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2.0. Introduction
Chapter -II
The Study Area
Sundarban is dominated by mangrove forest, in the littoral tract of Gangetic delta, at the head
of the Bay of Bengal. It is characterized by unique physical as well as cultural landscapes.
The view of Sundarban is of a wide stretch of low forest, with an almost even outline.
2.1. Location and Extent
This forest is inundated daily, during high tides by innumerable interlacing creeks. The
western stretch of forest and swamp lies between 21° 30, 40" and 22° 3 i 30" north latitudes and
88° 4' 30" and 91° 14' east longitudes. The total geographical area of Indian Sundarban is about
9630 square kilometers. The rest of the Sundarban region lies within Bangladesh and does
not come under the purview of this study. (Fig. 1)
2.1.1. Dampier and Hodges line
Mr. W. Dampier, Sundarban Commissioner and Lieutenant Hodges, were responsible for
setting up a demarcating line from south-west to north-east. This imaginary line indicating
the northern limit of Sundarban was known as the Dampier and Hodges line, named after.
those who demarcated it and surveyed the area during 1831 to 1832. (Hunter, 1875)
2.1.2. Administrative Area
The Sundarban region covers parts of South 24 Parganas and parts of North 24 Parganas. Out
of a total of nineteen Community Development Blocks thirteen lie within the district of South
24 Parganas. These include Sagar, Namkhana, Kakdwip, Patharpratima, Mathurapur I and
Mathurapur II blocks of Diamond Harbour Sub-division as well as Jaynagar L Jaynagar II.
25
Canning I, Canning II, Basanti, Kultali and Gosaba Blocks of Alipur Sadar Sub-division. The
blocks of the district of North 24 Parganas located in the Sundarban region are Hingalganj,
Hasnabad, Haroa, Sandeshkhali I, Sandeshkhali II and Minakhan. These are lying with
Basirhat Sub-division. The following table gives the detail of administrative divisions of
Sundarban.
Table 2.1. Administrative Division of Sundarban
Districts Sub-divisions Community Development Blocks
{ Canning I, Canning II, Jaynagar I, South Alipur Jaynagar II, Basanti, Kultali, Gosaba
24 Parganas Diamond Harbour { Mathurapurl, Mathurapur II, Kakdwip, Namkhana, Patharpratima, Sagar
North Basirhat Haroa, Minakhan, Sandeshkhali I,
24 Parganas Sandeshkhali II, Hasnabad, Hingalganj
2.1.3. Boundaries
The Sundarban has artificial land frontiers as well as natural water boundaries. It has a
lengthy extension along the sea face of the Bay of Bengal. Entire Barasat and parts of
Basirhat sub-divisions of the district of North 24 parganas lie to the north and the Bay of
Bengal is the southern limit of the Sundarban. Much of the eastern boundarv with Bangladesh ~ . ~
runs along river channels which being distributaries. often shift and raise problems of border
demarcation. The river Hugli, serves as the western limit of Sundarban while separating it
from the district of Medinipur.
2.2. Historical Background
The Sundarban region of West Bengal has a very interesting past as revealed from the epics
and from the accounts of the early invaders. travelers and higher officials.
2.2.1. Cultural History of the Region
In the epic of Mahabharata, in the Sanskrit literature, Raghuvansa and in some of the
Puranas of the Hindu mythology there are references of the Gangetic delta and all of them
state that at the dawn of history it laid between the kingdom of the Suhmas. in western Bengal
and that of the Vangas, in eastern Bengal. However, during that period the boundaries were
not well defined and were transformed according to the desire of kings.
Ptolemy's View
Ptolemy's map of second century A.D. shows the south of the delta as cut up by rivers and
estuaries to such an extent that it actually represented a collection of islands. Nothing definite
is known bout the area until the end of the 151h century.
Ain-1-Akbari and Mansamanga/
A few details, however, is found from Mansamangal of Bipradasa (1495) and from Ain-1-
Akbari. The story of Chand Saodagar the trader and the account of Todarmal also give the
indication of the existence of vast swampy forest to the south and east of present Kolkata
(erstwhile Calcutta).
Dr. Blochmann's view
According to Hunter's (1875) Report Dr. Blochmann was of the opinion that the list of
Maha/s given in Ain-1-Akbari, enabled his successors positively to assert that in 1582 the
northern outskirts of Sundarban, so far as it lies within the Presidency division of Bengal
corresponded almost exactly to the northern boundary of the jungle marked on modern
survey maps.
27
Pratapaditya
The actual ruler of the Sundarban towards the end of the 161h century was a chief called
Pratapaditya. Being the chief, he enjoyed independence in the south and south-eastern portion
of Gangetic delta. The exact extent of the Sundarban forests of the period is not mentioned
anywhere. However, scattered evidence and records available from various sources indicate
that the forests extended from the south-eastern portion of Medinipur district of West Bengal
to Bakharaganj district in Bangladesh (the then East Bengal).
The Maghs of Mayanamar
During the 181h century, Sundarban was infested by the corsairs and a chain had to be run
across the Hugli between Calcutta and Sibpur to prevent them extending their raids up to the
river. According to the East India Chronicle of 1758, the Maghs, in February 1717, carried
off from the southern parts of BengaL no less than 1800 persons, men. women and children.
However. during the later half of the 181h century, a new system of reclamation was started by
Tilman Henckell, who was the Judge and Magistrate of Jessore ( 1781 ). Forests were
converted into paddy fields through reclamation of land. (O'Malley, 1914)
Gradually, the jungles were driven back and the agricultural colonies spread fast. though
facilities for communication is still scanty.
2.2.2. Administrative changes
Regulation II, III and IX of 1793, defined the jurisdiction of the civil, criminal and revenue
courts established in the 24 Parganas. but it \Vas stated that the jurisdiction of these tribunals
should not extend to the town of Calcutta.
For a considerable time, tht: district was divided into two parts, the Alipur and Barasat
divisions. each of which fom1ed a separate magisterial district. The Barasat Joint Magistracy
28
was abolished in 1861, in which year the district was distributed into the following eight sub-
divisions - Diamond Harbour, Baruipur, Alipur, Dum Dum, Barrackpore, Barasat, Basirhat
and Satkhira. ( M v k heY" i e. e. 1 2 6 ° l)
From 1816, the administration of the Sundarban was governed by Regulation IX of 1816,
which provided for the appointment of Commissioner in the Sundarban and vested him with
the duties and authority of a collector of Land Revenue.
However, in 1905 the Sundarban Act, Bengal Act I of 1905, was passed and it was
implemented by the commissioner of the Sundarban, by the collectors of the three districts.
(24 Parganas, Khulna and Backergunge) within which the Sundarban was included.
Later on. the district of 24 Parganas was bifurcated into North and South 24 Parganas. On 1st
March 1986. the districts ofNorth and South 24 Parganas were formed with the Headquarters
at Barasat and Alipur respectively.
2.2.3. Evolving Nomenclature of Sundarban
There is a general acceptance that the name Sundarban, owes its origin to sundarihon or the (
forest of Sundari trees (Heritierayttoralis), a species, which was common in the forest once
upon a time. It is also stated that since the Royal Bengal Tiger is nicknamed as Sundar
(beautiful), the forest (ban), which is considered as his kingdom is named as Sundarhan.
Another view states that Sundarban is named for having beautiful forest plants.
Often. it is said that the beautiful embankment, common in this area, is responsible for the
name Sundari bund. The name Sundarban also has its roots in Sundarhan or Suf{andha, the
river at Barisal (now in Bangladesh). Earlier. the French people pronounced Sander/Jan.
During the rule of the British invaders, pronunciation as Sundarban came into vogue. During
29
Kautilya's period, this area was referred to as Kalikaban. Sundarban may also have derived
this name, probably from Sanskrit word 'Samudraban' meaning forest near the sea.
The findings of different periodicals, journals and books suggest, that there have been varied
spellings regarding the name of Sundarban. Spellings as, Soondariban, Soondarban,
Sundarban are often found. W. W. Hunter (1875) referred to it as Sundarbans. However, at
present, Sundarban is widely accepted as the most suitable name of the region.
2.2.4. Gangaridae
The records of Greek and Chinese travelers contain repeated references about the flourishing
and prosperous kingdom of Gangaridi, in lower Bengal. Diodorus, Ptolemy, referred to these
places of great importance. By the quarter of the 4th century BC, lower and western Bengal
united into a compact kingdom, which was known as "Gangaridae". It was also, the area
inhabited by the tribe known as "Gangaridac" (Deodorus XVIII 93, MC Gindle Translation).
Gradually, this land, the reference of which is available in the Mahabharata and the Puranas,
evolved with its unique identity. (liat...d c "Y1
1 "! q 1)
The country called Ganga, on the coast of Bay of Bengal included parts of littoral West
BengaL contiguous to Orissa and some parts of coast at Bangladesh.
Ho\vever, the limits of the Gangaridae country, as found on 4th century BC did not remain the
same in the later times. It included, parts of coastal West Bengal and Bangladesh. The
descriptions of Gangaridae or Ganges country, in Greek and Latin sources of the centuries,
immediately before and after the beginning of the Christian references to Huangchi-Han
Ylich kingdom. are of great importance in tracing the historical significance of Sundarban.
30
2.3. Regional Identity of Sundarban
The Sundarban forms the southern most portion of the Gangetic delta at the head of the Bay
of Bengal. It is an active delta covering the littoral tracts of Bengal. It is impregnated with
biodiversity and thus inheriting a unique identity.
2.3.1. Interface
A very interesting factor noticed here is the sea-land, forest-village interface, which leads to
the development of unique socio-economic and ecological characteristic of this region.
2.3.2. Biological Diversity
The Sundarban is a rich storehouse of different species of flora and fauna. Lying within the
humid tropical belt rich diversity of flora and fauna occurs here, with the overlapping of
niche, which is quite unique of Sundarban.
2.4. Geology
The geologic and various other, physiographic conditions, of different regional components
can be found here. The whole area consists of one vast plain gently sloping seaward. It is,
however, traversed by low ridges formed mainly of river deposits (natural levees) or
embankments. The cyclonic storms and erosional aspects are responsible for the changing
configuration of the buffer islands which has been traced throughout the historical past of the
last century. Changing shape and fom1s of Sagar Island has been depicted in the figure
number 3. Strong tidal surge whenever hit the Sagar Island it is subjected to erosion. A study
was made by S. Bandyopadhyay ( 1997) on the causes and impact of erosion in Sagar Island
since 1855. It was revealed that construction of guard walls on the northern and southern ends
ofNayachar Island in order to protect the Haldia port accelerated the process of erosion. Both
the Sagar and Ghoramara islands were more vigorously affected after construction of this
3!
wall. The inhabitants of these islands spend sleepless night in each new moon and full moon
day with apprehension of tidal surge.
2.4.1. Sequence of Geologic Deposition
Basically, the sequence of sediments found, is composed of distinct layers of peat and
intermediate layer of soft gray clay. There is a great natural depression, called "Swatch of no
ground" in the Bay of Bengal, south of Raimangal estuary (Mandal-Ghosh, 1989). Hooker
( 1854) and Theobald (1881) stated that the whole of lower Bengal was originally an estuary. I
'r r.
Historical evidences elucidate the fact that the tidal swamp once extended up to the Rajmahal /
Hills. In the later part of the tertiary period, this was filled up by the Himalayan drainage
from the north. J. Fergusson (1863) was of the opinion that during the early Pleistocene,
shallow marine water condition prevailed in this part of the Bengal Basin. It was only in the
late Pleistocene that sea receded completely from this area. Older sediments began to be
covered with thick river borne alluvium. Very precisely Oldham (1893) states that the whole
area including the Sundarban, lying between the river Hugli and Meghna (in Bangladesh) in
the east. is only the delta caused by the deposition of the debris carried down by the river
Ganga. Brahmaputra and their tributaries. Oldham (1917) also suggested that this part of the
Gangetic plains were formed by the sinking of the crust due to the weight of the alluvium
brought down by the rivers from the Himalayas. The whole of lower Gangetic Delta as such
remained some what trough land till today. The geological history of the region in fact lies in
subsidence followed by deposition in comparatively recent times.
There has been an ecological succession of phases like tidal mangroves. followed by sudden
cessation of tidal influx, marine and salt tolerant fresh water vegetation in conformity with
the eastward tilting of South BengaL some 300 years ago. Subsidence and earthquake.
together with other natural hazards have been common to this region.
DRAINAGE NETWORK
After Paul and Bandopadhyay, 1987.
SWAMP FOREST
MUDFLATS
CREEK
SWAMP THICKET
MUDFLATS AND SANDFLATS
SANDY MUD
HERBACEOUS SWAMP
---LOWTIDE _
SAND FLATS
NO CURRENT
MAXIMUM CURRENT
NO CURRENT
Fig- 2
3).
2.5. Morphology
Broadly, the three morphological sub- zones are recognized in the islands: a) Ridge, b) Slope
and c) Flat. Topographically, this region is characterized by flat terrain, with average
elevation of 10 meters above high tide level. Only along the courses, the natural levees rise
above the flood plain.
2.5.1. Morphological Subdivisiions
Sundarban constitutes of varied morphological features as stated in the table below.
Table 2.2. Morphological Features
Serial No. Categories
1 Mudflats
2 Shifting Sand Banks
3 Complex Dune Ridges
4 Sand Flats
5 Mangrove Swamps
However, the three morphological sub-zones found in the islands and estuarine banks of
Sundarban are stated in the following table:
Table 2.3 Morphological Sub Zones
Serial Categories Characteristics
i) Occupy the shallow estuarine islands.
1 Upper Flat ii) Matured mangrove and high organic mud.
iii) 150m to 175m in width.
i) Mid littoral zone. 2 Middle Flats ii) Soft muds and spiny grasses
i) Rarely exposed part. ii) 3 to 6m above mean sea
3 Lower Flats level. iii) Sea grasses and mangrove
herbs.
33
The major portion of Sundarban is covered with the mudflats and the sandflats. The
suspended sediments of finer quality, gets time, to settle down in the sheltered areas where
the disturbance of tidal currents and waves are minimized. Thus, the mudflats develop
gradually on the islands and estuarine banks. (Fig. 2)
The morphology of the swamps is characterized by occurrence of salt ponds, ditches and
banks with a thick substratum of decomposed organic matter.
2.5.2. Coastal Dunes
Another characteristic morphological feature, found here, is that of the sand dunes. In the
south-western Sundarban, Sagar Island, Jambudwip, Fraserganj, Bakkhali and Lothian
Islands coastal dunes are observed.
2.5.2.1. Dune Formation
Formation of dune is controlled by many factors,as:
A) Insufficient source of sand on the beaches.
B) Absence of long dry season with strong wind speed on the shores.
C) High sub-surface moisture.
D) Rapid gro\\'th of vegetation on the sandy shores.
2.5.2.2. Categories of Coastal Dunes
Parallel dunes, embryonic, dune humps and dotted dunes are found in the Sundarban region.
The parallel dune landscape in Sundarban comprises of a system of low ridges parallel to the
coast separated by large dry and wet sandflats.
1851 - 55
1938-42
After Bandopadhyay, 1997.
EVOLUTION OF SAGAR ISLAND
( 1851 - '55 to 1992)
1857 1904-05
1962-69 1977
REFERENCES
Light House
Metalled Road
Refugee Colony
Ghoramara Island GM
1922-23
1992
km6 6km L_! ...1.-l.--'-...l........l.--.11
Fig - 3
34
On the islands of Jambu and Lothian the dunes are still growing and are younger in age.
However, the embryonic dunes, dotted dunes and dune humps are mainly formed due to the
south-west and north-east winds .. .:.
The dunes of Sagar Island are largely developed and matured enough. These range to over 5
meters in altitude. The seaward faces of the coastal dunes are engulfed by the encroaching sea
waves with activities of the cyclones.
2.5.3. Broad Natural Divisions
Considering all the physiographic and geological variations, the Sundarban can be broadly
divided into two divisions.
a) Stable Delta towards the north forming higher ground hardly affected by tidal
action.
b) The most dynamic, active delta in the southern seaboard popularly called the low
lying Sundarban.
2.6. Drainage
The Sundarban has a dense mesh of innumerable rivers and channels of which the rivers as
Saptamukhi, Thakuran, Matla and Raimangal are important. The larger rivers flowing from
north to south are connected by numerous tidal channels, which form intricate drainage
network in this region.
2.6.1. Drainage and Associated Characteristics
Rapid estuarine depositions result in the emergence of land blocks at or near the sea leveL
separated from each other by numerous offshoots of Bhagirathi-Hugli and Raimangal river.
35
The numerous cross channels are developed due to the lateral spill effect produced by the sea
and landward forces.
The river channels get choked up due to the higher rate of sedimentation and formation of
mudflats, sandbanks, shoals and islands. It is found that in the lower part of the delta, the
creeks are tidally very active. Most of the prematurely reclaimed sections are likely to be
submerged by saline water.
The rivers of Sundarban, were formerly distributaries of the Ganga, but the main current of
this river, got deflected eastwards and as a result, they ceased to be effective drainage
channels.
The rivers are essentially tidal. In the eastern region of Sundarban, the rivers receive water
from the excess rain of the n01ih- eastern, hilly tracts. Here, the main water flows through
Bramhaputra and feed the rivers of the eastern sector.
2.6.2. Major Rivers of Sundarban
The main rivers of the area, most of which are estuaries. are i) Hugli. ii) P 'tali-Bidyadhari,
iii) Muri-Ganga, iv) Saptamukhi, v) Thakuran, vi) Matla, vii) Gosaba and viii) Haribhanga.
The river Hugli forms the western boundary of the district, by which water of river Ganges
enters the Bay of Bengal. It enters from the north-east and then flows almost in a southern
direction towards Calcutta. Then it moves towards the south-west receiving the Damodar.
opposite Falta Point and the Rupnarayan opposite Hugli Point. Shortly, just before it falls into
the sea, it bifurcates the main channel passing west and another channel, east of Sagar
Islands. During the rainy season, the spill streams from the Ganges and tributaries of the
Bhagirathi originating from Chota Nagpur. maintain a deep channel.
36
2.6.2.1. Problems of Navigation
Amongst the two divisions of the Hugli river the main division flows past the Ghoramara
island and the western portion of Sagardwip, finally into the Bay of Bengal. The other
division flows towards the eastern portion, past the island of Kakdwip, Namkhana and
Bakkhali. This is known as Muri Ganga.
There are several problems of navigation, which include, difficulty caused by rapid currents,
shoals and shifting sand banks etc. However, in spite of natural difficulties the Hugli is
navigable. l Ko. (I a~ L. a~ I 1.0oo)
2.6.2.2. Tidal Bore
The tide of the Hugli is so strong, that it gives rise to the phenomenon known as a bore. This
name is given to the headwave, which is formed when an unusually high tide is checked by
the narrowing of the river channel.
The Bidyadhari is a tidal river, taking the birth at the Sundarban, it flows north-east, past
Haroa, where it is known as Haroa Gang and bends westwards. Next, it flows south-west
wards to the junction of Baliaghata Canal and Tolly's Nullah, and then south-east Matla or
Canning. Here, it is joined by the rivers, Khuratya and Atharabanka . The united stream.
forms the Matla river, which flows south to the sea and is navigable by river steamers up to
eanning.
To the east of Muri Ganga lies the Saptamukhi. From Muri Ganga, towards the east the
Saptamukhi river is connected by the river known as Doania. Locally. it is known as Hatania
Doania. However, the name Saptamukhi is given, because it has seven distributaries.
HYDROLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF SUNDARBAN ( Saptamukhi Estuary)
40 34
30 f?
<f. 30 ~ ::J
Z' ·c: 20
~ n; 26 cu
a. (/) E Q; Q)
f-iii ~ 10 22 Q;
~ 0 18
Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb
5 8.5
::::-E 4 8.5
c: r cu 0> a. >- 3 8.3 Q; >< 0 iii -o ~ cu > 0 (/)
2 8.2 (/)
i5
8.1 Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb
100 60
90 f 1 T
1 I "1 50
I I I I
80 i I I I 40 <f.
I I I I r ~~~~~~~~
~ 70 ;I 1 ;1 It 3D -o 1 ;1 ;II r , "' E Jllllllllllll t ::J I I I 1 I r ;II ;1;1 ;II ;J. IX
60 ;II ;II ;I j 20
;1;1 ;1;1 ;II
50 Jl I I I I I II I I I II I I II 71 I 10 I II I I I' II I I I II I I II I I I I 1 ;1 ;I ;I
40 ;I I . I I ;II 1;1 1 I IT'
0 Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb
10 9.0
9 8.5
a. 8 8.0 a.
Z' r s 7
a. 7.5
(ij 0 (/) (/)
0 6 (/) 7.0
5 6.5
4 6.0 Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb
Source : Dt. of Science and Technology , Govt. of West Bengal. Fig -4
3?
The three rivers, Bidyadhari, Khuratya and Rampura Khal joined together, very near to the
present Canning town and form the river Matla. The river Matla, has wide connection with
the Bidya and falls to the sea with a wide opening.
The Kalindi, branches off from the Jamuna at Basantpur and forms the eastern boundary of
the district, down to the sea, where it merges in the Raimangal estuary.
The south of Sundarban, is traversed by numerous tidal rivers formed at the junction of
smaller water courses and branches thrown off, by other rivers, having southerly course
towards the sea. The most important rivers from west to east are, the Baratala river or
Channel creek, the Saptamukhi, the Thakuran and the Gosaba .
2.6.3. Estuaries
The major estuaries found here from west to east are the Baratala or Channel creek, the
Saptamukhi, the Jamira, the Matla, the Gosaba and the RaimangaL the last including the
mouths of the Hariabhanga and Kalindi.
2.7. Climate
Sundarban enjoys a humid tropical monsoon climate. Another influencing factor is proximity
to the sea. An interesting factor of climatic characteristic is that though the region is close to
the Tropic of Cancer, maritime influence has predominating imprint upon the climate.
(Fig. 5)
2.7.1. Temperature
The temperature varies from 20°C during December-January to 28°C during June-July. The
annual range of temperature is about 8°C. The daily maximum temperature varies from 28°C (.
to 37.4°C,1 Highest temperature recorded is in the months of May. L
r I
A\IERAGE RAINFALL AND TEMPERATURE
IN SUNDARBAN
40 - 3~
0\.) 30 300 ~
<;;: f ~ 2.3 250 ,;:. >-::>
20 -+l 200 ~
\'1 _,
>- l.S
~· - - 1~
('!
<V '\-
CL 10 (
- 100 ·-f ~
~ .s - •-•r•• ·-. .so <::/-
// ""-
JAM FEB MAR .APR :11.\Y 1UN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV D!C
Fig 5.
TeYY'\pev--otvvt D R0inf all 17"J
38
2. 7 .2. Rainfall
The average annual rainfall is 180 em. In Sundarban, there is a wide deviation of average r I
annual rainfall. According to the latest figurd available, the percentage of variation of rainfall
was + 20.83. The actual rainfall of 2180.16 mm was recorded, while the normal rainfall was
1803.4mm. Maximum rainfall of 473.50mm was recorded in the month of September.
Maximum rainfall occurs at Manmathanagar of Gosaba block located in the eastern portion.
However, there is decrease in the amount of rainfall towards the west. At Ganga Sagar, the
amount of rainfall, gradually decreases. Most of the eastern portion is covered by dense
mangrove forest, where amount of rainfall is much greater. However, in the western portion
where there is predominance of agricultural land, amount of rainfall gradually decreases. This
has been a very interesting observation. --------- -------·- -~---
2. 7 .3. Cyclonic Storms
During the rainy season, the cyclonic weather is a regular feature, which engulfs. the entire
district. Southerly winds, become more frequent and there is a period of transition,
characterized by occasional thunderstorms and accompanied by rainfall. The severe cyclones
occur in May and later in October and November. During late March to May. violent and
frequent thunderstorms occur in this area, known as 'Norwesters'. Hailstorms also occur
along with the thunderstonns locally known as the Kalbaisakhi.
2.8. Soil
Soils of Sundarban are derivatives of fine Gangetic deltaic alluvium borne out of terrestrial
materials of the Himalyas by the Ganga, Bramhaputra and their tributaries.
The Sundarban soils are light gray, pale olive or olive gray in colour. The parent material is
the Gangetic alluvium. Bhattacharya, ( 1972) has made important observations on the
Plate 1: Collection of soil sample from an orchard at Dayapur.
Plate 2: Interaction with a honey-collector who became a victim
of tiger attack inside the forest.
3S
morphology of the soil profiles of the region. These profiles are of very recent origin. The
soils have not yet received enough time to reach maturity. So, soil horizons are imperfectly
developed, and are generally moist. (Fig. 6)
The Sundarban soils can be classified into four major types: l) Saline soils, 2) Saline-alkali r
soiL 3) Non Saline-alkali soil and 4) Degraded alkali soil. In fact, salinization took place on
the deltaic alluvial soil (Entisol) and ultimately has changed the inherent characteristics of the
soil to form saline group of soils (Inceptisol). lM.v k J... e.. Y i e.. e... ck cJ- ' I q rt ::r )
Saline soils, are found in the flood plains, of rivers and in the natural depressions, along the
sides of rivers and creeks. The rivers discharge enormous volume of water along with silt and
clay, in suspension to the sea. Particles of clay and silt undergo partial transformation in their
exchange complex, due to exchange reaction with sodium chloride of sea water. These
salinized particles of silt and clay, are brought back by tides and deposited over the low lying
areas and depressions behind the levees, with the formation of saline soils.
In wide areas of the P.S. of Falta, Jaynagar, Mathurapur, Canning, Sandeshkhali and
Hasnabad , such soil deposits are found.
Whenever, the tide water containing sufficient sodium salt, floods a fresh lowland soil area,
with excess of alkali, it makes the soil enriched with Na-ions in the similar process that
happens when the silt and clay-loads are pushed into the sea water by rivers. The resultant
soil thus formed is the saline-alkaline soil. Saline-alkaline soils occur widely in the Islands of
Sagar, Kakdwip. Namkhana, Namsini, Frazerganj, Rakashkhali and throughout the southern
deltaic part of West Bengal. Limited areas of occurrences of saline-alkaline soil can be found
in the Police Station of Kulpi, Mathurapur, Canning and Sandeshkhali.
Rain water, brings about changes in the nature of deposits as a result of leaching under
different environmental conditions. For instance. salts. when partially leached awa\· m
absence of dolomite, in the original deposit and Na-ions entering the exchange complex in
presence of excess of salts, saline-alkali soil is formed.
Where salts are completely removed through leaching, with rain water, non-saline alkali soils
are formed. Such a soil is seen to occur in patches in the P.S. ofMathurapur.
Another type of soil, known as degraded alkali soil (Sigmond, 1934) or saline Turf soil has
been formed in regions where the process of leaching has taken place in presence of half
+ ' decomposed organic matter lying within a zone of 4 to 6 feet of the surface. H-ion from
organic acids liberated from the semi-decomposed organic residues also takes part in the
formation of such soil. The organic acids and high salt content have formed saline
unsaturated soils. Degraded saline soil is widely found in the P.S. of Sandeshkhali and in the
adjacent areas of Canning P.S. and in the southern part of Hasnabad P.S.
Soil and Vegetation Relationship
Vegetation is strongly influenced by the amount of salt present in it. Large areas are f1ooded
by saline water during the hiigh tide and some species are protected by embankments. Even
on the protected lands incrustations of sodium salt can be found on the surface during the dry
season (winter) when capillarity is at its maximum intensity, and on such soils vegetation
growth is stunted. The high amount of sodium chloride and sulphate in soils has/detrimental
effects on growing plant. Such saline soil interferes with the absorption of water by plants
through the development of higher osmotic value in the soil solution than that exists in the
root cells. In addition, entrance of nutrient ions into root cells is influenced by the nature and
concentration of other ions. As a result of this plants on the virgin lands, occasionally
inundated by brackish water, have dwarfish appearance and they are mostly halophytes. Also
the low productivity of the soil of recently reclaimed virgin lands is for the presence of
excessive amount of sodium salt.
22" N
INCEPTISOL
Non Saline Alkali
Saline Alkaline
Saline
Degraded Alkali
Degraded Saline
Wetland
'
Q
Source: NBSSLUP_ /
~ ~
SOILS OF SUNDARBAN
0
OF
to
8 E
km 10 10
sg• E
z
Gl
r
m 22" N
\
0 ~ L
N G
20 km
sg• E Fig -6
41
2.8.1. Soil Texture
Soils of the area under study belong to four major classes of texture: (i) Malia! or clayey soil,
(ii) Dorasa or loamy soil, (iii) Balia or Sandy soil, (iv) Nona or Saline soil. ',
However, the matial or clayey soil IS further subdivided into: (a) Kala Matal, (b) Ranga
Matal, (c) Jhajhra Matal.
Kala matal is a stiff, black clay of great natural fertility, on which all kinds of crops can be
grown. Ranga matal is of a reddish colour, which cracks in the dry season and sinks into
holes in the rains. This is well suited for winter rice and on higher levels can be used for the
cultivation of jute and other bhadoi (harvested in September) crops. Jhajhra mala! is inferior
to the other two varieties, is blackish in colour and is easy to plough even when dry.
Dorasa soil, is a mixture of day and sand. It is used for bhadoi and rabi (harvested in March)
crops and also suitable for sugarcane. The dihi lands, or elevated lands surrounding village
sites fall under this category.
Along the river Hugli, and in the northern part of the district, heavy textured silty clay loam is
found. However, in the western p011ion of Sundarban sandy clay loam.~ and loamy soil are
predominant. In the eastern portion or littoral belt swampy and marshy soil is observed. This
is also known as the mangrove soil.
At Ganga Sagar and Kakdwip, there has been predominance of clay loam soil. At Kachuberia
greater amount of silt can be observed. At Bakkhali, loamy soil has been found while
Namkhana had silt loam.
Textural variation of soil is also found in the western portion. However, in the eastern portion
there is predominance of clayey and clay loam soils. Thus no textured Yariation as such is
found.
4:t
Soils of Sundarban are mainly heavy textured with greater percentage of silt and clay and
lesser percentage of sand.
2.8.2. Chemical Properties
Fertility of the soil does not depend entirely on texture. In order to have an idea on fertilizer
requirement it is essential to assess the chemical properties as well.
2.8.2.1. Nitrogen, Phosphate and Potassium (NPK)
It has been observed that f::trmers of Sundarban are Nitrogen biased beQ.ause they can
immediately get the response through the growth of foliage. As because the role of Phosphate
and Potassium cannot be denied for their positive impact on strengthening the stem.
controlling diseases and helping the reproductive process, all of them were assessed through
sample collection followed by clinical test.
2.8.2.1.1. Nitrogen
Available ammoniacal Nitrogen found in the western part of Sundarban, mainly at Ganga
Sagar, Kachuberia, Kakdwip, Bakkhali and Namkhana and adjoining area has recorded
medium status (about 65 lbs per acre).
In the eastern portion of Rajat Jubilee, Dayapur, Jamespur, Gosaba, Sajnekhali and Basanti.
the status of available ammoniacal Nitrogen is rather low (13 lbs per acre). However. at
Sonakhali and Pakhirala medium ammoniacal nitrogen is found.
The status ofNitrate Nitrogen is high (45 lbs per acre) in the western portion at Ganga Sagar.
Kachuberia, Kakdwip. Bakkhali and Namkhana. In the eastern portion status of Nitrate
Nitrogen availability is very low (about 4 lbs per acre). However, in Dayapur, the status of
Nitrate Nitrogen is high (about 45 lbs per acre as N). The Nitrogen content is comparatively
less due to heavy rain and rapid drainage.
43
2.8.2.1.2. Phosphate
In the western part of Sundarban, there is practically no trace of phosphate in the soil as
revealed from the testing results. As low as 0 lbs P20 5 per acre, is found in Ganga Sagar,
Kachuberia, Kakdwip, Bakkhali and Namkhana.
In the eastern portion available phosphate content in the soil is medium ( 20 to 50 lbs per acre
as P20 5). At Dayapur however, it is medium high (50 to 65 lbs per acre as P205). At
Sajnekhali, available phosphate is high (above 65 lbs per acre as P20s). It has been observed,
that near the forest, the status of available phosphate is higher.
2.8.2.1.3. Potassium
Available potassium content, is very high in the eastern as well as the western portion of
Sundarban where it is above 350 lb. per acre.
2.8.2.2. Organic Mat~cr
The organic matter present in the eastern portion of the study area varies from 0.14 percent at
Kachuberia to that of 2.0 I percent at Namkhana. But in the eastern portion it varies from 0.34
percent at Jamespur to 1.34 percent at Pakhirala.
2.8.2.3. Soil Salinity
The tidally inundated soils of Sundarban show neutral to slightly alkaline reaction with high
content of soluble salt. Based on chemical analysis, soils of this region can be classified into
the following: (a) Saline Soil, (b) Saline alkaline soiL (c) Non saline alkaline soil, (d)
Degraded alkaline soil.
Saline soils are found in the flood plains as well as the natural depressions along the banks of
rivers and creeks. Saline-alkaline soils are found to occur widely in Sagar, Kakdwip,
Namkhana and Frzerganj.
Flushing by rain water causes the soluble salts to be removed. Here, non-saline alkaline soils
are found. In parts of Mathurapur such soil can be found. Degraded alkaline soil of saline turf
soil is formed in areas where the process of leaching has taken place in the presence of half
decomposed organic matter lyiing within a zone of 1-2m from the surface. This type of soil is
found in Sandeshkhali and adjacent parts of Canning block and southern part of Hasnabad
block.
2.8.2.3.1. Seasonal Fluctuation of Soil Salinity
1 Soils of Sundarban are rich in salt chlorides and sulphates of sodium. magnesium and
calcium due to brackish water incursion through the creeks. Soils are alkaline in reaction,
containing high amount of soluble salts. Soil salinity is lowest during the monsoon season,
obviously due to flushing and highest during the hot and dry months of April-May. During
the summer season, reverse trend was observed due to strong capillary action in the sub-soil.
The ascending moisture, on reaching the surface is normally evaporated and leaves salt
incrustation. This is found mainly, on the land surface. Spatial variation in salinity occurs,
because some areas often remain waterlogged during the monsoon season. The seasonal
tluctuation in salinity is observed along with temperature and pH values. (Fig. 4)
The salinity of the surface soil and the adjoining water bodies. change to a great extent
though out the year and are governed mainly by quantity of fresh water flow through the
connecting rivers. The torrential rain. during monsoon is also very important for the
variations in salinity in these water bodies and on the surface soil.
45
2.8.2.4. Soil pH
The pH value is largely higher. The eastern portion of Sundarban, however, the pH value is I
comparatively low. Soils of the northern fringe of Sundarban, is usually alkaline, due to the
infiltration of salt water through the mud embankments.
Tidally inundated mangrove soils of Sundarban shows neutral, to slightly alkaline reaction
with high content of soluble salt, and the bare coastal tract of western Sundarban is affected
by salinity of soil. (Table Append. C )
The ideal pH value for production of paddy is 5.5 to 7.5. Paddy grows mainly m the
reclaimed northern and western parts of Sundarban.
The major problem of the soils of Sundarban is thus the alkalinity and saline water intrusion
in the agricultural field;
2.8.2.5. Chemical Capacity
Chemical capacity of the soil samples collected from the different parts of Sundarban was
assessed following the method propounded by G. Azzi (1956) who considered Nitrogen.
Phosphate, Potassium and organic matter content in soil by affixing definite value to various
levels ofthese nutrients. The proportionate values were ultimately converted into the status of
spatial variation in the chemical capacity of soil.
The western portion of the study area has a major part under Effective Index Values 80 to
WI~~ 100w)o.:t Ganga Sagar,1he value gradually decreases,as we move towards the nor1h Kakdwip
• J
and Bakkhali, however, falls within the range of 60 to 80") while most of the area falls within
comparatively higher index values as 80 to 100. (Table No. Appen. C -1)
22" N
<S
as• E 89" E
VARIATION OFCHEMICAL CAPACITY IN THE
SOILS OF SUNDARBAN
STATUS OF THE EFFECTIVE
CHEMICAL CAPACITY INDEX -.J
High ~ Above 80 (!)
Medium D 60-80 ;:)
Low ~ Below60 .:r
1-0
~ !>-
0
"?"
~
~ I-Q
~
~
' ~
' <>
(q
~
L OF 8 E N G
km 10 0 10 20 km
as• E 89" E
z
r
m 2'Z' N
:r
\
~
Fig -7
46
The eastern portion has comparatively lower effective index values. Greater portion has EI
value below 50. The value incn:ases as one moves towards the north, where value of fertility
index is greater than 60.
The above results highlight the fact, that chemical capacity of the eastern region is much
greater than that of the west. Most of the land in the western portion is thus more suitable for
agriculture. (Fig. 7)
2.9. Flora and Fauna
I
The greatest ·halophytic formations in the world is found in the Ganges-Bramhaputra delta
complex (Blasco, 1974 ). In this swampy terrain extensive fluvio-marine deposits of terrestrial
halophytic plants and associated animals have developed.
2.9.1. Identification of Different Types of Flora
,Sundarban forest according to Champion and Seth (1968) Jails under subgroup 48, tidal I ' I
swamp forests with sub-divisions like Mangrove types ( 4B/TSI) and ( 4B/TSE), Saline water
type mixed forests (4B/TS2), Brackish water type mixed forests (4B/TS4) and Palm swamp
type ( 4B/E 1) mixed forests. Mangrove forests of Sundar ban has the widest biodiversity of
floral species among the mangrove forests of the world.
Mr. D. Prain (1903) a professional botanist made an exclusive survey of Sundarban which is
regarded as a pioneer work on the tlora and their ecology. He considered topography of the
area. salinity, texture and level of the soil as well as nutrient, hazards like cyclones and flood
etc. while explaining plant ecology in mangrove forest. According to him all the
aforementioned factors challenged the very survival and growth of each and every species. So
struggle for existence with alien environment began and diversity in plant species arose.
In the newly formed island ,Dhani grass (Porteresia [=Oryza] coarctata) and Baruna grass
(Sesuvium portulacastrum) first flourished and made the way for the growth other halophytes
as Hargocha (Acanthus ilicifolius), Keora (Sonneratia sp.), Khalshi (Aegiceras magus) and
Bean (Avicennia sp.). Gradually, when the island was further raised or well established,
t-h''k Garan (Ceriops sp.) and Gnewa (Excoecaria agallocha) too~ their entry along with Kankura
(Bruguiera gymnorhiza), Sundari (Heritiera fomes), Passur (Xylocarpus mekongensis) and
._, ~·I
Rhizophores like Garjan (Rhizophora apiculata) and (Rhizophora macronata).
Different biotic conditions in different parts of Sundarban favoured or eliminated the growth
of different of plants, as such diversity in floral components crept in. Mudflood vegetation or
slope vegetation manifest different ecological conditions and consequently different types of
plant appeared. In the new mud, with non-intermittent inundation Keora (Sonneratia)
establishes very well. Mudfloods, where there is frequent inundation, the Dhani grass
(Porteresia [=Oryza] coarctata) colonizes initially. On the other hand salt marsh with
practically little or low inundation allows plants like Suaeda sp. or Salicorina sp. to grow
which can tolerate high salinity and extreme exposure.
True mangroves belong to the family of Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguiera and Kendalia: of
which three genera, Rhizophora, Ceriops and Bruguiera constitute the principal mangrove
trees amongst those frequently seen in the Sundarban.
Garjan (Rhizophora) and Garan (Ceriops) have two spec1es each VIZ. R. apiculata. R.
macronata. G. decandra and C. tagal (Kankura). Bruguicra has four species as B. cylindrical.
B. gymnorthiza. B. parviflora and B. sexangula. The Rhizophores generally make an open
forest in the muddy areas and do no allow any undergrO\vth.
The Gnewa (Excoecaria agallocha) has thick leaf having milky white latex representing the
next predominant species. Along the large river banks Kaora (Sonneratia apetala) is found
49
through out the entire Sundarban, whereas Ora (S. caseolaris) grow well in the mudfloods
near the river.
On the banks of narrow creeks the species Khalshi (Aegiceras comiculatus) family
(Myrsinaceae) is found. The presence of A. Corniculatus indicates the fresh water drainage in
the area.
However, on the banks of smaller creeks the Xylocarpus and Amoora is found. They are
almost absent towards to sea face. The Dhundal, Passur and Amur do not form any
combination with any other halophytes except Sundari (Heritiera) inside the swampy are but
with lesser number.
The Sundari (Heritiera fames) family (Sterculiaceac) exists towards the central Sundarban.
2.9.2. Sub-group of the Mangrove Forest
The 4B Tidal Swamp Forest and the Sub Divisions:
Table No. 2.4. Forest Types and Mangrove Species
Serial Forest Mangrove
Principal Species Remarks Types Spec:ies
Mangrove Type Aviclennia along the edges
I Scrub 4Bns-1 Ceriops roxburghiana /of tidal waterway and
sheltered muddy caost.
Rhizophora species - Along edges of tidal
li Mangrove Type Kandelia rhecdii, waterway and sheltered
Forest 4BnS-3 Auicenuia alba, Bruguiera muddy coast at slightly conjugata higher level
Salt Heritiera menor,
Water Type Sonneratia apetala,
In the larger deltas notably Iii Acauthus illicifolius poorly Mixed 4BnS-3
represented in the the Ganges Forest
Sundarban
SOURCE:
49
2.9.3. Identification of Fauna
' .·Estuary is a buffer zone between fresh water of stream and salt water of the sea. Marine I .;·__,
estuarine organisms exhibit incn~dible array of adaptations. If one traces the origin of animal
assemblage ht:re one can conclude that three major sources as sea (Marine), freshwater
(Limnobiotic) and land (Terrestrial) contributed most as in other estuarine areas. The fauna
associated with the mangrove, their seasonal and diurnal abundance or fluctuation in relation
to salinity, temperature, humidity, sub-soil chemistry, tidal fluctuations offer certain
interesting fields of studies.
It is believed that even hundred years ago the forests of Sundarban had Javan rhinoceros. wild
buffalo, swampy deer and barking deer. The name of Royal Bengal Tiger is closely
associated with the Sundarban. The other surviving wildlife includes estuarine crocodile.
sharks, spotted deer. wild boar, monitor lizard, rhesus monkey, otters, dolphin. fishing cats
and a wide variety of birds and reptiles, including poisonous snakes.
2.9.3.1. Mammals
The rare species of mammals mainly include Fishing cat (Felis Viverina), Pangolin (Manis
erassicaudata), Tiger (Panthera tigris), Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta), Barkin'f deer
(Mukiacus muntiak) and Chita (Axis axis).
However, the other carnivores belonging to the family Felidae are the Jungle cat (Felischaus)
and the Leopard cat (Felis bengalensis).
Herbivores mainly include the Spotted deer, Cirvus axix (Erxleben). The Wild pig (Sus crofa
Linnaeus) is found in large number inside the forest. The largest rodent found here is the
Indian Crested Porcupine (Histrix indica keer). Among Primates, the Rhesus macaque is a
perfect representative.
50
2.9.3.1.1. Aquatic Mammals
At the onset of evening the Small bat (Pigmy Pepistrelle) is found. Among aquatic mammals
in the estuarine river system, the Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcella brevirostris Owen) and the
Gangetic Dolhin (Platenista gangetica Roxburgh) are common. The Common Otter (Lutra
lutra) Linnaeus is a voracious fish eater.
2.9.4. Birds
Among the fish eating birds the Cormorants are most common estuarine birds of Sundarban.
Other fish eating birds such as Herons, Storks, Ibises and Kindfishers are found in large
numbers. The terrestrial birds include the Jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) Linaeus.
2.9.5. Reptiles
The Estuarine Crocodile (Crocodylus porosue) [Schneider] is largest of all the reptiles. The
three most venomous snakes include Cobra, Naga raja (Linaeu), Branded Krait, Bungarus
fasciatus (Schneider) and Russell's Viper. Vipera russelli (Shaw). The common Indian Krait.
Bungarus cacrules (Schneider), The King Cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Canton), are the most
dreadful of all the snakes. The large Indian Python. (Python molurus) [Luinacus] has also
been reported from this area. Dog-faced water snake. Cerbirops rhynchops (Schneider) is also
found. Olive Ridleys Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacca) [Eschscholtz ]. the Ganges Soft shelled
Turtle (Trionijx gangetieus) are also found.
Mangrove forest provides shelter to a number of lizard species. The Indian monitor. Varanus
bengalensis (Dandin). The other two varieties - the Water monitor (Varanus salnwator)
fLaurenti] and Yellow monitor (Varanus tlancnscus) [Gray] are found here.
Sl
2.9.6. Fishes
In the Sundarban there is the dominance of marine fish species. The fishes are mostly of
small variety, gobids, syngnathidx, ambassids and some clupeds. Among gobids
(Boleopthalmus boddarti) [Pallos], B. histophorus Valancienues, Periopthalmus schlosseri
[Valanciennes] and P. pearsei Eggert are most common.
Some marine fishes which travel upstream through estuaries to breed in fresh water form a
group such as Hilsa, Pama, Si!laginopis, Polynemus. Marine fishes which enter the estuary to
breed include Arius sp. Osteogeneosus, polydactylus, Elutseronewa. Hammer-headed shark,
sphyrna blochi (C) is also found.
2.9.7. Arthopoda
Organisms belonging to this group includes prawns and crabs (Fiddler Crab Uca sp.) Ghost
crab (Ocypoda sp.) is found mainly in the sea shore. The common Hermit Crab (Clibenarius
sp.) is found mainly inside the shells of Telescopium sp. Mud lobster or the 'Pata! Chingri'
(Thalassina anomala) [Fostrel] is quite common. The Kind Crab or Limulus occurs near the
coastal area, most common one being Carcunoscor puis rotendicauda (Fatrgill).
2.9.8. Insects
The most important insect of economic importance is the Rock bee (Apis dorsata), which
builds honeycomb on trees.
However, recently measures have been taken to preserve the biodiversity and protect the
endangered floral and faunal species.
5~
2.10. Geo-Ecological Regions 1\·
The geo-morphology, soil, geology along with the flora and fauna, its dispersion, diversity
etc. has been studied in close relation and association. The layering of different physical
parameters as well as imprints of human interference sequentially has helped to evolve the
geo-ecological region. (Fig. 8a)
The morphological features of the Sundarban as mudflats, shifting sand banks, complex dune
ridges and mangrove swamps, the estuaries and flat slopes occupied by thick mud substratum
richer in organic content, slopeless low velocity area allowing the dense mangrove vegetation
to multiply rapidly that is the physical and ecological parameters of the natural environment
has been superimposed to evolve a geo-ecological region. The north-eastern portion is
Nh dominated by mudflats. However, the south-eastern zone there is predominance of mangrove
1\
vegetation. This is the area having greatest species diversity in the entire Sundarban. Saline
soils cover the entire area. The north-eastern portion is occupied by clay deposition but the
soil is alkaline. Clearing of forest occurred, but the salinity of the soil has negative impact
upon the agricultural ecosystem.
The western portion is occupied by a distinctive geo-ecological region. The south-western
portion is mainly occupied by the coasto1 dunes for example in Sagar Island, Lothian Island.
Frazerganj, Bakkhali islands. The dune morphology is controlled by the ecology of some
halophytic plants. The gradual deforestation in this area, water shortage and shortage of biotic
resources all has been considered while forming the geo-ecological region. The human
interference has been given special significance in this regard. (Fig. 8b)
I Fig 8a_
LAYERS FOR FORMATION OF GEOECOLOGICAL REGIONS
Geo-Ecological
Hurnan lntetierence
C I it-nat ic P aran1et ers
Veget;::ttion
So il
Drainage
Relief
88• E sg• E
GEO - ECOLOGICAL REGIONS OF SUNDARBAN
-..J
REFERENCES 0
North- Eastern D .:::>
South - Western .:r
South - Eastern ~ ~ 0 z
OF 8 E N G
10 0 10 20 km
88• E sg• E Fig- 8b
53
2.11. Conclusion
Sundarban is the land of the 'Sundari', Royal Bengal Tiger and several rivers and creeks. The
rich biodiversity of this region is mainly due to the varied environmental parameters always
adjusting and trying to restore· the balance of the dynamic ecosystem.
The spread and survival of mangrove species depend on their special adaptations to variations
in the salinity of the water, frequent anoxia of the soil and the general instability of the
diurnally-inundated tidal ground colonize successfully.
Refe\"ence BdYidyo~ddlnj<l..j/ 5. uqq'{) ~ Cc()Stal ET6Sion dnd Its fl1d..,.,sgelr'le_"t''C •Yl s~sJr/si.a-nd,Soufh 14 Vd ""tz~ n d S, ~Q.S t 6<.>YI.
54
Halder, N. (1991): South 24 Parganas and Gangaridae Culture; Ed. Ghosh, T.: West Bengal-
The District of 24 Parganas; Department of Information and Culture, Government of West
Bengal, Kolkata; pp 81-90
Kanjilal, T.(200D): Who Kilkd the Sundarbans?; Tagore Society For Rural Development,
Kolkata; pp 10-21
{1ct&crJ Mandai, A. K. and Ghosh ,R. K~: Sundarban•A Socio Bio- Ecological Study, Bookland
Private Limited, Kolkata; pp 17-60
Mukherjee, K. N. (2002): Sundarban- Histogenesis, Hazards and Nemeses; Ed .Basu,
S.R.: Changing Environmental Scenario of the Indian Subcontinent; abc publications,
Kolkata; pp263-274
Mukherjee,S. K. and Biswas T. D.: (1987): Textbook Of Soil Science; Tata McGraw-
Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi; pp 273-285
Oldham, R. D. ( 1917): Structure of the Gangetic Plains; Memoirs olthe Geological Society of
India, Vol. XIII, Pt. 1; pp. 16-18.
O'Malley, L. S. S. (1914): Bengal District Gazetteers, 24 Parganas, The Bengal Secretariat
Book Depot , Kolkata ; pp 5-35 _ . _ P . .,..,, AY', Q,~.,d'f'l);-:1•~'· ,:d'l, ~·- K .'ind Chov.•dh<J-TY 1 A.oq81); Mo,-l:>ho Ecotog~cdl '/cil•dhoTI~ • 'h lk :;,._:nd"'rbdr1 1"\to..dflah.~ ~d.:>cha,Pk :C~w~rd~'\o.ieJI R~evi£W <S{r-.d<d·, Vol.t;<?,N-ol, ko!K.at-djppi-/4.
PauL A. K.(2002): Coastal Geomorphology And Environment - Sundarban Coastal Plain,
Kanthi Coastal Plain , Subarnarekha Delta Plain; abc publications. Kolkata ; 198-218
S~§Mor.J AJ. t>c. {jq~g) : P?-i.-v-.c..~rLe~ o}- So;_L Sc.ienc::.c._) Th6W)as Mu...-hy
~V\d Co 1 L. on J o V1 ·