INTRODUCTION TO INTRODUCTION TO MOTIVATION & MOTIVATION &

HISTORICAL THEORIESHISTORICAL THEORIES

Damon BurtonDamon Burton

University of IdahoUniversity of Idaho

How do you How do you define define

motivation?motivation?

MOTIVATION MOTIVATION DEFINEDDEFINED

MotivationMotivation is the “process is the “process of arousing action, of arousing action, sustaining activity in sustaining activity in progress and regulating progress and regulating patterns of activity.”patterns of activity.”

MotivationMotivation focuses mainly focuses mainly on what arouses or on what arouses or energizes behavior.energizes behavior.

COMPONENTS OF COMPONENTS OF MOTIVATIONMOTIVATION

directiondirection – choices – choices mademade

intensityintensity – arousal – arousal

ANTECEDENTS OF ANTECEDENTS OF MOTIVATIONMOTIVATION

personalitypersonality variablesvariables

situationalsituational factors factors

IINTERACTIONAL NTERACTIONAL MOTIVATIONAL MOMOTIVATIONAL MODELDEL

T1

T2

T3

baseline = personality

T1-T4 = situational factors

T4

DO YOU KNOW IT DO YOU KNOW IT IF YOU SEE IT?IF YOU SEE IT?

How do you know if How do you know if someone is someone is motivated?motivated?

What behaviors What behaviors demonstrate strong demonstrate strong motivation?motivation?

CONSEQUENCES OF CONSEQUENCES OF MOTIVATIONMOTIVATION

choice of activitychoice of activity effort/intensity levelseffort/intensity levels persistence in face of persistence in face of failure failure or adversityor adversity

continuing motivationcontinuing motivation

10 CONCEPTIONS OF 10 CONCEPTIONS OF MOTIVATIONMOTIVATION

1.1. Greek Philosophers Greek Philosophers

2.2. Dualism Dualism

3.3. Instinct Theory Instinct Theory

4. 4. Evolution TheoryEvolution Theory

5.5. Revised Instinct Revised Instinct TheoryTheory

10 CONCEPTIONS OF 10 CONCEPTIONS OF MOTIVATIONMOTIVATION

6.6. Ethology Ethology

7.7. Learning Theories Learning Theories

8.8. Cognitive Theories Cognitive Theories

9.9. Freudian Theory Freudian Theory

10.10. Humanistic Theories Humanistic Theories

GREEK PHILOSOPHERSGREEK PHILOSOPHERS

Philosopher Epicurus says Philosopher Epicurus says humans are motivated to humans are motivated to seek seek pleasure and avoid pain.pleasure and avoid pain.

Greeks smart enough to Greeks smart enough to recognize that recognize that short-term short-term pleasure can bring long-term pleasure can bring long-term pain.pain.

Conversely,Conversely, short-term pain short-term pain can prompt long-term pleasurecan prompt long-term pleasure

DUALISMDUALISM

Man has both a physical and Man has both a physical and spiritual nature.spiritual nature.

Motivation can be derived by Motivation can be derived by meeting physical needs (i.e., food, meeting physical needs (i.e., food, water, and sex)water, and sex)

Motivation can come from meeting Motivation can come from meeting spiritual needs (i.e., living the spiritual needs (i.e., living the good life, believing in a higher good life, believing in a higher being, etc)being, etc)

INSTINCT THEORYINSTINCT THEORY

InstinctsInstincts – purposive activities – purposive activities implanted in the animal by implanted in the animal by nature for the guidance of the nature for the guidance of the creature in the attainment of creature in the attainment of behaviors designed to preserve behaviors designed to preserve the species. (i.e., geese the species. (i.e., geese migrating)migrating)

Descartes believed that Descartes believed that humans can control instinctshumans can control instincts

EVOLUTION THEORYEVOLUTION THEORY DarwinDarwin – suggested that survival – suggested that survival

was the greatest motivator.was the greatest motivator. ““Natural Selection” Natural Selection” – emphasizes – emphasizes

that species characteristics that that species characteristics that have survival value are passed have survival value are passed alongalong

Humans are motivated to not Humans are motivated to not only survive but also to pass only survive but also to pass survival characteristics along to survival characteristics along to their off-springtheir off-spring

REVISED INSTINCT REVISED INSTINCT THEORYTHEORY

McDougall (1908) identified McDougall (1908) identified 10 major instincts in human 10 major instincts in human beings that motivate thembeings that motivate them• flightflight• repulsionrepulsion• curiositycuriosity• gregariousnessgregariousness• pugnacitypugnacity• self-abasementself-abasement• assertionassertion• reproductionreproduction• acquisitionacquisition• constructionconstruction

ETHOLOGYETHOLOGY

Certain instinct-like responses are Certain instinct-like responses are prewired in humansprewired in humans

Behavior patterns occur in response Behavior patterns occur in response to specific environmental stimulito specific environmental stimuli

Each action has its own energy Each action has its own energy sourcesource

Innate responses can be modified in Innate responses can be modified in the face of environmental obstacles.the face of environmental obstacles.

LEARNING THEORIESLEARNING THEORIES

S RS R The frequency and The frequency and duration of behavior are due to the duration of behavior are due to the person’s person’s reinforcement historyreinforcement history..

The The direction of motivation direction of motivation is due to is due to reinforcement processes (i.e., how reinforcement processes (i.e., how reinforcement is given)reinforcement is given)

The The persistence of motivation persistence of motivation is due is due to the scheduling of reinforcement to the scheduling of reinforcement (i.e., when motivation is given)(i.e., when motivation is given)

COGNITIVE THEORIESCOGNITIVE THEORIES Perception guides Perception guides

behavior, so motivation is behavior, so motivation is based on perceived reality.based on perceived reality.

S C RS C R Motivation is based on Motivation is based on

understanding understanding how how humans think and what humans think and what goals they valuegoals they value

FREUDIANFREUDIAN THEORYTHEORY

LibidoLibido – provides general – provides general source from which all instincts source from which all instincts draw energydraw energy

If too much energy builds up If too much energy builds up then it becomes a source of then it becomes a source of tensiontension

To reduce tension, humans To reduce tension, humans seek out appropriate goals to seek out appropriate goals to channel their energy.channel their energy.

HUMANISTIC HUMANISTIC THEORIESTHEORIES

Basic premise of humanism is Basic premise of humanism is that that humans are good humans are good and and possess the innate tendency to possess the innate tendency to grow, mature and strive to help grow, mature and strive to help others in their own unique way.others in their own unique way.

Carl Rogers Carl Rogers believes we’re believes we’re motivated to develop a motivated to develop a positive positive self concept and realize our self concept and realize our potential.potential.

““Conditional love” Conditional love” often often produces a negative self-image.produces a negative self-image.

EARLY MOTIVATION EARLY MOTIVATION THEORIESTHEORIES

McClellandMcClelland AtkinsonAtkinson CrandallCrandall Early theories are not used Early theories are not used

extensively today, but they had extensively today, but they had a number of components that a number of components that have been incorporated into have been incorporated into contemporary motivation contemporary motivation theoriestheories

MCCLELLAND’S LEGACYMCCLELLAND’S LEGACY

Motivation has an important long-Motivation has an important long-term impact on economic term impact on economic productivity.productivity.

A society’s A society’s valuesvalues determine how determine how they they rear their childrenrear their children

Child-rearing practices Child-rearing practices determine determine a person’s a person’s achievement achievement motivationmotivation

Achievement motivation Achievement motivation drives drives economic productivityeconomic productivity

ACHIEVING SOCIETY ACHIEVING SOCIETY STUDY 1STUDY 1

Society demonstrates economic Society demonstrates economic growth when it is led by growth when it is led by achievement motivation people.achievement motivation people.

Weber’s “protestant work ethic” Weber’s “protestant work ethic” (PWE) was a value that prompted (PWE) was a value that prompted capitalism and increased economic capitalism and increased economic productivity productivity

PWE promotes child-rearing that PWE promotes child-rearing that fosters mastery, competence and fosters mastery, competence and self-reliance. self-reliance.

Protestant Work Ethic

Achievement-Oriented Child-

Rearing Practices

Achievement-Oriented People

Economic Productivi

ty

ACHIEVING SOCIETY ACHIEVING SOCIETY STUDY 1 MODELSTUDY 1 MODEL

STUDY 1 DESIGNSTUDY 1 DESIGN

Child-rearing practices Child-rearing practices measured through content measured through content analysis of reading texts.analysis of reading texts.

Do reading texts include a Do reading texts include a number of motivational number of motivational themes typical of high themes typical of high achievers.achievers.

Economic growth assessed Economic growth assessed by GNP 25 or 50 years later.by GNP 25 or 50 years later.

Child-Rearing Practices in

1925

Development of Achievement-

Motivated Citizens

Achievement-Motivated Citizens Become Leaders

Economic Productivi

ty in 1950’s

ACHIEVING SOCIETY ACHIEVING SOCIETY STUDY 1STUDY 1

ACHIEVING SOCIETY ACHIEVING SOCIETY STUDY 2STUDY 2

Values of ancient Greece Values of ancient Greece transmitted via child-rearing transmitted via child-rearing practices.practices.

Child-rearing practices Child-rearing practices assessed by designs on assessed by designs on pottery.pottery.

Economic growth measured Economic growth measured by the distance from Athens by the distance from Athens where pottery was found. where pottery was found.

MCCLELLAND’S MODEL MCCLELLAND’S MODEL OF ACHIEVEMENT OF ACHIEVEMENT

TRAININGTRAININGAchievement-motivated people can be Achievement-motivated people can be

developed by teaching people to think, developed by teaching people to think, talk and behave like high achieverstalk and behave like high achievers

Developed and conducted week-long Developed and conducted week-long achievement motivation workshopachievement motivation workshop

Training focused on goal setting, self Training focused on goal setting, self talk, social support, and achievement talk, social support, and achievement language while enhancing the language while enhancing the motivational climatemotivational climate

Workshops in the U.S. and India showed Workshops in the U.S. and India showed enhanced performance 2 years later.enhanced performance 2 years later.

LEADERSHIP LEADERSHIP SYNDROMESYNDROME

Low Need for Affiliation Low Need for Affiliation – so can – so can make tough decisionsmake tough decisions

High Need for Power High Need for Power – exercise – exercise power through organizational power through organizational guidelines (i.e., institutional guidelines (i.e., institutional power versus dominance)power versus dominance)

High Activity Inhibition High Activity Inhibition – do not – do not blatantly exploit their power for blatantly exploit their power for their own personal advantagetheir own personal advantage

ATKINSON’S ACHIEVEMENT ATKINSON’S ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORYMOTIVATION THEORY

Ts = Mas X Ps X IsTs = Mas X Ps X Is Tf = Maf X Pf X IfTf = Maf X Pf X If Ts/Tf = Tendency to Achieve Ts/Tf = Tendency to Achieve

Success/Avoid FailureSuccess/Avoid Failure Mas/Maf = Motive to Achieve Mas/Maf = Motive to Achieve

Success/Avoid FailureSuccess/Avoid Failure Ps/Pf = Probability of Achieving Ps/Pf = Probability of Achieving

Success/Avoiding FailureSuccess/Avoiding Failure Is/If = Importance of Achieving Is/If = Importance of Achieving

Success/Avoiding FailureSuccess/Avoiding Failure

TASK CHOICE TASK CHOICE PREFERENCESPREFERENCES

Attractiveness

of Task

High

Low

.10 .50 .90

Probability of Success

Mas

Maf

IMPORTANCE OF IMPORTANCE OF SUCCESS AND FAILURESUCCESS AND FAILURE

Is = 1 - PsIs = 1 - Ps If = 1 - PfIf = 1 - Pf If Ps = .10, then Is If Ps = .10, then Is = .90= .90

If Pf = .70, then If If Pf = .70, then If = .30= .30

CRITICISMS OF CRITICISMS OF ATKINSON’S THEORYATKINSON’S THEORY

•Overemphasizes personality as the Overemphasizes personality as the crucial variable.crucial variable.

•Can’t account for gender, ethnic or Can’t account for gender, ethnic or cross-cultural differences.cross-cultural differences.

•Low nAch participants outperform Low nAch participants outperform high nAch in certain situationshigh nAch in certain situations

•Only predicts extreme Ts and Tf wellOnly predicts extreme Ts and Tf well

•TAT has questionable validityTAT has questionable validity

•Doesn’t specify how Mas and Maf Doesn’t specify how Mas and Maf developdevelop..

THEMATIC APPERCEPTIONTHEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST (TAT) TEST (TAT)

Based on Freud’s work, achievement Based on Freud’s work, achievement motives exhibit themselves in one’s motives exhibit themselves in one’s fantasy life (e.g., dreams)fantasy life (e.g., dreams)

Subjects are given an ambiguous Subjects are given an ambiguous picture and asked to make up a story picture and asked to make up a story about what is going on.about what is going on.

Pictures are open to a variety of Pictures are open to a variety of interpretations, so what people choose interpretations, so what people choose to see reflects personal bias, especially to see reflects personal bias, especially achievement motives.achievement motives.

The language, content and imagery The language, content and imagery representing different motivational representing different motivational themes are then defined empirically.themes are then defined empirically.

CRANDALL (1982) CRANDALL (1982) THEORYTHEORY

BP = (EX – MS) x AVBP = (EX – MS) x AV BP = Behavior Potential or BP = Behavior Potential or

MotivationMotivation EX = Expectancy or PsEX = Expectancy or Ps MS = Minimal StandardMS = Minimal Standard AV = Attainment Value or AV = Attainment Value or

ImportanceImportance

CRANDALL THEORYCRANDALL THEORY

Crandall’s Theory was developed to Crandall’s Theory was developed to look at motivation in childrenlook at motivation in children

Achievement Behavior – Achievement Behavior – defined as defined as behavior directed toward the behavior directed toward the attainment of approval or the attainment of approval or the avoidance of disapproval from one’s avoidance of disapproval from one’s self or others, specifically self or others, specifically contingent upon measures of contingent upon measures of competence of performance in competence of performance in situations where standards of situations where standards of excellence apply to that excellence apply to that performance (i.e., achievement performance (i.e., achievement situations).situations).

EXPECTANCYEXPECTANCY

Expectancy – Expectancy – a person’s implicit a person’s implicit assessment of their level of assessment of their level of proficiency to perform various proficiency to perform various achievement tasks (i.e., EX = achievement tasks (i.e., EX = Ps).Ps).

Atkinson says objective Ps = Atkinson says objective Ps = subjective Ps and Is = 1 - Pssubjective Ps and Is = 1 - Ps

Crandall say Ps or expectancy is Crandall say Ps or expectancy is determined by one’s history of determined by one’s history of reinforcements on the same or reinforcements on the same or similar tasks and Is and Ps are similar tasks and Is and Ps are independentindependent

MINIMAL STANDARDMINIMAL STANDARD

Minimal Standard Minimal Standard – lowest – lowest level of performance that a level of performance that a person will accept as person will accept as defining success.defining success.

If a baseball player If a baseball player hits .300, how is that hits .300, how is that performance interpreted is performance interpreted is their MS is .250 versus .350.their MS is .250 versus .350.

MINIMAL STANDARDMINIMAL STANDARD

.400

.300

.200

ATTAINMENT VALUEATTAINMENT VALUE

Attainment Value Attainment Value – the degree – the degree of importance attached to of importance attached to attaining approval or avoiding attaining approval or avoiding disapproval based on disapproval based on performance in tasks in a performance in tasks in a particular achievement domainparticular achievement domain. . • physical or athleticphysical or athletic

• academic or intellectualacademic or intellectual

• artistic or creativeartistic or creative

• mechanicalmechanical

The EndThe End