMOTING INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

•Contingent Rewards – received for attaining a standard of excellence (e.g., trophy for winning a tourney)

•Noncontingent Rewards – no standard of excellence (e.g., winning lottery)

•Contingent rewards normally increase IM because they increase feelings of competence and autonomy.

•Noncontingent rewards reduce IM.

What factors promote intrinsic motivation?

FACTORS PROMOTING INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

•“Autonomy support” from coaches, parents and peers,

• The competitive structure of the league (i.e., varsity versus intramural sports)

•Motivational climate – mastery versus outcome

GOAL MODEL OF MOTIVATION

(Antecedents) (Consequences)

Beliefs about Goal Motivational Talent Orientations Patterns

1.Capacity Ego-Involved Success- & or Outcome Failure-Oriented2.Learning Task-Involved

Performance- or Performance Oriented

BELIEFS ABOUT TALENT &

INTELLIGENCE

• Capacity beliefs – intelligence and sport ability are fixed and unchangeable.The worst thing is to look dumb or

incompetentTalent is measured now and far into

the future. • Learning beliefs – intelligence and talent

are changeable and controllable. The worst thing is to not learn.

Talent is measured for the present but not for the future.

ROLE OF EFFORT IN TALENT BELIEFS

• Capacity beliefs – high ability means you shouldn’t have to work hard. They feel smart when others struggle. They perceive a negative relationship between

effort and performance. • Learning beliefs – hard work always is necessary

to reach your potential. They feel smart when they help others or bring

out the best in others. They perceive a positive relationship between

effort and performance. Effort will get your somewhere better as long

as you work hard.

BELIEFS PREDICT JUNIOR HIGH TRANSITION

• 7th grade important transition that is stressful to adolescents because• work gets suddenly harder,

• workload becomes greater,

• grading is more stringent,

• grades become more important and

• instruction is less personalized.

HOW ARE BELIEFS DEVELOPED?

• Feedback patterns have a major impact on beliefs.

• If feedback focuses on traits (e.g., you’re very talented) to explain success or lack of talent to explain failure, capacity beliefs develop.

• If feedback focuses on effort and strategy as the keys to success and failure, learning beliefs develop

WHAT ARE MOTIVATIONAL

STYLES?

• Motivational Styles – are specific motivational patterns adopted by performers based on their beliefs about talent, how they define success/failure (i.e., place highest priority on outcome versus process/performance goals) and perceived competence.

• These motivational patterns have a profound impact of Flow, long- term development and performance.

MOTIVATIONAL STYLES

•mastery-oriented•success-seekers or success-oriented•failure-avoiders or failure-oriented

MASTERY-ORIENTED (MO)

•Process and performance goals are given highest priority in defining success.

• They feel successful when they learn, improve and master tasks.

• Perceived competence doesn’t influence MO performers as long as they believe they can learn and get

better.

FAILURE AVOIDERS (FA)

• Outcome goals are given highest priority in defining success.

• They feel successful when they win and socially compare well.

• FAs normally have low perceived competence because they lose often.

• Motivation eventually switches from striving for success to trying to avoid failure.

SUCCESS-SEEKERS (SS)

•Outcome goals are given highest priority in defining success.

•They feel successful when they win and socially compare well.

•FAs normally have high perceived competence because they win or

place high often.

MASTERY-ORIENTED • Outlook about Competition – positive and

optimistic• Attributions for Success – effort• Attributions for Failure – effort• Effort Expenditure – consistently maximal

effort,• Task Choice – very difficult tasks or

opponents, and• Response to Failure – great persistence

that prompts increases effort and improves problem solving

FAILURE-AVOIDERS • Outlook about Competition – negative

and pessimistic,• Attributions for Success – luck or an

easy task, • Attributions for Failure – lack of ability, • Effort Expenditure – low on moderate

difficulty task and high on easy tasks, • Task Choice – very easy or very difficult

tasks or opponents, and• Response to Failure – give up quickly

and quit trying; will drop out if they can.

SUCCESS-SEEKERS

• Outlook about Competition – positive and optimistic,

• Attributions for Success – high ability, • Attributions for Failure – effort,• Effort Expenditure – just high enough

effort to win, • Task Choice – moderately difficult tasks,

and• Response to Failure – moderate

persistence as long as they think they can win, prompting increased effort and improved problem solving

What are higher- versus lower-order needs?

HIGHER VERSUS LOWER NEEDS

•Intrinsic motivation promotes “higher needs” such as need for accomplishment, competence, fulfillment and self-determination.

•Extrinsic motivation promotes “lower needs” such as material comfort and basic safety.

•Leaders versus managers have different needs and motivational methods.

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NEEDS OF PEOPLE AND MOTIVATION METHODS

Needs of People

Conventional

Management

Lower Needs

Carrot and Stick

(Extrinsic)

Control People

Adequate Effort

Leadership

Higher Needs

Empowerment (Intrinsic)

Growth and Fulfillment

Best Effort

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MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY

Need Hierarchy

Self-Actualization Needs

Esteem Needs

Belongingness Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs

Fulfillment on the JobOpportunities for advancement, autonomy, growth, creativity

Recognition, approval, high status, increased responsibilities

Work groups, clients, coworkers, supervisors

Safe work, fringe benefits, job security

Heat, air, base salary

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY

•Physiological, safety and belonging needs are deficiency needs which take priority over higher-order needs.

•Needs must be satisfied in a hierarchical fashion, with physiological first and self-actualization last.

•Higher-order needs become important only when low-order needs have been satisfied.

What is Herzberg’s 2-factor theory?

HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

•Based on worker interviews of times when they were highly motivated versus unmotivated, Herzberg developed his two-factor theory.

•Leaders must both remove dissatisfiers and use motivators to meet higher-order needs.

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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Area of Satisfaction

Area of Dissatisfacti

on

Motivators influence level of

satisfaction

Hygiene factors

influence level of

dissatisfaction

MotivatorsAchievementRecognitionResponsibilityWork itselfPersonal growth

Hygiene Factors

Work conditionsPay/securityCompany policiesSupervisorsInterpersonal relationships

Highly Satisfied

Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied

Highly Dissatisfied

McCLELLAND’S NEED ACHIEVEMENT THEORY

•Need for achievement – the desire to accomplish something difficult, attain a high standard of success, master complex tasks and surpass others.

•Need for affiliation – the desire to form close personal relationships, avoid conflict and establish warm friendships.

•Need for power – the desire to influence or control others, be responsible for others and have authority over

others.

What is Expectancy Theory?

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KEY ELEMENTS OF EXPECTANCY

THEORY

E > P expectancyEffort Performance

P > O expectancyPerformance Outcomes

Valence – value of outcomes

(pay, recognition, other rewards)

Motivation

Will putting effort into the task lead to the desired performance?

Will high performance lead to the desired outcomes?

Are the available outcomes highly valued?

•Ability, experience, information & opportunity to perform