OUR OUR HERITAGEHERITAGE

MigrationMigration

What Geographers StudyWhat Geographers Study

Geographers Geographers document from document from where people where people migrate and to migrate and to where they where they migrate. migrate.

They also study They also study reasons why reasons why people migrate. people migrate.

What Migrants SeekWhat Migrants Seek

Most people Most people migrate in migrate in search of three search of three objectives: objectives: economic economic

opportunityopportunity cultural freedomcultural freedom environmental environmental

comfort. comfort.

MigrationMigration The Key Issues are:The Key Issues are:

1)1) Why do people Why do people migrate?migrate?

2)2) Where are migrants Where are migrants distributed? distributed?

3)3) Why do migrants Why do migrants face obstacles? face obstacles?

4)4) Why do people Why do people migrate within a migrate within a country?country?

Net MigrationNet Migration

The subject of this chapter is a The subject of this chapter is a specific type of relocation diffusion specific type of relocation diffusion called migration, which is a called migration, which is a permanent move to a new location. permanent move to a new location. Emigration is migration from a locationEmigration is migration from a location Immigration is migration to a location. Immigration is migration to a location. The difference between the number of The difference between the number of

immigrants and the number of immigrants and the number of emigrants is the net migration. emigrants is the net migration.

Migration and CirculationMigration and Circulation

MigrationMigration is a form is a form of mobility, which is a of mobility, which is a more general term more general term covering all types of covering all types of movements from one movements from one place to another. place to another.

Short-term, repetitive, Short-term, repetitive, or cyclical movements or cyclical movements that recur on a that recur on a regular basis, such as regular basis, such as daily, monthly, or daily, monthly, or annually, are called annually, are called circulationcirculation. .

Here’s a Good Question that relates Here’s a Good Question that relates to Migration in the 21to Migration in the 21stst Century Century

If people can If people can participate in the participate in the globalization of culture globalization of culture and economy and economy regardless of place of regardless of place of residence, why do they residence, why do they still migrate in large still migrate in large numbers? numbers? The answer is that place The answer is that place

is still important to an is still important to an individual cultural individual cultural identity and economic identity and economic prospects. prospects.

Issue 1:Issue 1: Why People MigrateWhy People Migrate Reasons for migratingReasons for migrating

Push and pull factorsPush and pull factors

• • EconomicEconomic • Cultural • Cultural • • EnvironmentalEnvironmental

– – Intervening obstaclesIntervening obstacles

Distance of migrationDistance of migration Internal migrationInternal migration International migrationInternational migration

Characteristics of migrantsCharacteristics of migrants GenderGender Family statusFamily status

Ravenstein’s LawsRavenstein’s Laws

Geography has no Geography has no comprehensive theory of comprehensive theory of migration, although a migration, although a nineteenth-century essay of 11 nineteenth-century essay of 11 migration “laws” written by E. migration “laws” written by E. G. Ravenstein is the basis for G. Ravenstein is the basis for contemporary migration contemporary migration studies. studies.

Ravenstein’s “laws” can be Ravenstein’s “laws” can be organized into three groups: organized into three groups: reasonsreasons distance distance migrant characteristics migrant characteristics

Global Migration PatternsGlobal Migration Patterns Most people Most people

migrate for migrate for economic economic reasons. reasons.

Cultural and Cultural and environmentenvironmental factors al factors also induce also induce migration, migration, although not although not as frequently as frequently as economic as economic factors.factors.

Fig. 3-2: The major flows of migration are from less developed to more developed countries.

Push – Pull FactorsPush – Pull Factors

People decide to People decide to migrate because of migrate because of push factors and pull push factors and pull factors. factors. A push factor induces A push factor induces

people to move out of people to move out of their present locationtheir present location

A pull factor induces A pull factor induces people to move into a people to move into a new location. new location.

Both push and pull Both push and pull factors typically play a factors typically play a role in human role in human migration.migration.

Three Types of Push-PullThree Types of Push-Pull

We can We can identify 3 identify 3 major kinds of major kinds of push and pull push and pull factors: factors: EconomicEconomic CulturalCultural EnvironmentalEnvironmental

Economic Push and Pull Factors Economic Push and Pull Factors

Most people migrate for economic reasons. Most people migrate for economic reasons. The relative attractiveness of a region can shift The relative attractiveness of a region can shift

with economic change.with economic change.

Cultural Push and Pull Factors Cultural Push and Pull Factors

Forced Forced international international migration has migration has historically historically occurred for occurred for two main two main reasons:reasons: Slavery Slavery Political Political

instabilityinstability

Twentieth Century InstabilityTwentieth Century Instability In the twentieth century, forced In the twentieth century, forced

international migration increased international migration increased because of political instability resulting because of political instability resulting from cultural diversity. from cultural diversity.

Refugees are people who have been Refugees are people who have been forced to migrate from their home forced to migrate from their home country and cannot return for fear of country and cannot return for fear of persecution. persecution.

Political conditions can also operate as Political conditions can also operate as pull factors, especially the lure of pull factors, especially the lure of freedom. freedom.

With the election of democratic With the election of democratic governments in Eastern Europe during governments in Eastern Europe during the 1990s, Western Europe’s political the 1990s, Western Europe’s political pull has disappeared as a migration pull has disappeared as a migration factor. factor.

However, Western Europe pulls an However, Western Europe pulls an increasing number of migrants from increasing number of migrants from Eastern Europe for economic reasons.Eastern Europe for economic reasons.

Refugees: Refugees: Sources and Sources and destinationsdestinations

Fig. 3-1: Major source and destination areas of both international and internal refugees.

Changes in Refugee PopulationsChanges in Refugee Populations

Environmental Push and Pull Environmental Push and Pull Factors Factors

People also migrate for People also migrate for environmental reasons, pulled environmental reasons, pulled toward physically attractive toward physically attractive regions and pushed from regions and pushed from hazardous ones. hazardous ones.

Attractive environments for Attractive environments for migrants include mountains, migrants include mountains, seasides, and warm climates. seasides, and warm climates.

Migrants are also pushed from Migrants are also pushed from their homes by adverse their homes by adverse physical conditions. physical conditions.

Water—either too much or too Water—either too much or too little—poses the most common little—poses the most common environmental threat.environmental threat.

Intervening ObstaclesIntervening Obstacles

Where migrants go is not always Where migrants go is not always their desired destination. their desired destination.

They may be blocked by an They may be blocked by an intervening obstacle. intervening obstacle.

In the past, intervening obstacles In the past, intervening obstacles were primarily environmental. . . were primarily environmental. . . like mountains and deserts. like mountains and deserts.

Bodies of water long have been Bodies of water long have been important intervening obstacles. important intervening obstacles.

However, today’s migrant faces However, today’s migrant faces intervening obstacles created by intervening obstacles created by local diversity in government and local diversity in government and politics.politics.

Distance TraveledDistance Traveled Ravenstein’s theories made two main points Ravenstein’s theories made two main points

about the distance that migrants travel to their about the distance that migrants travel to their home:home:

Most migrants relocate a short distance and remain Most migrants relocate a short distance and remain within the same country. within the same country.

Long-distance migrants to other countries head for Long-distance migrants to other countries head for major centers of economic activity.major centers of economic activity.

International vs. Interregional International vs. Interregional MigrationMigration

International migration is International migration is permanent movement from permanent movement from one country to another, one country to another, whereas internal migration is whereas internal migration is permanent movement within permanent movement within the same country. the same country.

International migrants are International migrants are much less numerous than much less numerous than internal migrants. internal migrants.

Interregional migration is Interregional migration is movement from one region movement from one region of a country to another, while of a country to another, while intraregional migration is intraregional migration is movement within one region.movement within one region.

Two Types of MigrationTwo Types of Migration

International International migration is migration is further further divided into divided into two typestwo typesForced Forced VoluntaryVoluntary

Connections to Demographic Connections to Demographic TransitionTransition

Geographer Wilber Zelinsky has identified Geographer Wilber Zelinsky has identified a migration transition, which consists of a migration transition, which consists of changes in a society comparable to those changes in a society comparable to those in the demographic transition. in the demographic transition. A society in stage 1,A society in stage 1,

Unlikely to migrate permanently.Unlikely to migrate permanently. Does have high daily or seasonal mobility in search of Does have high daily or seasonal mobility in search of

food. food. According to migration transition theory, According to migration transition theory,

societies in stages 3 and 4 are the destinations societies in stages 3 and 4 are the destinations of the international migrants leaving the stage of the international migrants leaving the stage 2 countries in search of economic opportunities. 2 countries in search of economic opportunities.

Internal migration within countries in stages 3 Internal migration within countries in stages 3 and 4 of the demographic transition is and 4 of the demographic transition is intraregional, from cities to surrounding intraregional, from cities to surrounding suburbs.suburbs.

Characteristics of MigrantsCharacteristics of Migrants

Ravenstein noted distinctive Ravenstein noted distinctive gender and family-status gender and family-status patterns in his migration patterns in his migration theories: theories: Most long- distance migrants have Most long- distance migrants have

historically been malehistorically been male Most long-distance migrants have Most long-distance migrants have

historically been adult individuals historically been adult individuals rather than families with children.rather than families with children.

Changes in Gender of MigrantsChanges in Gender of Migrants But since the 1990s the gender But since the 1990s the gender

pattern has reversed, and women pattern has reversed, and women now constitute about 55 percent now constitute about 55 percent of U.S. immigration.of U.S. immigration.

Family Status of Migrants Family Status of Migrants

Ravenstein also believed Ravenstein also believed that most long-distance that most long-distance migrants were young migrants were young adults seeking work. adults seeking work.

For the most part, this For the most part, this pattern continues for the pattern continues for the United States. United States.

With the increase in With the increase in women migrating. . . women migrating. . . more children are more children are coming with their coming with their mother.mother.

Mexican Immigration Mexican Immigration

The origin of Mexican immigrants to the United The origin of Mexican immigrants to the United States matches the expectations of the migration States matches the expectations of the migration transition and distance-decay theories. transition and distance-decay theories. The destination of choice within the United States is The destination of choice within the United States is

overwhelmingly states that border Mexico. overwhelmingly states that border Mexico. But most immigrants originate not from Mexico’s But most immigrants originate not from Mexico’s

northern states but from interior states.northern states but from interior states. Because farm work is seasonal. . . the greatest number Because farm work is seasonal. . . the greatest number

of Mexicans head north to the United States in the of Mexicans head north to the United States in the autumn and return home in the spring.autumn and return home in the spring.

Issue 2: Migration PatternsIssue 2: Migration Patterns Global migration patternsGlobal migration patterns

U.S. migration patternsU.S. migration patterns Colonial immigrationColonial immigration 19th century immigration19th century immigration Recent immigrationRecent immigration

Impact of immigration on the U.S.Impact of immigration on the U.S. Legacy of European migrationLegacy of European migration Undocumented immigrationUndocumented immigration Destination of immigrants within the U.S.Destination of immigrants within the U.S.

Net Migration Net Migration (per population)(per population)

Fig. 3-3: Net migration per 1,000 population. The U.S. has the largest number of immigrants, but other developed countries also have relatively large numbers.

Migration to U.S.Migration to U.S.,, by region of by region of originorigin

Fig. 3-4: Most migrants to the U.S. were from Europe until the 1960s. Since then, Latin America and Asia have become the main sources of immigrants.

First Peak of European Immigration First Peak of European Immigration From 1607.. . until 1840, a steady stream of From 1607.. . until 1840, a steady stream of

Europeans (totaling 2 million) migrated to the Europeans (totaling 2 million) migrated to the American colonies and after 1776. . . the American colonies and after 1776. . . the United States. United States.

Ninety percent of European immigrants. . . Ninety percent of European immigrants. . . prior to 1840 came from Great Britain. During prior to 1840 came from Great Britain. During the 1840s and 1850s, the level of immigration. the 1840s and 1850s, the level of immigration. . . surged. . . surged. More than 4 million people migrated,.. . more than More than 4 million people migrated,.. . more than

twice as many as in the previous 250 years twice as many as in the previous 250 years combined.combined.

More than 90 percent of all U.S. immigrants More than 90 percent of all U.S. immigrants during the 1840s and 1850s came from during the 1840s and 1850s came from Northern and Western Europe, including two Northern and Western Europe, including two fifths from Ireland and another one third from fifths from Ireland and another one third from Germany.Germany.

Second Peak of European Immigration Second Peak of European Immigration

U.S. immigration U.S. immigration declined somewhat declined somewhat during the 1860s as a during the 1860s as a result of the Civil War result of the Civil War (1861—1865). (1861—1865).

A second peak was A second peak was reached during the reached during the 1880s, where more 1880s, where more than a half- million than a half- million people, more than people, more than three-fourths during three-fourths during the late 1880s, came the late 1880s, came from Northern and from Northern and Western Europe.Western Europe.

Third Peak of European Third Peak of European Immigration Immigration

Economic problems in the Economic problems in the United States discouraged United States discouraged immigration during the early immigration during the early 1890s, but by the end of the 1890s, but by the end of the decade the level reached a decade the level reached a third peak. third peak.

During this time, most people During this time, most people came from Italy, Russia, and came from Italy, Russia, and Austria-Hungary, places that Austria-Hungary, places that previously had sent few people.previously had sent few people.

The record year was 1907, with The record year was 1907, with 1.3 million. 1.3 million. The shift coincided with the The shift coincided with the

diffusion of the Industrial diffusion of the Industrial Revolution.. . to Southern and Revolution.. . to Southern and Eastern Europe.Eastern Europe.

Recent Immigration from Less Recent Immigration from Less Developed Regions Developed Regions

Immigration to the Immigration to the United States dropped United States dropped sharply in the 1930s sharply in the 1930s and 1940s, during the and 1940s, during the Great Depression and Great Depression and World War II, then it World War II, then it steadily increased steadily increased during the 1950s, during the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s.1960s, and 1970s.

It surged during the It surged during the 1980s and 1990s to 1980s and 1990s to historically high levels.historically high levels.

Migration from Asia to the Migration from Asia to the U.S.U.S.

Fig. 3-5: Migration in 2001. The largest numbers of migrants from Asia come from India, China, the Philippines, and Vietnam.

Migration from Latin America to the Migration from Latin America to the U.S.U.S.

Fig. 3-6: Mexico has been the largest source of migrants to the U.S., but migrants have also come from numerous other Latin American nations.

Impact of Immigration on the United Impact of Immigration on the United StatesStates

The U.S. population has been The U.S. population has been built up through a combination built up through a combination of emigration from Africa and of emigration from Africa and England primarily during the England primarily during the eighteenth century, from eighteenth century, from Europe primarily during the Europe primarily during the nineteenth century, and from nineteenth century, and from Latin America and Asia Latin America and Asia primarily during the twentieth primarily during the twentieth century. century.

In the twenty-first century, the In the twenty-first century, the impact of immigration varies impact of immigration varies around the country.around the country.

Massive European migration Massive European migration ended with the start of World ended with the start of World War I.War I.

Europe’s Demographic Transition. Europe’s Demographic Transition.

Rapid population growth in Europe fueled Rapid population growth in Europe fueled emigration, especially after 1800. emigration, especially after 1800.

Application of new technologies.. . pushed much Application of new technologies.. . pushed much of Europe into stage 2 of the demographic of Europe into stage 2 of the demographic transition. transition.

To promote more efficient agriculture, some To promote more efficient agriculture, some European governments forced the consolidation European governments forced the consolidation of several small farms into larger units. of several small farms into larger units.

Displaced farmers could choose between working Displaced farmers could choose between working in factories in the large cities or migrating to the in factories in the large cities or migrating to the United States or another country where farmland United States or another country where farmland was plentiful.was plentiful.

Diffusion of European Culture Diffusion of European Culture Europeans frequently Europeans frequently

imposed political imposed political domination on existing domination on existing populations and injected populations and injected their cultural values with their cultural values with little regard for local little regard for local traditions. traditions.

Economies in Africa and Economies in Africa and Asia became based on Asia became based on extracting resources for extracting resources for export to Europe, rather export to Europe, rather than on using those than on using those resources to build local resources to build local industry. industry.

Many of today’s conflicts in Many of today’s conflicts in former European colonies former European colonies result from past practices result from past practices by European immigrants.by European immigrants.

Undocumented Immigration to the Undocumented Immigration to the United States United States

Many people who cannot legally enter the Many people who cannot legally enter the United States are now immigrating illegally, . . . United States are now immigrating illegally, . . . called undocumented immigrants. called undocumented immigrants.

The U.S. Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration The U.S. Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) estimate 7 million Services (BCIS) estimate 7 million undocumented immigrants in the U.S., although undocumented immigrants in the U.S., although other estimates are as high as 20 million.other estimates are as high as 20 million.

The BCIS apprehends more than a million The BCIS apprehends more than a million persons annually trying to cross the southern persons annually trying to cross the southern U.S. border. U.S. border.

Half of the undocumented residents legally Half of the undocumented residents legally enter the country as students or tourists and enter the country as students or tourists and then remain after they are supposed to leave.then remain after they are supposed to leave.

Undocumented Immigration:Undocumented Immigration:Mexico to ArizonaMexico to Arizona

Fig. 3-7: The complex route of one group of undocumented migrants from a small village north of Mexico City to Phoenix, Arizona.

The 1986 Immigration Reform and The 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act Control Act

The 1986 Immigration The 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act tried Reform and Control Act tried to reduce the flow of illegal to reduce the flow of illegal immigrants. immigrants.

Aliens who could prove that they Aliens who could prove that they had lived in the United States had lived in the United States continuously between 1982 and continuously between 1982 and 1987 could become permanent 1987 could become permanent resident aliens and apply for U.S. resident aliens and apply for U.S. citizenship after 5 years. citizenship after 5 years.

At the same time, the law At the same time, the law discouraged further illegal discouraged further illegal immigration by making it harder immigration by making it harder for recent immigrants to get jobs for recent immigrants to get jobs without proper documentation.without proper documentation.

U.S. States as Immigrant U.S. States as Immigrant DestinationsDestinations

Fig. 3-8: California is the destination of about 25% of all U.S. immigrants; another 25% go to New York and New Jersey. Other important destinations include Florida, Texas, and Illinois.

Issue 3: Obstacles to MigrationIssue 3: Obstacles to Migration Immigration policies of host Immigration policies of host

countriescountries U.S. quota lawsU.S. quota laws Temporary migration for workTemporary migration for work Time-contract workersTime-contract workers Economic migrants or refugees?Economic migrants or refugees?

Cultural problems living in other Cultural problems living in other countriescountries U.S. attitudes to immigrantsU.S. attitudes to immigrants Attitudes to guest workersAttitudes to guest workers

U.S. Quota LawsU.S. Quota Laws The era of unrestricted immigration to the The era of unrestricted immigration to the

United States, ended when Congress passed United States, ended when Congress passed the Quota Act in 1921 and the National Origins the Quota Act in 1921 and the National Origins Act in 1924. Act in 1924.

Quota laws were designed to assure that most Quota laws were designed to assure that most immigrants to the United States continued to immigrants to the United States continued to be Europeans. be Europeans.

Quotas for individual countries were eliminated Quotas for individual countries were eliminated in 1968 and replaced with hemispheric quotas. in 1968 and replaced with hemispheric quotas.

In 1978 the hemisphere quotas were replaced In 1978 the hemisphere quotas were replaced by a global quota of 290,000, including a by a global quota of 290,000, including a maximum of 20,000 per country. maximum of 20,000 per country.

The current law has a global quota of 620,000, The current law has a global quota of 620,000, with no more than 7 percent from one country, with no more than 7 percent from one country, but numerous qualifications and exceptions but numerous qualifications and exceptions can alter the limit considerably.can alter the limit considerably.

Brain DrainBrain Drain Other countries charge that Other countries charge that

by giving preference to by giving preference to skilled workers, U.S. skilled workers, U.S. immigration policy now immigration policy now contributes to a brain drain, contributes to a brain drain, which is a large-scale which is a large-scale emigration by talented emigration by talented people. people.

The average immigrant has The average immigrant has received more education received more education than the typical American: than the typical American: nearly one-fourth of all nearly one-fourth of all legal immigrants to the legal immigrants to the United States have United States have attended graduate school, attended graduate school, compared to less than one-compared to less than one-tenth of native-born tenth of native-born Americans.Americans.

Guest Workers in EuropeGuest Workers in Europe

Fig. 3-9: Guest workers emigrate mainly from Eastern Europe and North Africa to work in the wealthier countries of Western Europe.

Time-contract Workers Time-contract Workers Millions of Asians migrated Millions of Asians migrated

in the nineteenth century in the nineteenth century as time-contract laborers, as time-contract laborers, recruited for a fixed period recruited for a fixed period to work in mines or on to work in mines or on plantations. plantations.

More than 29 million ethnic More than 29 million ethnic Chinese currently live Chinese currently live permanently in other permanently in other countries, for the most part countries, for the most part in Asia.in Asia.

In recent years people In recent years people have immigrated illegally have immigrated illegally in Asia to find work in in Asia to find work in other countries. other countries.

Estimates of illegal foreign Estimates of illegal foreign workers in Taiwan range workers in Taiwan range from 20,000 to 70,000. from 20,000 to 70,000. Most are Filipinos, Thais, Most are Filipinos, Thais,

and Malaysians.and Malaysians.Fig. 3-10: Various ethnic Chinese peoples

have distinct patterns of migration to other Asian countries.

Distinguishing between Economic Distinguishing between Economic Migrants and Refugees Migrants and Refugees

It is sometimes difficult to It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between distinguish between migrants seeking migrants seeking economic opportunities economic opportunities and refugees fleeing from and refugees fleeing from the persecution of an the persecution of an undemocratic undemocratic government. government.

The distinction between The distinction between economic migrants and economic migrants and refugees is important, refugees is important, because the United because the United States, Canada, and States, Canada, and Western European Western European countries treat the two countries treat the two groups differently.groups differently.

Cultural Problems Living in Other Cultural Problems Living in Other Countries Countries

For many For many immigrants, immigrants, admission to admission to another country another country does not end their does not end their problems. problems.

Politicians exploit Politicians exploit immigrants as immigrants as scapegoats for local scapegoats for local economic problems.economic problems.

U.S. Attitudes toward Immigrants U.S. Attitudes toward Immigrants

Americans have always regarded Americans have always regarded new arrivals with suspicion but new arrivals with suspicion but tempered their dislike during the tempered their dislike during the nineteenth century because nineteenth century because immigrants helped to settle the immigrants helped to settle the frontier and extend U.S. control frontier and extend U.S. control across the continent. across the continent.

Opposition to immigration Opposition to immigration intensified when the majority of intensified when the majority of immigrants ceased to come from immigrants ceased to come from Northern and Western Europe. Northern and Western Europe.

More recently, hostile citizens in More recently, hostile citizens in California and other states have California and other states have voted to deny undocumented voted to deny undocumented immigrants access to most public immigrants access to most public services, such as schools, day-care services, such as schools, day-care centers, and health clinics.centers, and health clinics.

Attitudes toward Guest Workers Attitudes toward Guest Workers In Europe, many guest workers In Europe, many guest workers

suffer from poor social suffer from poor social conditions. conditions. Both guest workers and their Both guest workers and their

host countries regard the host countries regard the arrangement as temporary. arrangement as temporary.

In reality, however, many guest In reality, however, many guest workers remain indefinitely, workers remain indefinitely, especially if they are joined by especially if they are joined by other family members. other family members.

As a result of lower economic As a result of lower economic growth rates, Middle Eastern and growth rates, Middle Eastern and Western European countries Western European countries have reduced the number of have reduced the number of guest workers in recent years. guest workers in recent years.

Political parties that support Political parties that support restrictions on immigration have restrictions on immigration have gained support in France, gained support in France, Germany, and other European Germany, and other European countries, and attacks by local countries, and attacks by local citizens on immigrants have citizens on immigrants have increased.increased.

Issue 4: Migration within a Issue 4: Migration within a CountryCountry

Migration between regions of a Migration between regions of a countrycountry Migration between regions within the U.S.Migration between regions within the U.S. Migration between regions in other countriesMigration between regions in other countries

Migration within one regionMigration within one region Rural-urban migrationRural-urban migration Urban-suburban migrationUrban-suburban migration Migration from metropolitan to non-Migration from metropolitan to non-

metropolitan regionsmetropolitan regions

Migration Inside the US Migration Inside the US

In the United In the United States, interregional States, interregional migration was more migration was more prevalent in the prevalent in the past, when most past, when most people were people were farmers.farmers.

The most famous The most famous example of large-example of large-scale internal scale internal migration is the migration is the opening of the opening of the American West.American West.

Center of Population in the U.S.Center of Population in the U.S.

Fig. 3-12: The center of U.S. population has consistently moved westward, with the population migration west. It has also begun to move southward with migration to the southern sunbelt.

Interregional Migration in the U.S.Interregional Migration in the U.S.

Fig. 3-13: Average annual migrations between regions in the U.S. in 1995 and in 2000.

The European EconomyThe European Economy

Throughout Western Throughout Western Europe. . . the regions with Europe. . . the regions with net immigration are also the net immigration are also the ones with the highest per ones with the highest per capita incomes. capita incomes.

Even countries that occupy Even countries that occupy relatively small land areas relatively small land areas have important have important interregional migration interregional migration trends. trends.

Regional differences in Regional differences in economic conditions within economic conditions within European countries may European countries may become greater with become greater with increased integration of the increased integration of the continent’s economy.continent’s economy.

Migration from Rural to Urban Areas Migration from Rural to Urban Areas

Intraregional Migration in the U.S.Intraregional Migration in the U.S.

Fig. 3-14: Average annual migration among urban, suburban, and rural areas in the U.S. during the 1990s. The largest flow was from central cities to suburbs.

Trends in UrbanizationTrends in Urbanization

Migration from Metropolitan to Non-Migration from Metropolitan to Non-metropolitan Areasmetropolitan Areas

During the late twentieth century, the more developed During the late twentieth century, the more developed countries of North America and Western Europe witnessed countries of North America and Western Europe witnessed a new trend. a new trend. More people in these regions immigrated into rural areas than More people in these regions immigrated into rural areas than

emigrated out of them. emigrated out of them. Net migration from urban to rural areas is called counter-Net migration from urban to rural areas is called counter-

urbanization.urbanization. Most counter-urbanization represents genuine migration from Most counter-urbanization represents genuine migration from

cities and suburbs to small towns and rural communities. cities and suburbs to small towns and rural communities. Like suburbanization, people move from urban to rural areas Like suburbanization, people move from urban to rural areas

for lifestyle reasons. for lifestyle reasons. Many migrants from urban to rural areas are retired people.Many migrants from urban to rural areas are retired people. Counter-urbanization has stopped in the United States because Counter-urbanization has stopped in the United States because

of poor economic conditions in some rural areas. of poor economic conditions in some rural areas. Future migration trends are unpredictable in more Future migration trends are unpredictable in more

developed countries, because future economic conditions developed countries, because future economic conditions are difficult to forecast.are difficult to forecast.

Chapter 3: Chapter 3: MigrationMigration

The EndThe End