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CHAPTER 7

NUTRITION AND THE PREVALENCE OF ANAEMIA

This chapter focuses on the nutrition of women and young children, examining both the types offood consumed and the consequences of inadequate nutrition and poor feeding practices.NFHS-1 included basic information about feeding practices and the nutritional status of youngchildren. NFHS-2 contains greatly expanded information on these topics, and, for the first time,information on the diet of women. Measurement of height and weight has been expanded toinclude ever-married women as well as young children. Two additional tests have been includedfor the first time—anaemia testing for women and young children and the testing of cooking saltto determine the extent of iodization. The height and weight measurements and anaemia testingwere conducted by a specially-trained health investigator attached to each interviewing team.

7.1 Women’s Food Consumption

The consumption of a wide variety of nutritious foods is important for women’s health.Adequate amounts of protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals are required for a well-balanced diet. Meat, fish, eggs, and milk, as well as pulses and nuts, are rich in protein. Green,leafy vegetables are a rich source of iron, folic acid, vitamin C, carotene, riboflavin, and calcium.Many fruits are also good sources of vitamin C. Bananas are rich in carbohydrates. Papayas,mangoes, and other yellow fruits contain carotene, which is converted to vitamin A. Vitamin A isalso present in milk and milk products, as well as egg yolks (Gopalan et al., 1996).

NFHS-2 asked ever-married women how often they consume various types of food(daily, weekly, occasionally, or never). Women consume milk or curd, pulses or beans, andvegetables (other than green, leafy vegetables) most often (Table 7.1). A majority of womenconsume these types of food on a daily basis. Pulses and beans are also an important part of theweekly (including daily) diet for 97 percent of women. Most women (74 percent) eat green, leafyvegetables at least once a week, but a substantial proportion (25 percent) eat green, leafyvegetables only occasionally. Fruits are eaten daily by only 9 percent of women, at least weeklyby 44 percent of women, and occasionally by 53 percent of women. Seventy-one percent ofwomen in Gujarat never eat chicken, meat, or fish, and 72 percent never eat eggs. Only 1 percenteat chicken, meat, or fish every day, 12 percent at least weekly, and 16 percent occasionally.Eggs are consumed about as often as chicken, meat, or fish.

Table 7.2 shows that there are substantial differentials in food consumption patterns byselected background characteristics. Age does not play a major role in women’s consumptionpatterns. Women in urban areas are more likely than women in rural areas to include every typeof food in their diet, especially fruits, eggs, and chicken, meat, or fish. Consumption of pulses orbeans and ‘other vegetables’ does not vary much by education. On the other hand, consumptionof milk or curd, green leafy vegetables, and especially fruits increases substantially witheducation. Literate women who have not completed high school are more likely to consume eggsand chicken, meat, or fish than either illiterate women or women with at least a high schooleducation. Muslim women consume fruits, eggs, and chicken, meat, or fish more than Hinduwomen, but the two religions do not differ much in consumption of the other foods shown in thetable. Women from scheduled castes and scheduled tribes consume less milk or curd and

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Table 7.1 Women’s food consumption

Percent distribution of ever-married women by frequency of consumption of specific foods, Gujarat,1998–99

Frequency of consumption

Type of food Daily Weekly Occasionally NeverTotalpercent

Milk or curdPulses or beansGreen, leafy vegetablesOther vegetablesFruitsEggsChicken, meat, or fish

53.1 26.9 13.1 6.9 100.054.2 42.8 2.8 0.1 100.020.1 54.0 24.9 1.0 100.077.6 21.6 0.7 0.0 100.08.7 35.6 53.3 2.3 100.01.2 12.9 14.2 71.8 100.01.2 11.1 16.4 71.3 100.0

Table 7.2 Women’s food consumption by background characteristics

Percentage of ever-married women consuming specific foods at least once a week by selected background characteristics,Gujarat, 1998–99

Type of food

Background characteristic Milk or curd

Pulsesorbeans

Green,leafyvegetables

Othervegetables Fruits Eggs

Chicken,meat, orfish

Numberofwomen

Age 15–24 25–34 35–49

Residence Urban Rural

Education Illiterate Literate, < middle school complete Middle school complete High school complete and above

Religion Hindu Muslim Other

Caste/tribe Scheduled caste Scheduled tribe Other backward class Other

Standard of living index Low Medium High

Total

79.7 97.5 73.2 99.2 40.9 14.8 11.8 96480.1 97.0 73.3 99.3 45.3 14.9 14.0 1,35180.1 96.8 75.4 99.3 45.7 12.8 11.3 1,530

82.7 98.7 77.1 99.6 59.4 19.6 16.9 1,63378.0 95.8 71.9 98.9 33.3 10.0 9.0 2,212

72.8 95.3 69.1 98.8 26.5 12.7 11.6 1,93482.8 98.0 75.8 99.4 45.1 19.6 17.4 80185.9 99.4 81.1 100.0 61.1 17.6 12.8 33592.6 99.3 81.8 99.9 81.0 10.2 8.9 774

80.2 96.9 74.3 99.2 42.9 9.6 7.9 3,44877.2 98.4 72.4 99.7 53.0 59.8 59.4 31483.2 98.8 71.5 100.0 73.7 24.9 19.0 82

73.6 95.7 67.2 99.5 32.3 14.1 14.9 56864.7 96.6 72.5 97.6 25.8 18.1 15.2 76383.7 97.8 77.2 99.5 45.5 13.4 12.1 91787.5 97.3 75.5 99.8 56.9 12.4 10.3 1,596

64.4 94.9 66.4 97.7 19.9 14.9 13.2 83279.3 96.6 73.9 99.6 36.4 14.6 13.0 1,81891.9 99.2 79.7 99.8 73.6 12.7 10.8 1,191

80.0 97.0 74.1 99.2 44.4 14.0 12.4 3,845

Note: Total includes 1, 1, and 4 women with missing information on education, caste/tribe, and the standard of living index,respectively, who are not shown separately.

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fruit than women from the other caste/tribe groups, but somewhat more eggs and chicken, meat,or fish. The standard of living has a strong positive effect on the consumption of milk or curd,green leafy vegetables, and fruits, but not much effect on the other types of food.

7.2 Nutritional Status of Women

In NFHS-2, ever-married women age 15–49 were weighed using a solar-powered digital scalewith an accuracy of ±100 grams. Their height was measured using an adjustable woodenmeasuring board specially designed to provide accurate measurements (to the nearest 0.1 cm) ofwomen and children in a field situation. The weight and height data were used to calculateseveral indicators of women’s nutritional status, as shown in Table 7.3. The height of an adult isan outcome of several factors including nutrition during childhood and adolescence. A woman’sheight can be used to identify women at risk of having a difficult delivery, since small stature isoften related to small pelvic size. The risk of having a baby with a low birth weight is also higherfor mothers who are short.

The cutoff point for height, below which a woman can be identified as nutritionally atrisk, varies among populations, but it is usually considered to be in the range of 140–150centimetres (cm). NFHS-2 found a mean height for women in Gujarat of 152 cm. The meanheight varies only slightly (between 151 and 154 cm) for women in different population groups,as shown in Table 7.3. The largest difference of 2.5 cm occurs between women living inhouseholds with a high standard of living and women living in households with a low standard ofliving. Ten percent of women are under 145 cm in height. The proportion who are short isgreater for women age 15–19 than for women in older age groups, and somewhat greater forwomen who are not currently married than for women who are currently married. As expected,the proportion of women who are short decreases substantially with increasing education andstandard of living. It is greater for Hindus than for Muslims or other women. It is also greater forwomen from scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, and other backward classes than for otherwomen. The proportion who are short varies little by urban-rural residence or by work status.

Table 7.3 also shows an index that relates a woman’s weight to her height. The bodymass index (BMI) can be used to assess both thinness and obesity. The BMI is defined as theweight in kilograms divided by the height in metres squared (kg/m2). This index excludeswomen who were pregnant at the time of the survey and women who gave birth during the twomonths preceding the survey. The mean BMI for women in Gujarat is 20.7. Chronic energydeficiency is usually indicated by a BMI of less than 18.5. More than one-third (37 percent) ofwomen have a BMI below 18.5, indicating a high prevalence of nutritional deficiency.Nutritional problems are particularly serious for women below age 20, women who are notcurrently married, rural women, illiterate women, scheduled-caste and scheduled-tribe women,women employed outside the home, and most especially women living in households with a lowstandard of living. Women living in households with a low standard of living are more than threetimes as likely to have a low BMI as women from households with a high standard of living.

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7.3 Anaemia Among Women

Anaemia is characterized by a low level of haemoglobin in the blood. Haemoglobin is necessaryfor transporting oxygen from the lungs to other tissues and organs of the body. Anaemia usuallyresults from a nutritional deficiency of iron, folate, vitamin B12, or some other nutrients. This

Table 7.3 Nutritional status of women

Among ever-married women, mean height, percentage with height below 145 cm, mean body mass index (BMI), and percentagewith BMI below 18.5 kg/m2 by selected background characteristics, Gujarat, 1998–99

Weight-for-height1

Height

Background characteristic

Meanheight(cm)

Percentagebelow145 cm

Number ofwomen forheight

Mean bodymass index(BMI)

Percentagewith BMIbelow18.5 kg/m2

Number ofwomen forBMI

Age 15–19 20–24 25–29 30–34 35–49

Marital status Currently married Not currently married





Work status Working in family farm/business Employed by someone else Self-employed Not worked in past 12 months


Total

151.0 15.6 224 18.8 48.7 207152.0 9.7 693 19.3 44.7 599151.9 10.0 668 19.8 44.7 607152.1 10.5 619 20.8 37.2 596151.8 9.5 1,447 22.0 28.9 1,441

151.9 10.0 3,424 20.8 36.2 3,222151.2 12.2 227 19.8 49.6 227

151.9 10.3 1,550 22.5 22.8 1,480151.8 10.0 2,102 19.4 47.7 1,970

151.2 12.4 1,817 19.5 47.9 1,717151.8 9.8 769 21.0 33.1 722152.5 7.1 319 21.6 26.4 304153.1 6.5 745 23.0 19.4 706

151.7 10.5 3,273 20.6 38.2 3,092153.2 8.0 296 21.7 28.2 278153.7 6.1 82 23.2 21.2 79

150.8 13.2 543 19.7 45.0 504150.9 12.9 718 19.0 55.0 671151.5 11.2 866 20.3 40.4 837152.8 7.2 1,522 22.2 23.9 1,437

152.1 10.6 859 19.8 42.7 817151.0 10.6 820 19.6 50.2 786152.6 9.4 168 21.5 30.8 163152.0 9.9 1,805 21.6 28.8 1,685

150.5 14.4 782 18.3 62.0 726151.7 10.8 1,717 20.3 38.9 1,613153.0 6.3 1,148 23.0 17.8 1,108

151.8 10.2 3,651 20.7 37.0 3,450

Note: Total includes women with missing information on education, caste/tribe, and the standard of living index, who are notshown separately.1Excludes women who are pregnant and women with a birth in the preceding two months. The body mass index (BMI) is the ratioof the weight in kilograms to the square of the height in metres (kg/m2).

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type of anaemia is commonly referred to as iron-deficiency anaemia. Iron deficiency is the mostwidespread form of malnutrition in the world, affecting more than two billion people (Stolzfusand Dreyfuss, 1998). Previous research indicates that in India anaemia affects an estimated 50percent of the population (Seshadri, 1998).

Anaemia may have detrimental effects on the health of women and children, may becomean underlying cause of maternal mortality and perinatal mortality, and results in an increased riskof premature delivery and low birth weight (Seshadri, 1997). Early detection of anaemia can helpto prevent complications related to pregnancy and delivery, as well as child-developmentproblems. Information on the prevalence of anaemia can be useful for the development of health-intervention programmes designed to prevent anaemia, such as iron-fortification programmes.

In India, under the Government’s Reproductive and Child Health Programme, iron andfolic acid tablets are provided to pregnant women in order to prevent anaemia during pregnancy.Because anaemia is such a serious health problem in India, NFHS-2 undertook directmeasurement of the haemoglobin levels of all ever-married women age 15–49 years and theirchildren under three years of age. Measurements were taken in the field using the HemoCuesystem1. This system uses a single drop of blood from a finger prick (or heel prick in the case ofinfants under six months old), which is drawn into a cuvette and then inserted into a portable,battery-operated instrument2. In less than one minute, the haemoglobin concentration is indicatedon a digital read-out.

Before the anaemia testing was undertaken in a household, the health investigator read adetailed informed-consent statement to the respondent, informing her about anaemia, describingthe procedure to be followed for the test, and emphasizing the voluntary nature of the test. Shewas then asked whether or not she would consent to have the test done for herself and her youngchildren, if any. The health investigator then signed the questionnaire at the bottom of thestatement to indicate that it had been read to the respondent and recorded her agreement or lackof agreement to the testing. If the test was conducted, at the end of the test the respondent wasgiven a written record of the results for herself and each of her young children. In addition, thehealth investigator described to her the meaning of the results and advised her if medicaltreatment was necessary. In cases of severe anaemia, the respondent was read an additionalstatement asking whether she would give her permission for the health investigator to inform alocal health official about the problem. For each Primary Sampling Unit, a local health officialwas given a list of severely anaemic women (and children) who had consented to the referral.

Table 7.4 and Figure 7.1 show anaemia levels for ever-married women age 15–49. Threelevels of severity of anaemia are distinguished: mild anaemia (10.0–10.9 grams/decilitre forpregnant women and 10.0–11.9 g/dl for nonpregnant women), moderate anaemia (7.0–9.9 g/dl),and severe anaemia (less than 7.0 g/dl). Appropriate adjustments in these cutoff points weremade for women living at altitudes above 1,000 metres and women who smoke, since both of

1The HemoCue instrument has been used extensively throughout the world for estimating the concentration ofhaemoglobin in capillary blood in field situations. The HemoCue has been found to give accurate results on venousblood samples, comparable to estimates from more sophisticated laboratory instruments (Von Schenk et al., 1986;McNulty et al., 1995; Krenzicheck and Tanseco, 1996). A recent small-scale study in India (Prakash et al., 1999),however, found that the HemoCue provided slightly higher estimates of haemoglobin than the standard blood cellcounter (BCC) method.2Because the first 2–3 drops of blood are wiped away to be sure that the sample used for analysis consists of freshcapillary blood, it is actually the third or fourth drop of blood that is drawn into the cuvette.

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Table 7.4 Anaemia among women

Percentage of ever-married women classified as having iron-deficiency anaemia by degree of anaemia,according to selected background characteristics, Gujarat, 1998–99

Percentage of women with:


Percentage ofwomen withany anaemia

Mildanaemia

Moderateanaemia

Severeanaemia

Numberofwomen

Age 15–19 20–24 25–29 30–34 35–49

Marital status Currently married Not currently married





Work status Working in family farm/business Employed by someone else Self-employed Not worked in past 12 months


Pregnancy/breastfeeding status Pregnant Breastfeeding (not pregnant) Not pregnant/not breastfeeding

Height < 145 cm ≥ 145 cm

57.7 33.4 20.8 3.5 20951.1 31.6 16.5 3.0 65945.9 29.0 15.7 1.2 63542.2 27.3 12.4 2.5 59644.3 29.1 12.6 2.6 1,385

45.5 29.0 14.2 2.4 3,26458.4 36.9 17.2 4.3 220

39.5 26.9 11.0 1.7 1,48051.3 31.4 16.8 3.1 2,004

50.9 31.1 16.6 3.2 1,70745.7 29.6 13.9 2.2 73741.2 27.7 11.2 2.3 31438.4 26.5 10.8 1.1 725

46.8 29.7 14.5 2.6 3,13139.2 25.9 12.6 0.7 27852.5 33.4 16.7 2.4 76

48.4 33.0 11.8 3.6 52155.5 34.0 18.6 3.0 66845.0 26.7 15.1 3.2 83042.1 27.7 12.9 1.4 1,464

49.0 31.3 15.0 2.6 82452.1 31.3 16.7 4.1 77845.1 29.2 11.4 4.5 15942.5 27.8 13.3 1.5 1,723

57.2 32.2 20.5 4.6 72846.8 29.7 14.4 2.7 1,64438.5 27.4 10.3 0.8 1,108

47.4 15.4 28.2 3.8 20951.0 32.8 16.0 2.1 71544.9 29.7 12.8 2.5 2,560

48.5 29.0 17.3 2.2 36146.0 29.5 14.0 2.5 3,112

Contd…

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Table 7.4 Anaemia among women (contd.)

Percentage of ever-married women classified as having iron-deficiency anaemia by degree of anaemia,according to selected background characteristics, Gujarat, 1998–99

Percentage of women with:


Percentage ofwomen withany anaemia

Mildanaemia

Moderateanaemia

Severeanaemia

Numberofwomen

Body mass index < 18.5 kg/m2

≥ 18.5 kg/m2

Fruit and vegetable consumption1

Fruit and vegetables Fruit only Vegetables only Neither

Total

53.5 32.3 18.0 3.2 1,26842.0 27.8 12.2 2.0 2,196

41.6 27.3 12.5 1.8 1,26245.9 30.1 15.5 0.4 30649.1 30.1 15.5 3.5 1,33550.5 32.6 15.1 2.8 580

46.3 29.5 14.4 2.5 3,484

Note: The haemoglobin levels are adjusted for smoking when calculating the degree of anaemia. No adjustmentfor altitude of the enumeration area was made because all of the Primary Sampling Units in Gujarat are at analtitude below 1,000 metres. Total includes 1, 1, 3, 11, and 20 women with missing information on education,caste/tribe, the standard of living index, height, and body mass index, respectively, who are not shownseparately.1Based on consumption at least weekly. Vegetables include only green, leafy vegetables.

Figure 7.1Anaemia Among Women

46

30

14

3

0

10

20

30

40

50

Any Anaemia Mild Anaemia Moderate Anaemia Severe Anaemia

Perc

ent

NFHS-2, Gujarat, 1998–99

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these groups require more haemoglobin in their blood (Centers for Disease Control andPrevention, 1998).

In Gujarat, haemoglobin levels were tested for 91 percent of women (see Table B.3 inAppendix B). Overall, 46 percent of women have some degree of anaemia. Thirty percent ofwomen are mildly anaemic, 14 percent are moderately anaemic, and 3 percent are severelyanaemic3.

There are some differences in the prevalence of anaemia by background characteristics,but anaemia is substantial for women in every population group. Prevalence of anaemia is higherfor younger women below age 25 years than for older women. It is considerably higher for ruralwomen than for urban women. It declines substantially as education increases and as standard ofliving increases. By religion, it is highest for women of ‘other’ religions, and higher for Hindusthan Muslims. By caste/tribe, anaemia is most common among scheduled-tribe women and leastcommon among women who do not belong to a scheduled caste or tribe or other backward class.By work status, women employed by someone else are most likely to be anaemic, and womenwho have not worked in the last 12 months are least likely to be anaemic.

Pregnant women are considerably more likely to have moderate to severe anaemia (32percent) than nonpregnant women (15–18 percent). However, pregnant women are less likelythan other women to have mild anaemia (probably because a substantial proportion of pregnantwomen consume iron and folic acid tablets or syrup).

Shorter women and women with a lower body mass index have a somewhat higherprevalence of anaemia than other women. A woman’s diet also affects the likelihood of anaemia.Consumption of iron-rich foods can reduce the prevalence or severity of anaemia, and theabsorption of iron from the diet can be enhanced (for example, by vitamin C) or inhibited (forexample, by tea or coffee) if particular items are consumed around the time that a meal is eaten.In Gujarat, differentials in anaemia by consumption of fruits and green, leafy vegetables aremoderate. Table 7.4 shows that women who regularly (at least weekly) consume both fruits andgreen, leafy vegetables have the lowest prevalence of anaemia, and women who regularlyconsume neither of these have the highest prevalence of anaemia.

7.4 Infant Feeding Practices

Infant feeding practices have significant effects on both mothers and children. Mothers areaffected through the influence of breastfeeding on the period of postpartum infertility, and henceon fertility levels and the length of birth intervals. These effects vary by both the duration andintensity of breastfeeding. Proper infant feeding, starting from the time of birth, is important forthe physical and mental development of the child. Breastfeeding improves the nutritional statusof young children and reduces morbidity and mortality. Breast milk not only provides importantnutrients but also protects the child against infection. The timing and type of supplementaryfoods introduced in an infant’s diet also have significant effects on the child’s nutritional status.

The Baby Friendly Hospitals Initiative, launched by United Nations Children’s fund(UNICEF), recommends initiation of breastfeeding immediately after childbirth. The World 3Rates are not adjusted for altitude because all of the sample PSUs are at an altitude below 1,000 metres and ratesadjusted for smoking are almost the same as the corresponding unadjusted rates (with at most a 0.3 difference in anyrate). This is to be expected since, in Gujarat, the proportion of women who smoke is very small (see Table 2.12).

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Health Organization (WHO) and the UNICEF recommend that infants should be given onlybreast milk for about the first six months of their life. Under the Reproductive and Child HealthProgramme, the Government of India recommends that infants should be exclusively breastfedfrom birth to age four months (Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, n.d.). Most babies do notrequire any other foods or liquids during this period. By age seven months, adequate andappropriate complementary foods should be added to the infant’s diet in order to providesufficient nutrients for optimal growth. It is recommended that breastfeeding should continue,along with complementary foods, through the second year of life or beyond. It is furtherrecommended that a feeding bottle with a nipple should not be used at any age, for reasonsrelated mainly to sanitation and the prevention of infections.

WHO has suggested several indicators of breastfeeding practices to guide countries ingathering information for measuring and evaluating infant feeding practices. These indicatorsinclude the ever breastfed rate, the exclusive breastfeeding rate, the timely complementaryfeeding rate, the continued breastfeeding rate, and the bottle feeding rate. The exclusivebreastfeeding rate is defined as the proportion of infants under age four months who receive onlybreast milk. The timely complementary feeding rate is the proportion of infants age 6–9 monthswho receive both breast milk and solid or semi-solid food. The continued breastfeeding ratethrough one year of age is the proportion of children age 12–15 months who are still breastfed.The continued breastfeeding rate until two years of age is the proportion of children age 20–23months who are still breastfed. The bottle feeding rate is the proportion of infants who are fedusing a bottle with a nipple.

In NFHS-2, data on breastfeeding and complementary feeding were obtained from aseries of questions in the Woman’s Questionnaire. These questions pertain to births sinceJanuary 1995, but the tables are restricted to children born in the three years preceding thesurvey. For any given woman, information was obtained for a maximum of two births.

Initiation of breastfeeding immediately after childbirth is important because it benefitsboth the mother and the infant. As soon as the infant starts suckling at the breast, the hormoneoxytocin is released, resulting in uterine contractions that facilitate expulsion of the placenta andreduce the risk of postpartum haemorrhage. It is also recommended that the first breast milk(colostrum) be given to the child rather than squeezed from the breast and discarded, because itcontains colostrum, which provides natural immunity to the child.

Table 7.5 shows the percentage of children born during the three years before the surveywho started breastfeeding within one hour and one day of birth. It also gives the percentage ofchildren whose mothers squeezed the first milk from the breast before breastfeeding, which isnot the recommended practice. Although breastfeeding is nearly universal in Gujarat, very fewchildren are put to the breast immediately after birth. Only 10 percent of children beganbreastfeeding within one hour of birth, and only 37 percent began breastfeeding within one dayof birth. A majority of women (61 percent) squeezed the first milk from the breast before theybegan breastfeeding.

Differentials in the early initiation of breastfeeding and in squeezing the first milk fromthe breast are also shown in Table 7.5. No more than 14 percent of children in any group (exceptself-employed women, where the number of cases is very small and subject to large sampling

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Table 7.5 Initiation of breastfeeding

Percentage of children born during the three years preceding the survey who started breastfeeding within one hourand within one day of birth and percentage whose mother squeezed the first milk from her breast beforebreastfeeding by selected background characteristics, Gujarat, 1998–99


Percentage startedbreastfeeding withinone hour of birth

Percentage startedbreastfeeding withinone day of birth1

Percentagewhose mothersqueezed firstmilk frombreast

Numberofchildren


Mother’s education Illiterate Literate, < middle school complete Middle school complete High school complete and above

Religion Hindu Muslim


Mother’s work status Working in family farm/business Employed by someone else Self-employed Not worked in past 12 months


Assistance during delivery Health professional2

Dai (TBA) Other

Place of delivery Public health facility NGO/trust hospital/clinic Private health facility Own home Parents’ home

Total

12.1 40.1 62.1 4839.0 34.6 60.6 841

9.0 31.0 67.0 6769.7 37.1 57.5 281

12.2 42.6 57.0 11612.8 48.3 51.3 249

10.0 36.4 60.8 1,1788.9 35.1 64.8 125

8.3 32.5 64.9 21912.2 45.7 58.0 2776.4 28.4 63.5 318

12.2 38.6 59.8 509

9.1 36.9 57.7 2828.4 27.4 65.7 213

(24.5) (49.2) (49.0) 3710.3 38.4 61.7 791

8.5 30.1 65.2 34810.2 35.9 60.9 66911.8 45.6 57.5 304

11.9 41.0 57.3 7088.4 32.2 66.6 5625.7 24.7 54.5 54

11.5 43.7 58.3 149(8.1) (40.5) (59.8) 3713.5 43.9 56.4 4268.5 30.2 63.9 5185.8 30.4 67.8 174

10.1 36.6 61.1 1,324

Note: Table includes only the two most recent births during the three years preceding the survey, whether living ordead at the time of interview. Total includes 21 children with other religions, 19 children delivered in other places,and 1 and 2 children with missing information on mother’s education and the standard of living index, respectively,who are not shown separately.TBA: Traditional birth attendent; NGO: Nongovernmental organization( ) Based on 25–49 unweighted cases1Includes children who started breastfeeding within one hour of birth2Includes doctor, auxiliary nurse midwife, nurse, midwife, lady health visitor, and other health professionals

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error) were put to the breast within one hour of birth. The percentage of children who startedbreastfeeding within one day of birth is higher for urban woman, more-educated women,scheduled-tribe women, women who have not worked in the last 12 months, women living inhouseholds with a high standard of living, women who were assisted at birth by a healthprofessional, and women who delivered in a health facility. The percentage differs little betweenHindus and Muslims. A majority of children in every group were not breastfed within one day ofbirth.

The custom of squeezing the first milk from the breast before breastfeeding a child iswidely practised in every group, but it is more common among births to illiterate women,Muslim women, scheduled-caste women, women living in households with a low standard ofliving, women employed by someone else, women assisted by a dai at delivery, and women whodelivered in their parents’ home. Contrary to recommendations for feeding infants, a majority ofmothers in almost every subgroup squeeze the first milk from the breast before breastfeeding.

Mothers of children born in the three years before the survey were asked if the child hadbeen given plain water, other liquids, or solid or mushy (semi-solid) food at any time during theday or night before the interview. Results are shown in Tables 7.6 and 7.7. Children whoreceived nothing but breast milk during that period are defined as being exclusively breastfed.

Table 7.6 Breastfeeding status by child’s age

Percent distribution of children under age 3 years by breastfeeding status, according to child’s age in months, Gujarat,1998–99

Breastfeeding status

Breastfeeding and:

Age in monthsNotbreastfeeding

Exclusivelybreastfeeding

Receivingplainwater only

Receivingsupplements

Don’t knowif fedsupplements

Totalpercent

Numberof livingchildren

< 22–34–56–78–910–1112–1314–1516–1718–1920–2122–2324–2526–2728–2930–3132–3334–35

< 4 months4–6 months7–9 months

3.1 70.0 22.4 4.5 0.0 100.0 661.1 61.9 28.6 8.5 0.0 100.0 940.0 39.2 30.9 29.9 0.0 100.0 771.4 14.1 28.7 55.7 0.0 100.0 732.9 8.9 13.4 74.8 0.0 100.0 684.3 5.8 12.9 77.0 0.0 100.0 705.0 6.6 16.4 71.9 0.0 100.0 61

20.8 0.0 2.6 76.5 0.0 100.0 7726.1 0.0 2.6 71.4 0.0 100.0 8030.5 0.0 6.8 61.1 1.6 100.0 5935.8 1.8 5.6 56.8 0.0 100.0 53

(52.6) (0.0) (2.1) (43.2) (2.1) 100.0 4962.7 0.0 1.5 35.9 0.0 100.0 6754.1 0.0 1.4 44.5 0.0 100.0 7488.0 0.0 0.0 12.0 0.0 100.0 7580.9 0.0 1.4 17.7 0.0 100.0 7474.4 0.0 0.0 24.0 1.6 100.0 6771.0 0.0 1.5 27.5 0.0 100.0 66

1.9 65.2 26.0 6.8 0.0 100.0 1600.9 30.5 29.9 38.7 0.0 100.0 1161.9 11.0 18.8 68.3 0.0 100.0 102

Note: Table includes only surviving children from among the two most recent births during the three years preceding thesurvey. Breastfeeding status refers to the day or night before the interview. Children classified as ‘breastfeeding andreceiving plain water only’ receive no supplements.( ) Based on 25-49 unweighted cases

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The introduction of supplementary foods before four months of age puts infants at risk ofmalnutrition because other liquids and solid foods are nutritionally inferior to breast milk.Consumption of liquids and solid or mushy foods at an early age also increases children’sexposure to pathogens and consequently puts them at a greater risk of getting diarrhoea.However, a recent study based on findings from NFHS-1 (Anandaiah and Choe, 2000)concluded that breastfeeding with supplements is more beneficial than exclusive breastfeedingeven for children at very young ages (less than four months). That report suggests that motherswho are not well nourished and who are in poor health themselves may not be able to provideadequate breast milk for their infants.

In Gujarat, 65 percent of children under four months of age are exclusively breastfed, 26percent receive breast milk plus water, and 7 percent receive supplements along with breast milk(Table 7.6). The percentage of infants exclusively breastfed drops off after three months to 39percent at age 4–5 months and 14 percent at age 6–7 months. The proportion of childrenreceiving breast milk and supplements increases from 30 percent for children age 4–5 months to77 percent for children age 10–11 months, and declines thereafter (albeit somewhat irregularly)as children are weaned from the breast and their food consumption no longer supplements breastmilk. However, breastfeeding generally continues for a long period. Ninety-five percent ofchildren age 12–13 months are still being breastfed, as are 64 percent of children age 20–21months. For the majority of children in Gujarat, breastfeeding usually stops at about 22–23months of age, but 29 percent of children age 34–35 months are still breastfed.

Table 7.7 shows in more detail the types of food consumed by children under age threeyears the day or night before the interview. Because of the small number of non-breastfeedingchildren, two-month age categories have been combined into broader age groups for thesechildren. Powdered milk is rarely given to young children at any age, but other milk (such ascow’s milk or buffalo’s milk) is given to young children more often. More than three-quarters ofnon-breastfeeding children age 16–35 months were given these other types of milk the day ornight before the interview. About half of breastfeeding children age 8–35 months received other(non-powdered) milk in addition to breast milk. For all children under three years of age, otherliquids, such as juice or tea, are given much less often than milk. The consumption of green,leafy vegetables generally increases with age, from 1 percent at age 6–7 months to 30 percent atage 30–35 months for all children. The consumption of fruits increases rapidly in the first year oflife and then levels off at about 30–40 percent.

From about six months of age, the introduction of complementary food is critical formeeting the protein, energy, and micronutrient needs of children. However, in Gujarat theintroduction of complementary food is delayed for a substantial proportion of children. Only 33percent of breastfeeding children age 6–7 months consume solid or mushy foods. This proportionrises to about 90 percent at age 14–15 months and older ages. Only 48 percent of breastfeedingchildren age 6–9 months receive solid or mushy food as recommended.

Bottle feeding has a direct effect on mother’s exposure to the risk of pregnancy becausethe period of amenorrhoea may be shortened when breastfeeding is reduced or replaced by bottlefeeding. Because it is often difficult to sterilize the nipple properly, the use of bottles withnipples also exposes children to an increased risk of getting diarrhoea and other diseases. The useof bottles with nipples is not common in Gujarat, especially for children who are being breastfed.In this latter group, less than 10 percent of breastfeeding children in every age group drank

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anything from a bottle with a nipple the day or night before the interview (Table 7.7). The use ofa bottle with a nipple is more common for children who are not being breastfed, where theproportion is 17–18 percent for children less than two years old.

Table 7.8 shows several statistics that describe the duration of breastfeeding. Estimates ofboth means and medians are based on the current proportions of children breastfeeding in eachage group because information on current status is usually more accurate than information basedon mother’s recall. The median length of any breastfeeding in Gujarat is 22.0 months. The

Table 7.7 Type of food received by children

Percentage of children under age 3 years who received specific types of food the day or night before the interview and percentageusing a bottle with a nipple by current breastfeeding status and child’s age in months, Gujarat, 1998–99

Type of food received

Age in monthsPowderedmilk

Any othermilk

Any otherliquid

Green,leafyvegetables Fruits

Any solid ormushy food1

Using bottlewith a nipple

Numberof livingchildren

BREASTFEEDING CHILDREN

< 2 2–3 4–5 6–7 8–9 10–11 12–13 14–15 16–17 18–23 24–29 30–35

< 4 months 4–5 months 6–9 months

0.0 4.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 640.0 6.5 2.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.4 930.0 20.7 7.8 1.3 1.3 9.2 9.2 770.0 44.1 24.6 1.4 6.9 33.0 5.6 723.0 46.8 25.4 7.6 18.0 63.3 5.9 661.5 47.6 29.7 10.3 28.1 73.0 4.6 670.0 48.2 32.7 15.6 13.5 65.7 5.1 581.6 55.6 50.7 17.9 36.0 90.1 9.7 611.7 52.6 53.9 13.4 32.4 93.1 5.0 592.0 58.3 40.0 20.5 34.8 85.7 5.1 990.0 55.9 54.5 17.5 22.1 94.1 4.3 680.0 48.0 41.9 23.9 26.1 91.8 4.1 51

0.0 5.7 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.8 1570.0 20.7 7.8 1.3 1.3 9.2 9.2 771.4 45.4 25.0 4.4 12.2 47.6 5.7 138

NON-BREASTFEEDING CHILDREN

< 16 16–23 24–29 30–35

(0.0) (89.1) (53.4) (25.0) (35.7) (85.6) (17.8) 283.5 77.4 46.4 33.2 53.3 94.0 16.6 842.6 80.3 65.4 39.7 32.3 94.5 6.7 1482.5 78.4 63.8 31.7 37.5 96.1 5.1 157

ALL CHILDREN

< 2 2–3 4–5 6–7 8–9 10–11 12–13 14–15 16–17 18–23 24–29 30–35

< 4 months 4–5 months 6–9 months

0.0 6.0 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 660.0 7.5 2.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.4 940.0 20.7 7.8 1.3 1.3 9.2 9.2 770.0 44.8 25.6 1.4 6.8 32.6 5.5 732.9 48.4 24.6 7.4 17.5 64.4 7.2 681.4 49.9 29.9 9.8 26.9 74.2 7.2 700.0 50.8 34.4 18.2 16.2 67.4 4.9 611.3 62.2 53.0 20.7 38.9 92.2 8.9 771.3 61.2 48.4 21.0 38.7 93.6 13.5 803.0 64.7 44.2 24.2 41.5 88.8 6.8 1611.8 72.6 61.9 32.7 29.1 94.4 6.0 2161.9 71.0 58.5 29.8 34.7 95.1 4.9 208

0.0 6.9 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.4 1600.0 20.7 7.8 1.3 1.3 9.2 9.2 771.4 46.5 25.1 4.3 12.0 48.0 6.3 141

Note: Table includes only surviving children from among the two most recent births during the three years preceding the survey.( ) Based on 25–49 unweighted cases1Includes green, leafy vegetables and fruits

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median length of exclusive breastfeeding in Gujarat is 3.0 months, and the median length ofexclusive breastfeeding or breastfeeding with water is 5.9 months.

The mean durations of any breastfeeding, exclusive breastfeeding, and exclusivebreastfeeding or breastfeeding with water only are 22.7 months, 4.5 months, and 7.7 months,respectively. The mean durations differ slightly from the median durations because of extremevalues of the duration of breastfeeding for some children. (The mean duration is stronglyaffected by extreme values, but the median duration is not.)

An alternative measure of the duration of breastfeeding is the prevalence-incidence mean,which is calculated as the ‘prevalence’ of breastfeeding divided by its ‘incidence’. In this case,prevalence is defined as the number of children whose mothers were breastfeeding at the time ofthe survey, and incidence is defined as the average number of births per month (averaged over a36–month period to overcome problems of seasonality of births and possible reference-perioderrors). For each measure of breastfeeding, the prevalence-incidence mean is about the same asthe mean calculated in the conventional manner.

The median duration of breastfeeding is one month shorter for girls than for boys. Thispattern is often observed in societies where there is a strong preference for sons, since the parentsmay stop breastfeeding a girl at a younger age to increase their chances of having another childearlier (with the hope that the next child will be a boy). The median length of breastfeeding isfive months longer in rural areas than in urban areas, where the median is 18.8 years.

7.5 Nutritional Status of Children

Nutritional status is a major determinant of the health and well-being of children. Inadequate orunbalanced diets and chronic illness are associated with poor nutrition among children. To assesstheir nutritional status, measurements of weight and height/length were obtained for children

Table 7.8 Median duration of breastfeeding

Median duration of breastfeeding among children under age 3 years by sex of child and residence, andmean duration of breastfeeding, Gujarat, 1998–99

Median duration (months)1

Background characteristicAnybreastfeeding

Exclusivebreastfeeding

Exclusivebreastfeeding orbreastfeeding pluswater only

Number ofchildren

Sex of child Male Female


Median duration

Mean duration (months)1

Prevalence/incidence mean

22.5 3.2 6.1 68021.2 2.8 5.8 643

18.8 1.6 5.3 48323.9 3.8 6.4 841

22.0 3.0 5.9 1,324

22.7 4.5 7.7 1,324

22.4 4.3 7.8 1,324

Note: Table includes only the two most recent births during the three years preceding the survey.1Based on current status

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born in the three years preceding the survey. Children were weighed and measured with the sametype of scales and measuring boards used for women. Children under two years of age weremeasured lying down, and other children were measured standing up. Data on weight andheight/length were used to calculate the following three summary indices of nutritional status:

• weight-for-age

• height-for-age

• weight-for-height

The nutritional status of children calculated according to these three measures iscompared with the nutritional status of an international reference population recommended bythe World Health Organization (Dibley et al., 1987a; 1987b). The use of this referencepopulation is based on the empirical finding that well-nourished children in all population groupsfor which data exist follow very similar growth patterns (Martorell and Habicht, 1986). Ascientific report from the Nutrition Foundation of India (Agarwal et al., 1991) has concluded thatthe WHO standard is generally applicable to Indian children.

The three indices of nutritional status are expressed in standard deviation units (z-scores)from the median for the international reference population. Children who are more than twostandard deviations below the reference median on any of the indices are considered to beundernourished, and children who fall more than three standard deviations below the referencemedian are considered to be severely undernourished.

Each of these indices provides somewhat different information about the nutritionalstatus of children. Weight-for-age is a composite measure that takes into account both chronicand acute undernutrition. Children who are more than two standard deviations below thereference median on this index are considered to be underweight. The height-for-age indexmeasures linear growth retardation. Children who are more than two standard deviations belowthe median of the reference population in terms of height-for-age are considered short for theirage or stunted. The percentage in this category indicates the prevalence of chronicundernutrition, which often results from a failure to receive adequate nutrition over a long periodof time or from chronic or recurrent diarrhoea. Height-for-age, therefore, does not varyappreciably by the season in which data are collected.

The weight-for-height index examines body mass in relation to body length. Childrenwho are more than two standard deviations below the median of the reference population interms of weight-for-height are considered too thin or wasted. The percentage in this categoryindicates the prevalence of acute undernutrition. Wasting is associated with a failure to receiveadequate nutrition in the period immediately before the survey and may be the result of seasonalvariations in food supply or recent episodes of illness.

The validity of these indices is determined by many factors, including the coverage of thepopulation of children and the accuracy of the anthropometric measurements. The survey wasnot able to measure the height and weight of all eligible children, because sometimes the childwas not at home at the time of the health investigator’s visit or because the mother refused toallow the child to be weighed and measured. In Gujarat, NFHS-2 failed to measure 10 percent ofchildren under age three (see Table B.3 in Appendix B). Also excluded from the analysis are

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children whose month and year of birth were not known and those with grossly improbableheight or weight measurements. In addition, two of the three indices (weight-for-age and height-for-age) are sensitive to misreporting of children’s ages, including heaping on preferred digits.

Table 7.9 shows the percentage of children classified as undernourished by selecteddemographic characteristics. Forty-five percent of children under three years of age areunderweight, and 44 percent are stunted. The proportion of children who are severelyundernourished is also notable—16 percent according to weight-for-age and 23 percentaccording to height-for-age. Wasting is also quite evident in Gujarat, affecting 16 percent ofchildren under three years of age. The proportion of children under three years of age who areunderweight hardly changed between NFHS-1 (48 percent) and NFHS-2 (45 percent). Theproportion severely underweight also remained about the same at 17 percent in NFHS-1 and 16percent in NFHS-2. The prevalence of stunting was the same in both surveys, at 44 percent, andthe prevalence of severe stunting was also the same in both surveys, at 23 percent. Theprevalence of wasting was 20 percent in NFHS-1 and 16 percent in NFHS-2, and the prevalenceof severe wasting was 4 percent in NFHS-1 and 2 percent in NFHS-2.

The proportion of children who are underweight and stunted increases steadily withchild’s age, whereas wasting has no consistent relationship with age. Even during the first sixmonths of life, when most babies are breastfed, 9–13 percent of children are undernourished

Table 7.9 Nutritional status of children by demographic characteristics

Percentage of children under age 3 years classified as undernourished on three anthropometric indices of nutritional status,according to selected demographic characteristics, Gujarat, 1998–99

Weight-for-age Height-for-age Weight-for-height

Demographiccharacteristic

Percentagebelow–3 SD

Percentagebelow–2 SD1





Numberofchildren

Age of child < 6 months 6–11 months 12–23 months 24–35 months


Birth order 1 2–3 4–5 6+

Previous birthinterval2

First birth < 24 months 24–47 months 48+ months

Total

0.0 9.4 4.4 13.2 1.7 10.9 18310.4 41.6 12.6 30.0 2.7 14.7 18319.5 54.7 27.8 53.9 3.3 21.6 31025.0 57.5 35.3 58.2 1.8 15.0 335

14.7 40.3 20.6 42.0 2.4 13.9 51517.7 50.0 26.1 45.3 2.4 18.6 497

11.3 37.9 18.1 35.5 3.3 16.4 33217.2 46.7 24.5 44.1 1.5 15.7 48021.8 50.2 30.0 57.0 2.8 16.1 14421.3 59.8 26.4 52.8 3.5 19.4 56

11.2 37.7 18.0 35.3 3.3 16.3 33421.3 57.2 32.0 54.4 1.6 18.3 19717.9 47.5 26.1 47.1 1.7 15.5 36116.1 38.5 15.3 38.5 3.3 14.5 120

16.2 45.1 23.3 43.6 2.4 16.2 1,011

Note: Each index is expressed in standard deviation units (SD) from the median of the International Reference Population.1Includes children who are below –3 SD from the International Reference Population median2First-born twins (triplets, etc.) are counted as first births because they do not have a previous birth interval.

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according to the three nutritional indices. It is notable that at age 24–35 months, when mostchildren have been weaned from breast milk, 25 percent are severely underweight, and 35percent are severely stunted.

Overall, girls are more undernourished than boys. Undernutrition tends to increase withbirth order. Young children in families with four or more children are nutritionally the mostdisadvantaged. First births have slightly lower-than-average levels of undernutrition on all themeasures except weight-for-height. Children born after a short birth interval (less than 24months) also have higher-than-average levels of undernutrition on almost every measure.

Table 7.10 shows the nutritional status of children by selected background characteristics.Undernutrition is substantially higher in rural areas than in urban areas. Even in urban areas,however, 38–39 percent of children are underweight or stunted. Children whose mothers areilliterate are more than twice as likely to be undernourished as children whose mothers havecompleted at least high school (see Figure 7.2). Muslim children are slightly more likely to beundernourished but slightly less likely to be severely undernourished than Hindu children onheight-for-age and weight-for-age. Differences by religion are negligible, however, on weight-for-height. Children belonging to scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, or other backward classeshave higher levels of undernutrition than other children according to all three measures, except

Figure 7.2Stunting Among Children Under 3 Years

by Mother’s Education and SLI

25

47

57

56

44

30

21

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

MOTHER’S EDUCATION

Illiterate

Literate, < MiddleSchool Complete

Middle School Complete

High School Complete and Above

STANDARD OF LIVING INDEX

Low

Medium

High

Percent


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that scheduled-caste children are less likely to be wasted. Undernutrition is relatively low forchildren whose mothers have not worked in the past 12 months.

Undernutrition among children is strongly related to maternal nutritional status.Undernutrition is more common for children of mothers whose height is less than 145centimetres or whose body mass index is below 18.5 than for other children. All of the measuresof undernutrition are strongly related to the household’s standard of living. Children from

Table 7.10 Nutritional status of children by background characteristics

Percentage of children under age 3 years classified as undernourished on three anthropometric indices of nutritional status,according to selected background characteristics, Gujarat, 1998–99

Weight-for-age Height-for-age Weight-for-height


Percent-agebelow–3 SD

Percent-agebelow–2 SD1





Numberofchildren






Mother’s height < 145 cm ≥ 145 cm

Mother’s body mass index < 18.5 kg/m2

≥ 18.5 kg/m2


Total

9.4 38.1 18.8 38.5 2.1 11.3 38320.2 49.3 26.0 46.7 2.6 19.2 629

25.9 57.0 34.1 55.9 3.7 20.1 49211.7 41.0 21.7 43.6 0.5 12.9 2116.6 31.8 11.9 30.3 1.1 14.3 932.3 27.5 5.2 21.3 1.9 11.3 216

16.7 45.4 23.9 44.0 2.3 16.5 90713.8 49.8 20.6 47.2 3.6 15.2 86

17.7 45.4 29.0 48.9 3.1 12.3 16424.1 56.6 29.2 46.9 3.4 21.7 20618.8 49.0 26.4 46.5 2.5 18.8 2489.7 36.3 15.9 37.8 1.5 13.4 393

22.4 56.1 29.3 55.1 3.0 23.0 20331.2 61.6 38.6 61.0 2.7 22.0 147

(10.3) (40.2) (23.0) (42.7) (0.0) (16.7) 3110.9 37.8 17.8 35.9 2.2 12.6 630

25.9 63.5 38.4 61.6 0.8 19.7 11715.0 42.7 21.2 41.1 2.6 15.9 887

22.6 56.4 29.8 50.6 2.5 23.0 44711.3 36.0 18.0 38.0 2.3 10.7 552

30.2 63.0 37.5 56.5 4.4 26.0 24915.0 46.2 24.8 47.0 1.8 14.1 5014.9 25.9 6.9 25.0 1.6 10.9 260

16.2 45.1 23.3 43.6 2.4 16.2 1,011

Note: Each index is expressed in standard deviation units (SD) from the median of the International Reference Population. Totalincludes 19 children whose mothers belong to other religions and 8, 12, and 1 children with missing information on mother’s height,mother’s body mass index, and the standard of living index, respectively, who are not shown separately.( ) Based on 25–49 unweighted cases.1Includes children who are below –3 SD from the International Reference Population median

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households with a low standard of living are more than twice as likely to be undernourished aschildren from households with a high standard of living.

7.6 Anaemia Among Children

Anaemia is a serious concern for young children because it can result in impaired cognitiveperformance, behavioural and motor development, coordination, language development, andscholastic achievement, as well as increased morbidity from infectious diseases (Seshadri, 1997).One of the most vulnerable groups is children age 6–24 months (Stoltzfus and Dreyfuss, 1998).

Table 7.11 and Figure 7.3 show anaemia levels for children age 6–35 months. Overall,three-quarters of these children have some level of anaemia, including 24 percent who are mildlyanaemic (10.0–10.9 g/dl), 44 percent who are moderately anaemic (7.0–9.9 g/dl), and 7 percentwho are severely anaemic (less than 7.0 g/dl)4. A much higher proportion of children thanwomen are anaemic.

By age, children age 12–23 months (an age at which children are often being weaned)have a relatively high proportion anaemic, especially compared with children age 6–11 months.The proportion anaemic is also relatively high for children of birth order 4 or higher, ruralchildren, children of illiterate mothers, scheduled-tribe children, children of women who work,and children from families with a low or medium standard of living. Children from Muslimhouseholds are less likely to be anaemic than children from Hindu households. As expected,

4Because all sample PSUs in Gujarat are at an altitude below 1,000 metres, no adjustment for altitude was madewhen estimating anaemia levels among children.

Figure 7.3Anaemia Among Children

75

24

44

7

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Any Anaemia Mild Anaemia Moderate Anaemia Severe Anaemia

Perc

ent


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Table 7.11 Anaemia among children

Percentage of children age 6–35 months classified as having iron-deficiency anaemia by selectedbackground characteristics, Gujarat, 1998–99

Percentage of children with:


Percentage ofchildren withany anaemia

Mildanaemia

Moderateanaemia

Severeanaemia

Numberofchildren

Age of child 6–11 months 12–23 months 24–35 months


Birth order 1 2–3 4–5 6+







Mother’s anaemia status Not anaemic Mildly anaemic Moderately anaemic

Total

68.8 29.3 34.9 4.6 17478.4 22.9 48.5 7.0 30974.0 22.8 43.8 7.5 347

73.4 21.0 46.9 5.4 43475.8 27.6 40.1 8.1 397

71.3 27.0 38.8 5.5 26773.5 24.5 42.7 6.4 39981.0 17.4 54.1 9.5 119(85.0) (22.8) (53.2) (9.0) 47

67.9 26.4 37.4 4.1 31178.5 22.9 47.4 8.2 520

81.8 22.6 50.5 8.7 40969.8 22.5 41.3 6.0 16672.7 29.9 36.2 6.7 7862.8 26.5 33.5 2.8 177

75.9 23.8 44.9 7.3 73964.5 26.6 35.3 2.6 78

76.2 26.3 41.0 8.9 13282.4 27.5 46.5 8.4 17772.0 20.7 44.3 7.1 19971.1 23.7 42.9 4.6 323

78.7 27.5 47.1 4.1 17979.8 20.3 45.5 14.0 129(77.9) (22.3) (51.8) (3.9) 2971.5 24.1 41.5 5.9 494

78.2 22.4 47.1 8.6 21178.0 24.2 46.7 7.1 39365.2 25.8 35.2 4.2 228

70.1 26.1 40.4 3.6 41974.9 22.4 43.7 8.7 25387.4 24.2 49.9 13.3 132

74.5 24.2 43.7 6.7 831

Note: Haemoglobin levels are not adjusted for altitude when calculating the degree of anaemia amongchildren because all of the Primary Sampling Units in Gujarat are at an altitude below 1,000 metres. Totalincludes 14 children whose mothers belong to other religions, 18 children whose mothers are severelyanaemic, and 1 and 9 children with missing information on mother’s education and mother's anaemiastatus, respectively, who are not shown separately.( ) Based on 25–49 unweighted cases

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there is a strong positive relationship between the anaemia status of mothers and prevalence ofanaemia among children.

7.7 Iodization of Salt

Iodine is an important micronutrient. A lack of iodine in the diet can lead to iodine deficiencydisorders (IDD), which, according to the World Health Organization, can cause miscarriages,brain disorders, cretinism, and retarded psychomotor development. It is the single mostimportant and preventable cause of mental retardation worldwide.

It has been estimated that 200 million people in India are exposed to the risk of iodinedeficiency, and 70 million suffer from goitre and other IDDs (IDD & Nutrition Cell, 1998). Inaddition, about one-fifth of pregnant women are at considerable risk of giving birth to childrenwho will not reach their optimum physical and mental potential because of maternal iodinedeficiency (Vir, 1995).

Iodine deficiency can be avoided by using salt that has been fortified with iodine. In1983–84, the Government of India adopted a policy to achieve universal iodization of edible saltby 1992. In 1988, the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act was amended to fix the minimumiodine content of salt at 30 parts per million (ppm) at the manufacturing level and 15 ppm at theconsumer level (MOHFW, 1994). The Government of India has advised all states and unionterritories to issue notifications banning the sale of edible salt that is not iodized. However, theban on non-iodized salt was lifted in September 2000.

NFHS-2, with its representative sample of households throughout Gujarat and the rest ofIndia, is an ideal vehicle for measuring the degree of salt iodization in the country. Iodine levelsin salt can be measured in the laboratory using a standard titration test or in the field using arapid-test kit. In NFHS-2, interviewers measured the iodine content of cooking salt in eachinterviewed household using a rapid-test kit. The test kit consists of ampoules of a stabilizedstarch solution and of a weak acid-based solution. The interviewer squeezes one drop of thestarch solution on a sample of cooking salt obtained from the household respondent. If the colourchanges (from light blue through dark violet), the interviewer matches the colour of the salt asclosely as possible to a colour chart on the test kit and records the iodine level as 7, 15, or 30ppm. If the initial test is negative (no change in colour), the interviewer is required to conduct asecond confirmatory test on a new salt sample, using the acid-based solution in addition to thestarch solution. This test is necessary because the starch solution will not show any colourchange even on iodized salt if the salt is alkaline or mixed with alkaline free-flow agents. If thecolour of the salt does not change even after the confirmatory test, the salt is not iodized.Because of uncertainties and subjective judgement in the matching process, the rapid test shouldnot be seen as giving an exact quantitative estimate of salt iodization, but it does providereasonable information on whether salt is iodized, as well as the extent of iodization. A recentstudy in eight centres in India concluded that the rapid test kit can be used for semi-quantitativeestimation of the iodine content of salt to monitor the quality of salt being used in a community(Kapil et al., 1999).

Table 7.12 shows the extent of salt iodization at the household level. Overall, 56 percentof households use cooking salt that is iodized at the recommended level of 15 ppm or more.Thirty percent use salt that is not iodized at all, and 14 percent use salt that is inadequatelyiodized (less than 15 ppm). Differentials in salt iodization by background characteristics are

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pronounced. Eighty-four percent of households in large cities use salt with 15 ppm or more ofiodine, compared with 58 and 59 percent of households in small cities and towns, respectively,and 46 percent of households in rural areas. Households belonging to ‘other’ religions are muchmore likely to use iodized salt than Hindu or Muslim households. The use of iodized salt isrelatively low in households headed by persons from scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, or otherbackward classes. The proportion using adequately iodized salt is almost twice as high inhouseholds with a high standard of living as in households with a low standard of living.

Table 7.12 Iodization of salt

Percent distribution of households by degree of iodization of salt, according to selected background characteristics, Gujarat,1998–99

Background characteristic Not iodized 7 ppm 15 ppm 30 ppm MissingTotalpercent

Number ofhouseholds

Type of place of residence Large city Small city Town Rural area

Religion of household head Hindu Muslim Other

Caste/tribe of household head Scheduled caste Scheduled tribe Other backward class Other


Total

7.8 7.8 7.8 76.4 0.1 100.0 73626.9 14.7 11.9 46.5 0.0 100.0 32528.2 12.7 17.1 41.8 0.2 100.0 63337.4 16.7 17.1 28.7 0.2 100.0 2,238

29.7 14.6 15.2 40.4 0.1 100.0 3,52930.4 14.1 13.5 41.7 0.3 100.0 31719.9 1.1 8.2 70.8 0.0 100.0 85

30.0 17.4 16.5 36.1 0.0 100.0 57654.4 9.7 11.4 24.3 0.1 100.0 77426.1 17.2 19.6 36.8 0.3 100.0 92919.6 13.5 13.3 53.4 0.1 100.0 1,651

44.3 16.1 16.6 22.7 0.3 100.0 97929.8 16.3 16.6 37.2 0.2 100.0 1,83816.0 9.2 10.6 64.2 0.0 100.0 1,111

29.5 14.2 14.9 41.2 0.2 100.0 3,932

Note: Total includes 1 and 4 households with missing information on caste/tribe and the standard of living index, respectively, whichare not shown separately.ppm: Parts per million

chapter 7 nutrition and the prevalence of …rchiips.org/nfhs/data/gj/gjchap7.pdfeat chicken, meat,...

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