chapter 8 learning. a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience....
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Chapter 8Chapter 8Chapter 8Chapter 8LearningLearning
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A relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.
learning
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Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
associative learning
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The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2).
behaviorism
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A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus.
classical conditioning
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In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
unconditioned response (UR)
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In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically— triggers a response.
unconditioned stimulus (US)
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In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
conditioned response (CR)
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In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).
conditioned stimulus (CS)
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The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, it is the strengthening of a reinforced response.
acquisition
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The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
extinction
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The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
spontaneous recovery
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The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
generalization
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In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
discrimination
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A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
operant conditioning
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Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner’s term for behavior learned through classical conditioning.
respondent behavior
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Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.
operant behavior
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Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely to recur, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely to recur.
law of effect
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A chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforce, with attached devices to record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research.
operant chamber
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An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
shaping
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In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
reinforcer
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Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforce is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
positive reinforcement
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Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforce is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
negative reinforcement
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An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
primary reinforcers
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A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.
conditioned reinforcers
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Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
continuous reinforcement
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Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
partial (intermittent) reinforcement
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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
fixed-ratio schedule
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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
variable-ratio schedule
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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
fixed-interval schedule
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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
variable-interval schedule
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An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
punishment
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A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
cognitive map
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Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
latent learning
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A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
intrinsic motivation
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A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.
extrinsic motivation
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The undermining effect of being rewarded for something enjoyable.
overjustification effect
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Learning by observing others.
observational learning
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The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
modeling
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Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.
mirror neurons
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Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
prosocial behavior